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PRINCETON,  N.  J. 


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THE 


INDUSTRIES  OF  IAPAN. 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2017  with  funding  from 
Princeton  Theological  Seminary  Library 


https://archive.org/details/industriesofjapaOOrein_O 


LACQUER  PATTERN 

Autumnal  Landscape  by  Moonlight 


THE 


INDUSTRIES  OF  JAPAN. 

TOGETHER  WITH 

AN  ACCOUNT  OF  ITS  AGRICULTURE,  FORESTRY, 
ARTS,  AND  COMMERCE. 


Jrom  Crafrtls  nnb  lUseaxtljes  Hubert  alien  at  % Cast  of  ttje  Prussian  ®obermneni. 


J.  J.  REIN, 

Professor  of  Geography  in  the  University  of  Bonn. 


WITH  FORTY-FOUR  ILLUSTRATIONS  AND  THREE  MAPS. 


NEW  YORK: 

A.  C.  ARMSTRONG  AND  SON, 

714,  BROADWAY. 


Butler  Tannery 
The  Selwood  Printing  Works , 
Frame , and  London . 


PREFACE. 


In  publishing  these  results  of  many  years  of  study,  I hope  to 
afford  welcome  information  and  instruction  to  educated  readers 
of  all  callings  regarding  many  questions  as  to  the  state  of  civiliza.- 
tion  in  Japan  and  the  industrial  activity  of  its  inhabitants.  The 
rich  literature  upon  this  land  and  people  has  either  not  touched 
at  all  upon  many  matters  which  are  here  thoroughly  treated,  or 
at  least  in  such  a way  that  the  scientific  and  technical  side  has 
received  scant  justice.  This  circumstance,  and  various  others, 
inclined  me,  during  my  stay  in  Japan,  to  extend  my  observations 
and  studies  to  regions  that  did  not  come  directly  within  the 
sphere  of  my  undertakings.  Still  I do  not  fear  that  competent 
judges  will  find,  on  that  account,  any  want  of  devotion  and 
thoroughness  in  the  sections  on  Japanese  art-industry. 

It  is  very  true,  however,  that  with  the  wide  range  which  I 
allowed  myself,  very  considerable  difficulties  arose,  especially  when 
it  came  to  working  up  and  completing  in  Europe  the  impressions 
and  results  obtained  in  Japan.  That  this  is  so,  and  how  it  is  so, 
will  best  be  seen  in  the  separate  chapters  themselves. 

In  what  has  been  said  I have  already  indicated  the  chief  reason 
why  this  work  is  so  late  in  appearing.  It  is  now  more  than  five 
years  since  the  publication  of  the  first  volume,  and  two  and  a half 
years  since  its  English  edition,  although  since  my  return  from 
Japan  I have  dedicated  to  the  task  the  greater  part  of  the  time  and 
strength  left  me  by  the  duties  of  my  profession. 

With  the  satisfaction  of  having  tilled  for  the  first  time  a field 
that  was  yet  for  the  most  part  uncultivated,  I unite  the  less  agree- 
able consciousness  that  all  I can  offer  is  only  patchwork,  notwith- 
standing all  my  care  and  labour.  From  the  fulness  and  uncommon 
importance  of  the  material,  it  was  not  possible  to  treat  all  subjects 


PREFACE. 


at  equal  length.  It  cannot  but  be  that  the  reader,  according  to 
his  standpoint  and  interest,  will  find  one  too  briefly  handled,  and 
another  perhaps  too  fully  discussed.  The  numerous  Japanese 
names,  which  may  be  valueless  to  many  in  Europe,  or  even  in 
their  way,  will  be  a welcome  means  of  guidance  to  foreigners 
and  natives  in  Japan. 

In  the  introductory  chapter  on  Japanese  art-industry  I have 
merely  touched  upon  painting  and  the  history  of  its  development. 
I was  aware  that  my  judgment  and  my  knowledge  in  this  depart- 
ment were  far  inferior  to  those  of  a scholar  who  had  devoted  six 
years  in  Japan  itself,  and  much  more  time  since  his  return  to  Eng- 
land, to  this  subject  and  the  preparation  of  a work  upon  it.  The 
results  of  his  studies  are  now  appearing  in  a sumptuous  volume 
under  the  title,  “The  Pictorial  Arts  of  Japan,”  by  William  Anderson 
(Sampson  Low  & Co.,  London).  This  book  not  only  fills  the 
gap  left  by  me,  but  offers  to  every  friend  of  art  the  first  thorough 
instruction  in  the  character  and  development  of  Japanese  painting. 

It  remains  for  me  to  express  my  thanks  to  several  friends  for 
their  kind  assistance.  Professor  Dr.  Justi,  of  Marburg,  furnished, 
after  originals,  the  excellent  pen-and-ink  drawings  for  the  wood- 
cuts  figs.  I (12),  13,  16,  1 7,  18,  and  19.  To  my  talented  scholar 
Herr  C.  Schulteis  I owe  the  drawings  for  figs.  8,  9,  10,  IX,  and 
14,  and  for  tables  I.,  II.,  III.,  IV.,  and  XV.  Herr  C.  Reinhertz, 
another  of  my  earnest  scholars,  drew  the  review-chart  for  mining- 
industry,  after  a large  hand-chart  which  Engineer  Kurimoto,  of 
the  “ Upper  Mining  Office  ” in  T6kio,  had  kindly  sent  me.  I am 
indebted  to  the  latter  for  various  other  points  as  well,  and  also 
to  Dr.  S.  Nagai,  who  aided  me  by  reading  the  proofs  for  errors 
in  Japanese. 

All  the  illustrations  are  original,  and  I acknowledge  gratefully 
the  fact  that  the  publisher  has  spared  neither  trouble  nor  expense 
to  worthily  adorn  the  book. 


Bonn. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Introduction i 


I.  AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY.  AGRICULTURAL 
INDUSTRIES. 

1.  Japanese  Agriculture  in  General 3 

Possession  and  Taxation,  5.  Area  and  Division  of  Cultivated 
Lands,  18.  Climate  and  Soil,  12.  Efforts  of  the  Government 
to  elevate  Agriculture,  18.  The  Kaitakushi,  or  Colonial  Office, 

18.  Fertilization  and  Preparation  of  the  Soil,  23.  Terrace 
Culture,  23.  Planting  in  Rows,  23. 

2.  Food  Plants 37 

(a)  Grain,  Stalk-plants  or  Cereals,  Japanese  Koku-motsu,  37.  (6) 

Pulse,  or  Leguminous  Plants,  55.  (c)  Starch-producing  Bulbs, 

63.  (d)  Vegetables  and  Condiments,  69.  ( e ) Fruits,  Berries, 

and  Nuts,  82.  (/)  Articles  of  Food  and  Luxury  as  Chemical 
Products  of  the  Raw  Materials  mentioned  under  2 ( a)-{e ),  94. 
Supplementary—  (a)  Chemical  Composition  of  Sak£,  Mirin, 
and  Shochu,  according  to  Analyses  by  Atkinson,  102.  (6)  Sta- 

tistical Information  in  regard  to  these  Alcoholic  Drinks,  103. 

3.  Plants  of  Commerce no 

(a)  Non-Alcoholic  Stimulants  : Tea  and  Tobacco,  no.  (6)  Drugs, 

134.  ( c ) OilPlants  and  their  Products,  150.  (^Textile  Plants, 

165.  ( e ) Dye  Plants  and  Tannic  Acids,  and  their  Application, 

173- 


4.  Cattle- Raising  and  Silk-Growing 183 

(The  Breeding  and  Importance  of  the  Yama  Mayu,  or  Oak-spinner 
— Antheria  (Bombyx)  Yama-Mai  Guer.  Menev.  in  Japan,  205. 

5.  Forestry ...  211 


Relation  of  Japanese  Forests  (Hayashi)  to  Cultivation  in  general 
and  to  Waste  Land,  211.  Distinction  between  Cultivated  and 
Natural  or  Mountain  Forests,  213.  Character,  Extent  and 
Value  of  Both,  214.  Influence  upon  Climate,  222. 

6.  The  Nature  and  Use  of  the  more  Important  Forest  Trees 

AND  OTHER  USEFUL  JAPANESE  WOODS 224 

Fam.  Graminese,  Group  Bambusacese,  227.  Palmeae,  231.  Coniferae, 

231.  Salicinese,  239.  Betulaceas,  239.  Juglandaceae,  239. 
Corylaceae,  240.  Cupuliferae,  240.  Moreas,  242.  Ulmaceae, 

242.  Buxaceae,  244.  Lauraceae,  244  Scrophularineae,  245. 
Bignoniaceae,  246.  Oleaceae,  246.  Styracaceae,  246.  Eben- 
yii 


CONTENTS. 


aceae,  247.  Ericaceae,  247.  Caprifoliaceae,  247.  Corneae,  247. 
Araliaceae,  248.  Lythrarieae,  248.  Hamamelideae,  249.  Ro- 
saceae,  249.  Leguminosae,  250.  Anacardiaceae,  251.  Acerineae, 

251.  Sapindaceae,  252.  Rhamneas,  252.  Celastrineae,  253. 
Ilicineae,  253.  Meliaceae,  253.  Simarubeae,  254.  Rutaceae, 

254.  Tiliaceae,  255.  Sterculiaceae,  256.  Ternstrcemiaceae, 

256.  Magnoliaceae,  258. 

7.  Gardening 261 

Size,  Enclosure,  and  Character  of  the  Japanese  Garden,  261. 
Limited  Expedients  and  Peculiarities  of  Gardening,  263. 
Dwarfing  and  Deforming,  265.  Improvement  of  Species,  265. 
Variegation,  266.  The  Japanese  Love  of  Nature  and  Flowers, 

267.  Flowering  Season  and  other  Characteristics  of  the  Flora, 

268.  Shade  Trees,  273. 

8.  Acclimatization  and  Extension  of  Japanese  Ornamental 

and  Useful  Plants  in  Europe 274 


II.  MINING. 

Incorrect  Representations  of  the  Mineral  Wealth  of  Japan,  291. 
Old  Method  of  Mining,  and  New  Attempts  to  Elevate  it,  292. 
Tabular  View  of  the  Productions  according  to  Number,  Value, 
and  most  Important  Mines,  297.  Further  Particulars  concern- 
ing the  latter,  and  the  Single  Products,  302.  Salt  and  Alum 
Production,  310.  Products  of  Clay-pits  and  Stone-quarries, 
312. 


III.  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 

1.  Japanese  Art  Industry  in  General 317 

Revival  of  European  Art  Industry.  Growing  Interest  in  the  Pro- 
ductions of  the  Chinese  and  Japanese,  312.  China  the  Master 
and  Model  of  Japan,  319.  Characteristic  Features  of  Japanese 
Art-handicraft  and  its  Products,  319.  The  Period  of  Highest 
Development  and  the  means  of  its  Advancement,  326.  Its 
Influence  upon  that  of  the  Christian  Countries  of  the  West,  329. 

2.  Wood  Industry 334 

Furniture  making.  Inlaid  Work,  335.  Peculiarities  of  Turnery  in 
the  Hakone  Mountains  and  Nikko,  335.  Comb-cutting.  Straw 
Mosaics,  337. 

3.  Lacquer  Work 338 

Prefatory  Observations,  338.  Manner  of  Obtaining  the  Japanese 
Lacquer  ; its  Properties,  342.  The  Urushi-kabure  or  Lacquer 
Poisoning,  349.  Preparation  of  Raw  Lac  for  the  Lacquerer, 

350.  Prices  of  the  Material,  351.  Other  Materials  and  Uten- 
sils needed  in  the  Work,  353.  Laying  on  of  the  Groundwork 
and  Simple  Lacquer  Ornamentation,  357.  Simple  Lacquer 
Wares  of  One  Colour,  360.  Coloured  Lacquer  Wares,  with 
Marbled  Surface,  361.  Coloured  Lacquer  obtained  by  Dust- 
ing with  Glistening  Powder,  364.  The  Work  of  the  Lacquer 
Painter  or  Makiye-shi,  366.  Plain  and  Relief  Gold-lacquer 
Decorations,  367.  Lacquer  Carving,  371.  Historical  Items 
concerning  Lacquer  Work,  373. 


CONTENTS. 


4.  Textile  Industry 378 

Hemp,  Linen  and  Muslin,  378.  Banana  Fabrics,  378.  Cotton 
Industry,  378.  Principal  Works,  Places  and  Chief  Notable 
Products  of  Silk  Weaving,  379.  Auxiliaries  thereto,  383. 
Habutai,  Crape;  Kanoko,  Brocade,  383.  Use  of  Gold  and 
Silver  Paper  in  Brocade,  386.  Velvet  Weaving.  Embroidery, 

388. 

5.  Paper  Industry 389 

General  Properties  of  Japanese  Paper,  390.  Materials  for  its  Manu- 
facture, and  how  obtained,  393.  Making  and  Employment  of 
the  Principal  Kinds  of  Japanese  Bast-Paper,  399.  Couched 
Board  : Ita-me-gami  and  Hari-nuki,  407.  Paper  Hangings. 
Chirimen-gami,  or  Crape  Paper,  408.  Leather  Paper,  or  Kami- 
kawa,  41 1.  Shi-fu,  or  Paper  Fabric,  412.  Oil  Paper,  Water- 
proof Cloaks,  Screens,  Lanterns  and  Fans,  414.  Appendix : 
Sumi-ire,  the  Japanese  Writing  Box  and  its  contents  : Brush, 
Indian  Ink,  and  Ink  Dish,  416. 

6.  Wood,  Ivory  and  Bone  Carving.  Tortoise-shell,  Horn  and 


Mother-of-Pearl  Work.  Polishing  of  Stones  . . . 419 

7.  Metal  Industry 426 


Prefatory  Remarks,  426.  The  Working  up  of  Iron  into  Swords, 
Armour,  and  Objects  of  Art,  430.  Embossing  of  Cast  Iron, 

434.  The  Use  of  Copper,  436.  The  most  Important  Alloys  of 
Copper,  439.  Japanese  Bronze,  440.  Patina,  441.  The  Use 
of  Bronze  in  the  Household  and  the  Buddhist  Religion,  443. 
Magic  Mirrors,  447.  Gold  and  Silver  in  Japanese  Industrial 
Art,  449.  Bronze  Analysis,  449. 

8.  Ceramics  452 

Prefatory  Remarks,  452.  Classification  of  Clay-wares  with 
special  regard  to  the  Japanese,  453.  Historical  Survey. — 
Beginnings  and  Accomplishments  of  the  Industry  of  Japan 
till  the  Introduction  of  the  Potter’s  Wheel,  456.  Progress,  457. 
Influence  of  Cha-no-yu,  458.  The  Invention  and  Manufacture 
of  Porcelain  in  China,  460.  Introduction  of  the  Manufacture 
into  Japan,  461.  Its  Centres  also  of  the  Stone-ware  Industry  : 

Arita,  469  ; Amakusa,  4 734  Nayeshirogawa,  Kagoshima,  474  ; 
Kioto,  476;  Seto,  478;  Ota,  480;  Hongo,  481;  Kaga,  481. 
Stone-ware  : Banko-yaki  and  Imbe-yaki,  483. 

9.  Enamel  Industry 488 

The  Nature  and  Varieties  of  Enamel,  488.  Historical  Glance  at 
the  Development  of  the  Industry  in  different  Countries,  490. 
Character  of  the  Chinese  and  Japanese  Cloisonne,  493.  Method 
of  Cellular  Lacquer-work  Manufacture  in  Japan  on  Copper, 
Porcelain,  and  Stone-ware,  493.  Free  Enamel,  497.  Com- 
position and  Preparation  of  Japanese  Vitreous  Colours,  498. 

TRADE  AND  COMMERCE. 


1.  Money,  Measures  and  Weights 503 

(a)  Money,  Kane  or  Kinsu  ; Paper  Money,  Kinsatsu  ; Bank  Notes, 

Satsu  or  Gin-ko-satsu,  503.  (6)  Measures  and  Weights,  507. 

2.  Other  Currency 508 


CONTENTS. 


PACK 

3.  The  Foreign  Trade  of  Japan  since  the  Opening  of  the 

Country  by  Commodore  Perry  in  1854 514 

{a)  From  the  Discovery  of  the  Country  by  Mendez  Pinto,  1542,  to 
the  year  1639,  514.  ( b ) The  Period  of  the  Trade  of  the  Dutch 

and  Chinese  in  Nagasaki,  from  1641-1854. 

4.  Japan  in  Intercourse  with  the  World 528 

Treaty  of  Kanagawa,  529.  Trade  of  Yokohama,  530.  Kobe- 
6saka,  530.  Articles  of  Export,  533. 

STATISTICAL  TABLES. 

I.  Value  of  the  Exports  and  Imports  of  Japan  from  1866-1885  at 

the  Separate  Treaty  Ports 542,  543 

II.  The  Foreign  Trade  of  Japan  during  the  past  Five  Years  . . 542,  543 

III.  ( A ) Summary  of  the  most  Important  Articles  of  Export  since 

1868 544,  545 

(E)  Totals,  Average  Value  and  Percentages  of  Exports  from 

1871-1885 544, 545 

IV.  Chief  Articles  of  Export  and  their  Value  during  years  1881-1885  546 

V.  Summary  of  Exports  for  1885  according  to  Goods,  Countries, 

and  Value  in  Yen 547 

VI.  Comparative  Table  of  the  Import  and  Export  of  Gold  and 

Silver  in  Coin  and  Bars 548 

VII.  Summary  of  the  most  Important  Articles  of  Import  since  1868 

and  their  Value  in  Yen 548 

VIII.  Imports  of  the  most  Important  Goods  according  to  Countries 

and  Value  in  Yen  during  the  year  1885  ....  549 

English  and  Latin  Index 551 

Japanese  Index 561 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PACK 

I.  Tea-plant,  Camellia  theifera 1 1 1 

II.  Silkworms  on  Quercus  serrata 209 

III.  Tools  used  in  the  Lacquer  Industry 356 

IV.  „ „ 357 

V.  Lacquer-pattern,  a.  Tsugaru-nuri,  b.  Wakasa-nuri  . . . 362 

VI.  „ „ a.  Kin-ji,  b.  Nashi-ji,  c.  Moku-me  . . 364 

VII.  „ „ Autumnal  Landscape  by  Moonlight  . . 372 

VIII.  Brocade  Pattern  from  Ki6to 386 

IX.  Embroidery  Pattern 388 

X.  Broussonetia  Papyrifera,  Vent.  From  a Japanese  wood-cut  . 394 

XI.  „ „ Japanese  wood-cut  printed  in 

Japan  on  bast-paper  made  from  the  same  ....  396 

XII.  Edgeworthia  Papyrifera,  S.  and  Z.  Japanese  wood-cut  printed 

in  Japan  on  bast-paper  made  from  the  same  . . . 396 

XIII.  Wickstroemia  Canescens,  Meisn.  Japanese  wood-cut  printed  in 

Japan  on  bast-paper  made  from  the  same  ....  396 

XIV.  Japanese  Leather-paper 410 

XV.  Apparatus  for  Casting  Metal,  a.  Box-bellows,  b.  Cross-section 

of  a Smelting-furnace,  c.  d.  Gauges,  e.  Mould  . . . 428 

XVI.  Eagle  made  of  wrought-iron  by  Miyochin  Muneharu.  (Original 

in  the  Kensington  Museum) 433 

XVII.  Inlaid  Vase  of  cast-iron.  (Original  in  the  Royal  Museum  of 

Art-industry  in  Berlin) 436 

XVIII.  Bronze  Vase  from  Kioto 444 

XIX.  Ancient  Vase  of  Arita  Porcelain 469 

XX.  a.  Box  made  of  old  Arita  Porcelain,  b.  Bowl  made  of  old  Satsuma 

Stoneware 472 

XXL  Satsuma  Stoneware  Urn.  (Original  in  the  Royal  Museum  of 

Art-industry  in  Berlin) 474 

XXII.  Sake-flask  of  Kaga  Porcelain  . 474 

XXIII.  Banko-yaki  from  Yokkaichi 474 

XXIV.  Copper  Mug  with  Enamel  Cloisonne  and  Painting  . . . 496 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


WOODCUTS  INSERTED  IN  TEXT. 


Kiseru — the  Japanese  Pipe 

The  Ginseng  Plant  in  various  stages 

Root  of  the  Ginseng  Plant 

Apparatus  for  producing  Camphor,  in  Tosa,  Japan 

Oil  Press 

Female  and  Male  of  the  Silk-spinners  (Antherea 

Guerin-Meneville) 

Cover  of  a Box  ornamented  with  Tsui-shiu  . 
Apparatus  for  the  preparation  of  Crape  Paper 
Cast-iron  Kettle,  with  Inlaid  work. 

Copper  Box,  with  Inlaid  work  .... 
Cover  of  Box,  with  Inlaid  work  and  Chasing 

Shiro-kane  Medallion 

Tea-pot  of  grey-brown  Stoneware,  from  Kuwana,  in  Ise 
Muffle  for  burning  in  of  Enamel  Colours 


133 

37-Hi 

142 

148 

iSi 

209 

372 

409 

433 

438 

439 
448 
465 
495 


MAPS. 


I.  Map  showing  Distribution  of  Tea  and  Silk  Culture. 


„ Tallow  and  Lacquer  Trees. 

Mining  Districts. 


INTRODUCTION. 


For  three  decades,  Japan,  more  than  any  other  Asiatic  country,  has 
been  attracting,  to  an  ever-increasing  extent,  the  attention  and  the 
most  widely  varied  interest  of  the  Western  world.  Numberless 
newspaper  articles,  treatises,  and  books,  as  different  in  contents 
and  value,  as  in  the  preparation,  fitness,  and  inclination  of  their 
authors,  bear  witness  to  this  fact.  Merchants,  artists,  and  scholars 
feel  attracted  in  the  highest  degree  by  the  fair  Island-kingdom 
Nippon,  the  “ Land  of  the  Rising  Sun,”  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  Old 
World,  and  by  the  civilization  of  its  inhabitants  and  their  many 
interesting  productions,  both  natural  and  artificial.  But  even 
more  effective  in  winning  and  keeping  such  sympathies,  since  the 
notable  occurrences  to  which  the  Perry  expedition,  in  1854,  gave 
the  first  impulse,  has  been  and  is  the  relation  of  the  government 
and  people  of  Japan  to  the  advances  of  Christian  civilization. 
In  order  to  become  acquainted  with  the  results  of  this  civilization, 
and  to  turn  them  to  account,  the  Japanese  Government  invited  into 
the  country,  from  the  greatest  and  foremost  lands  of  Christian  cul- 
ture, educated  men  as  teachers  and  organizers  ; while,  on  the  other 
hand,  it  sent  forth  ambitious  and  talented  young  men  into  the 
West,  to  complete  their  education  for  the  good  of  their  fatherland. 

Officials  in  high  positions,  moreover,  have  repeatedly  appeared 
among  us,  with  the  same  intent,  and  have  made  it  their  business 
to  master  our  principal  systems  of  administration,  popular  edu- 
cation, and  industrial  activity.  And  we  have  further  proofs  of  the 
talent  and  zeal  of  this  surprisingly  progressive  nation,  when  we 
read  how  here  a Japanese  won  with  honour  a university  degree, 
and  how  there  another  succeeded  in  chaining  the  attention  of  our 
German  savants  by  a scientific  discourse;  how  Japan  has  distin- 
guished herself  by  noteworthy  contributions  to  the  different 
national  exhibitions  of  modern  times,  while  opening  at  home  her 
first  railway,  in  the  planning  and  building  of  which  no  foreign 
engineer  participated.  But  Government  and  people  have  won  a 
still  greater  victory  in  matters  of  religion.  They  have  at  last 
exchanged  their  old  prejudices  and  hatreds,  and  the  severe  ban 
against  Christianity,  for  full  religious  liberty,  which  cannot  fail 
to  exert  a favourable  influence  upon  the  spread  of  Christian 
teaching. 

With  the  restoration  of  the  Mikado  to  power  in  1868,  the  whole 
feudal  system  went  to  pieces.  The  Daimios,  partly  of  their  own 
accord,  and  partly  because  compelled  by  the  new  Government, 

II.  1 B 


INTRODUCTION. 


deserted  their  strongholds,  many  of  which,  in  this  transition  period, 
fell  a prey  to  destruction,  so  that  their  ruins,  like  many  with  us, 
stand  gazing  out  upon  the  world,  the  speechless  memorials  of 
a differently  constituted  age.  A similar  fate  threatens  the  Bud- 
dhist temples  and  cloisters.  For  with  the  reorganized  adminis- 
tration there  entered  a new  spirit,  a breath  of  that  Christian 
civilization,  whose  results  have  already  been  briefly  hinted . at. 
The  religious  freedom  recently  proclaimed  is  one  more  natural 
stride  in  this  direction  in  which  that  Asiatic  land  and  people, 
farthest  from  us  in  space,  have  drawn  nearer  to  us  in  spirit  than  any 
other  has  ever  been.  In  view  of  all  these  phenomena,  Schiller’s 
words  are  here  appropriate  : — 

“ Das  Alte  stiirzt,  es  andert  sich  die  Zeit, 

Und  neues  Leben  bliiht  aus  den  Ruinen.” 

Old  Japan  found  its  ideal  in  China,  in  Chinese  contributions  to 
political,  industrial,  and  intellectual  affairs  ; new  Japan  seeks  its 
ideal  in  the  Christian  countries  of  the  West.  It  has  been  shown, 
or  at  least  indicated,  in  the  first  volume  of  this  work,1  that  the 
Japanese  are  a peculiar  branch  of  the  great  Mongolian  family,  in 
physical  appearance,  language,  and  characteristic  traits  of  mind ; 
and  that  they  belonged  to  the  Chinese  system  of  civilization,  and 
received  the  impulses  to  all  their  social,  agricultural,  and  industrial 
development  from  China,  principally  by  way  of  Corea. 

The  introduction  of  Buddhism  and  of  Chinese  philosophy,  par- 
ticularly the  teachings  of  Confucius,  were  therein  also  considered, 
as  mediums  of  this  peculiar  civilization.  While  this  philosophy 
fostered  caste-spirit,  feudalism,  and  ancestor- worship,  Buddhism 
especially  influenced  the  industrial  population,  exerted  a softening 
effect  upon  manners,  and  trained  up  peaceable,  quiet  labourers  in 
field  and  workshop.  The  noteworthy  performances  of  the  Japanese 
in  these  two  departments  of  labour,  and  the  increasing  influence  of 
their  productions  upon  our  own  affairs,  will  be  fully  brought  to 
view  in  the  following  chapters.  For  the  history  and  ethnography 
of  the  Japanese  people,  as  well  as  for  the  natural  history  of  the 
land,  and  its  geographical  relations,  the  reader  is  again  referred 
to  the  first  volume  of  this  work,  which,  at  the  time  of  its  publi- 
cation, I designated  as  a preliminary  study  towards  the  better 
understanding  of  the  various  phenomena  of  industrial  life. 

1 Title  of  Vol.  i.,  as  published  in  English:  “Rein’s  Japan:  Travels  and 
Researches.”  London  : Hodder  and  Stoughton,  1884. 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


I. 


‘ Nihil  est  agricultura  melius,  nihil  ubsrius,  nihil  dulcius,  nihil  homine  libero 
dignius.” — Cic.  de  Off.,  lib.  I. 

AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY.  AGRICULTURAL 
INDUSTRIES. 

i.  Japanese  Agriculture  in  General. 

Possession  and  Taxation. — Area  and  Division  of  Cultivated  Lands. 
— Climate  and  Soil. — Efforts  of  the  Government  to  elevate 
Agriculture. — The  Kaitakushi,  or  Colonial-office. — Fertilization 
and  Preparation  of  the  Soil. — Terrace-culture. — Planting  in 
Rows. 

In  contrast  with  the  nomadic  races  of  Central  Asia,  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  monsoon  region  have  for  thousands  of  years  been  tied 
to  the  soil.  They  are  intensely  devoted  to  agriculture,  especially  in 
China  and  Japan.  Little  opportunity  is  left  in  these  countries  for 
cattle-raising  ; and  since  meadows  and  pastures  are  wanting,  milk, 
butter,  and  cheese — the  principal  food  of  the  nomadic  Mongolian 
peoples — were  unknown  to  the  Chinese  and  Japanese.  Eggs,  and 
the  products  of  fishing  and  the  chase,  play  a far  more  important 
rdle  than  the  flesh  of  domestic  animals,  which  is  not  eaten  by  many 
millions.  Since  sheep  were  but  seldom  found  in  China,  and  not  at  all 
in  Corea  or  Japan,  wool  was  formerly  of  small  consideration  in  the 
matter  of  clothing.  Hemp  and  cotton  goods,  and  silk  among  the 
rich,  especially  in  the  winter,  are  the  stuffs  with  which  the  popu- 
lation is  clothed. 

In  the  countries  of  Chinese  civilization,  the  dwelling  is  a more  or 
less  solid  house,  built  of  wood  or  bamboo-cane,  and  roofed  with 
straw,  shingles,  or  tiles.  It  is  airy  and  pleasant  in  summer,  but 
less  comfortable  in  winter,  when  the  occupants  exercise  their  skill 
in  protecting  themselves  against  cold  by  the  increased  quantity  and 
better  selection  of  their  clothing,  rather  than  by  solid  walls  and 
suitable  heating  apparatus.  In  internal  arrangement,  the  dwellings 
of  the  Chinese,  Japanese,  and  Coreans  differ  very  considerably 
from  one  another.  Common  to  them  all,  however,  is  the  use  of 
bark-paper  for  window-panes.  From  the  reports  of  travellers  in 
Central  Asia,  it  appears  that  there  too,  as  in  the  monsoon  region, 
glass  panes  are  not  used,  but  that  the  paper  pane  over  the  window 

5 


6 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


frame  or  swinging  door  has  penetrated  even  into  Zungaria,  without 
having  been  adopted  by  other  peoples. 

As  Tokugawa  Iyeyasu,  the  founder  of  the  last  Shogun  dynasty, 
emphasizes  in  the  twelfth  of  his  “ Eighteen  Laws,”  the  introduction 
of  agriculture  into  Japan  is  to  be  ascribed  to  the  sun-goddess 
Tenshd  Daijin  (Amaterasu).  She  was,  to  the  old  Japanese,  Janus 
and  Ceres  in  one.  Her  temple  at  Yamada,  in  Ise,  was  the  great 
national  sanctuary,  which  had  to  be  cared  for  according  to  law,  and 
built  anew  every  twenty-one  years  out  of  consecrated  Hinoki-wood 
(i Chamcecypciris  obtusa , S.  and  Z.),  “ in  order  that  the  land  might 
have  peace,  and  the  Gokoku  thrive.”  By  Gokoku  (five  chief  cereals) 
were  meant  rice,  barley  and  wheat,  Italian  millet,  other  kinds 
of  millet,  and  beans — in  fact,  the  principal  Kokurui , that  is,  cereals 
and  pulse.  The  term  Go-koku,  however,  did  not  me&n  the  same 
in  all  ages.  Thus  we  find  in  Kaempfer,  “ Amcen.  exot.”  p.  834, 
Kome  ( Oryza ),  O-mugi  ( Hordeinn ),  Ko-mugi  ( Triticum ),  Daidsu 
( Dolichos  soja,  L.)  and  Adzuki  ( Phaseolus  radiatus , L.)  mentioned 
as  Gokoku.  Later,  the  idea  was  extended  farther,  and  included 
all  important  food-plants  belonging  to  the  group  of  cereals  and 
pulse. 

In  this  high  estimate  of  the  Go-koku  they  imitated  the  Chinese, 
as,  in  general,  Chinese  agriculture  has  been  the  starting-point  and 
prototype  of  the  Japanese.1 

The  Emperor  Shinnung  had  introduced  and  spread  the  practice 
of  agriculture  in  China,  about  the  year  2700  B.C.  For  this  he  was 
deified  after  death,  and  a temple  was  dedicated  to  him  in  Peking. 
In  the  park-like  surroundings  of  this  temple,  the  emperor  of  China 
since  then,  at  the  time  of  the  spring  equinox,  annually  ploughs  a 
piece  of  land  and  sows  it  with  go-koku. 

The  Mikado,  it  is  true,  was  under  no  such  obligation  at  the 
sanctuary  of  the  mother  of  his  race,  in  Ise ; but  agriculture  was 
none  the  less  regarded  in  his  realm  on  that  account.  The  Japanese 
appreciates  the  fact  that  it  is  the  first  and  best  foundation  of  the 
prosperity  of  the  population  and  of  the  State,  being  the  most  ne- 
cessary and  the  only  sound  basis  ; and  he  expresses  this  idea  in  the 
saying,  “No  wa  kuni  no  moto,”  “ Agriculture  is  the  prop  of  the 
country.”  According  to  the  latest  census  of  January  1,  1883,  it 
employed  18,160,213  persons,  or  about  the  half  of  a total  popula- 
tion of  37,017,302.  And  these,  moreover,  are  merely  the  Hiya- 
kusho,  or  actual  peasants,  to  whom  are  to  be  added  from  the  group 
of  former  Samurai,  a portion,  estimated  at  many  thousands,  who 
have,  in  recent  times,  likewise  turned  their  attention  to  agriculture. 
Agriculture  pays  to  the  State  58  per  cent,  of  its  income  ; or,  with 
the  addition  of  the  agricultural  industries,  as  Sake- manufacture, 
etc.,  and  the  tax  upon  them,  as  much  as  80  per  cent.2 

1 See  Bretschneider : “ On  the  Study  and  Value  of  Chinese  Botanical 
Works  and  Williams  : “The  Middle  Kingdom,”  i.  78. 

2 At  the  close  of  the  fiscal  year  which  ended  June  30,  1884,  the  total  revenue 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


7 


Among  the  three  classes  of  the  Japanese  people  (Heimin),  the 
farmer  (Hiyakushd)  stood  higher  in  rank  than  the  artisan  (Sho- 
kunin)  and  merchant  (Ahindo).  Among  the  Samurai  the  occu- 
pations of  the  last  two  were  deemed  less  honourable,  but  they  did 
not  find  it  beneath  their  dignity  to  till  the  field  like  common 
peasants.  They  made  use  of  this  social  freedom,  however,  only  in 
a few  districts,  as  Satsuma  and  Tosa,  that  is,  in  just  those  regions 
which  were  celebrated  for  producing  the  bravest  and  most  in- 
telligent warriors.  Maron,  in  his  report  on  Japanese  agriculture,1  a 
work  that  is  still  worth  reading,  remarks  that,  owing  to  the  long 
isolation  of  the  land,  the  Government  and  the  nation  at  large  had 
to  yield  to  the  consciousness  that  bodily  existence  depended  under 
all  circumstances  upon  the  productions  of  their  own  lands,  and  that 
nothing  could  make  up  a possible  deficit  in  the  harvest.  From 
this  we  might  argue  to  an  improvement  in  agriculture  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Tokugawa  rule ; which  in  fact  is  well  known  from 
the  history  of  Iyeyasu,  especially  in  reference  to  the  plain  of 
Kuwanto. 

The  development  of  foreign  commerce  was  in  those  days  com- 
pletely crippled  ; and  the  main  working  power  of  the  nation  was 
all  the  more  turned  to  agriculture  and  kept  in  that  channel.  The 
long  period  of  peace,  however,  which  began  with  the  year  1600  pro- 
bably had  a more  far-reaching  effect  than  this  fact  in  determining 
the  character  of  Japanese  agriculture  ; for,  although  it  had  already 
attained  a vigorous  growth  after  the  Chinese  pattern,  it  had  later 
retrogressed  very  considerably  on  account  of  the  continual  civil 
wars. 

According  to  the  old  Japanese  view,  which  is  based  on  the 
tradition  and  representation  of  his  heavenly  descent,  and  the  crea- 
tion of  the  Japanese  islands  by  his  divine  ancestors,  Isanagi  and 
Isanami,  the  Mikado  was  and  is  the  lord  of  the  whole  country, 
and  the  only  landed  proprietor  in  it.  But  in  reality,  the  extended 
mountain  forests,  as  well  as  all  waste  and  barren  land,  belonged  in 
later  times  principally  to  the  feudal  lords,  and  is  now  the  property 
of  the  State,  while  the  cultivated  soil  was  owned  by  the  peasant, 
as  hereditary  lessee.  He  was,  and  is  still,  what  we  should  call  a 
small  farmer,  who  could  inherit  his  property,  let  it  out  to  others, 
increase  it  by  purchase,  or  transfer  it  to  other  hands  by  sale  ; but, 
in  any  case,  he  had  to  see  to  it  that  it  remained  under  the  traditional 
system  of  cultivation  and  that  the  taxes  reckoned  upon  that  basis 
were,  at  the  right  time,  made  over  to  the  prescribed  authority.  By 
this  the  right  of  possession  and  disposition  was,  so  far,  restricted. 
The  taxes  upon  cultivated  soil  were  in  general  high,  and  had 
to  be  paid  in  kind.  Apart  from  this,  however,  the  Japanese 

of  Japan  was  73,943,258  yen.  The  ground  tax  paid  43,029,745  of  this,  and  the 
tax  on  Sake  and  similar  articles  of  luxury,  16,768,135  yen  (1  yen=4'3  shillings, 
about). 

1 See  Salviati  : “ Annalen  der  Landwirthschaft,”  vol.  xxxix.,  pp.  35-72. 


8 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


peasant  occupied  a much  freer  position  than  many  of  his  class 
in  Europe  during  the  Middle  Ages,  who  were  far  more  rigorously 
oppressed,  as  Thunberg1  emphasizes,  with  villainage  and  other 
burdens. 

From  what  has  been  said,  we  must  infer  a great  difference  in  the 
extent  of  peasant  proprietorship.  But  larger,  and  according  to  our 
conception,  better  rounded  estates,  the  so-called  latifundia , are  now 
altogether  wanting.  There  are  no  large  landed  proprietors  in 
Japan,  either  peasants  or  nobles.  In  the  most  ancient  times,  as 
long  as  the  Mikado  was  still  the  actual  autocrat  of  land  and  war, 
and  the  various  classes  of  society  had  not  yet  been  rigidly  and  by 
birth  separated  from  one  another,  the  taxation  of  the  peasants  was 
light,  for  Japanese  conditions.  Every  eight  families  had  to  farm 
for  the  Mikado  a ninth  part  of  the  arable  land  apportioned  to,  and 
divided  equally  among,  them,  and  deliver  to  the  officials  its  raw 
products.  But  as  dualism  in  government  and  the  feudal  system 
under  the  Shogunat  developed,  the  number  of  the  unproductive 
classes  of  the  Samurai,  in  the  widest  sense,  increased,  and  with  it 
the  amount  of  taxation  upon  the  peasants,  which,  particularly  in 
time  of  war,  reached,  through  arbitrary  regulations,  a weight  that' 
was  often  crushing.  In  place  of  the  original  feudal  relation  to  the 
Mikado,  sprang  up  that  to  the  feudal  lords.  Through  all  the 
changes  of  mastership,  the  peasants  remained  bound  to  the  soil, 
and  they  are,  to  this  hour,  in  every  respect  the  most  conservative 
class  in  Japan.  The  chief  support  and  power  of  the  country  rests 
in  the  hands  of  this  industrious,  sober,  and  frugal  population, 
which  still  cultivates  the  soil  in  original  simplicity,  as  it  has  been 
accustomed  for  centuries  to  do  under  all  kinds  of  rulers. 

About  the  year  1595  A.D.  Taiko-sama  (Hideyoshi)  reorganized 
their  system  of  taxation,  decreeing  that  the  contribution  of  raw 
products  should  henceforth  consist  of  a third  part  of  the  assessed 
produce  of  the  fields,  and  should  be  paid  in  rice.  Iyeyasu  made 
no  alteration  in  this  arrangement  with  reference  to  his  great  pos- 
sessions, but  only  declared,  in  the  thirty-sixth  of  his  Hundred  Laws, 
that  the  produce  of  forests,  groves,  mountains,  and  rivers  should 
also  be  taken  into  the  reckoning.2 

Thus  matters  stood  until  1716,  when  the  taxation  of  the  lands 
of  the  Shdgun  was  increased  to  one-half  of  the  assessed  produce. 
In  the  estates  of  the  Daimios,  the  revenues  were  by  no  means 
everywhere  the  same.  While  the  peasants  under  one  of  these 
feudal  lords  were  almost  crushed  by  the  high  land-tax  and  lived 
in  extreme  poverty,  the  mild,  provident  rulership  of  a neighbour 
was  indicated  by  greater  prosperity,  by  the  building  of  roads  and 
bridges,  and  many  other  improvements.  But  the  peasant  went 
about  his  work  in  the  old-fashioned  way,  and  despite  this  great 

1 In  Akerbruket  : “Resa,”  iv.  pp.  76-92. 

2 Kempermann : “ Die  Gesetze  des  Izeyasu,”  in  “ Mittli.  der  deutschen  Gesell- 
schaft,”  etc.,  i.  p.  12. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


9 


difference  in  the  burdens  of  landed  property  among  the  various 
estates,  lived  quietly  and  in  a docile  manner,  even  when  the  harvest 
was  short  and  he  had  to  surrender  almost  the  whole  crop,  so  that 
he  and  his  family  were  afterwards  dependent  upon  the  master’s 
good-will  and  store-house. 

The  arable  land  was  divided  into  four  classes,  of  which  the  rice- 
fields  composed  the  first  and  most  taxable.  All  returns  and 
revenues  were  reckoned  in  koku  of  rice,1  and  those  of  the  other 
cereals  were  reduced  to  the  equivalent  in  rice.  A daimio  of 
10,000  koku,  accordingly,  was  a feudal  lord  whose  estate  was 
valued  at  a total  of  10,000  koku  of  rice,  even  if  a considerable  part 
of  this  sum  was  only  an  equivalent  term  for  other  crops.  The 
peasants  had  to  surrender  to  him  after  harvest  the  high  fixed  per- 
centage (one-third,  one-half,  or  more)  ; the  rest  was  their  own. 
This  rice-tax,  however,  went  into  the  storehouse,  from  which  not 
only  the  Daimio  and  his  family,  but  also  the  Shdgun,  the  Samurai 
and  priests  received  their  allotted  shares.  Ten  thousand  koku, 
however,  was  the  revenue  of  the  smallest  Daimio  estates,  whereas, 
the  largest,  for  example,  Ka’ga,  with  the  most  extended  area  (next 
to  the  Shogun)  was  estimated  at  1,027,000  koku. 

One  of  the  first  efforts  of  the  new  Government,  after  the  restora- 
tion of  the  Mikado  to  power,  was  to  introduce  a more  just  and 
even  taxation  of  landed  property,  and  to  substitute  money  for 
taxes  in  kind  as  a medium  of  payment.  This  took  place  in  1872, 
by  means  of  a proclamation,  for  which  its  originators  anticipated 
great  success.  But  it  had  the  opposite  effect  upon  the  peasant 
class— general  discontent  and  passive  resistance  against  the  great 
innovation,  and  in  the  following  two  years  even  excited  public 
tumults  in  certain  provinces.  These  were,  however,  soon  put 
down  ; and  the  great  dislike  to  the  changes  also  came  gradually  to 
an  end  among  thoughtful  people.  Nevertheless  it  is  an  interesting 
question,  What  was  the  cause  of  such  conduct  on  the  part  of  a 
class  usually  so  obedient  and  subservient  ? The  right  answer  to  it 
was  given  in  1873  by  Kidd,  one  of  the  most  prominent  and  acute 
of  the  Mikado’s  supporters  and  advisers  at  the  time  of  the  restor- 
ation. In  a memorandum,  in  which  he  criticises  sharply  the  revo- 
lution of  all  things  by  new  laws  and  ordinances,  he  writes:  “Another 
evil  is,  that  the  laws  are  repealed  without  sufficient  deliberation. 
That  which  was  yesterday  accounted  just,  is  condemned  to-day  ; 
and  even  before  a new  statute  comes  into  operation,  another  follows 
and  partly  supersedes  it.  It  must  naturally  be  hard  for  the  people 
to  reconcile  all  this.”  A number  of  regulations,  some  of  them 
ridiculous  in  the  extreme,  had  been,  in  single  ken,  added  to  the 
new  and  energetic  laws,  like  the  revenue  reform  and  the  new  re- 
cruiting act  (which  made  all  classes  of  society  liable  to  military 
service,  hitherto  the  duty  and  privilege  of  the  Samurai),  and  men’s 

1 A koku  holds  i8o‘4  liters.  The  value  of  a koku  of  rice  ranges  from  2A  to 
5 dollars. 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


heads  were  completely  turned.  It  is  no  wonder  then  that  the 
peasants  looked  upon  the  new  revenue  system  as  only  increasing 
their  burdens,  and  accepted  it  with  distrust  and  ill-will.  It  was 
nevertheless  carried  out,  and  in  the  following  way. 

On  the  basis  of  the  old  division  of  arable  land  into  rice  land  (ta) 
and  dry-farming  land  (hata),  and  of  the  supposition  that  the  pro- 
duct of  a cho  of  the  former  should  be  reckoned  equal  to  that  of 
26  cho  of  the  latter,  the  Government,  in  1873,  taxed  not  only  the 
value  of  the  average  harvest-returns,  but  also  the  land-value  in  the 
several  ken,  and  determined  then  to  raise  3 per  cent,  of  this  basal 
value  as  a yearly  state  tax.  The  proportion  was,  on  January  4th, 
1877,  reduced  to  2\  per  cent.  To  this  general  State  tax  one  must 
now  add,  however,  the  district,  or  ken  tax,  which  varies  from  \ to 
2J  per  cent,  of  the  land  value,  thus  in  general  corresponding  as 
to  its  objects  to  our  district  and  communal  tax,  and  to  which 
also  all  institutions  (theatres,  etc.)  and  persons  that  serve  for  the 
entertainment  and  pleasure  of  the  public  had  to  contribute. 

Liebscher  1 says  with  reference  to  this  land-tax, — which,  while 
nominally  2\  per  cent.,  is  really  from  3 to  5 per  cent,  of  the  value 
of  the  land,  when  the  ken  tax  is  counted  in, — that  it  would  be  in 
other  countries  too  high  to  collect ; but  that  the  possession  of  land 
means  to  the  Japanese  farmer  something  quite  different  from  what 
it  does  to  us.  “ With  us,  a workman  can  afford  to  pay  a far  higher 
price  or  rent,  than  a rich  farmer,  for  a piece  of  land,  which  he  can 
cultivate  in  his  leisure  hours,  and  for  whose  manuring  and  working 
he  need  be  at  no  care  or  expense.  Thus,  too,  the  soil  has  a much 
greater  worth  to  the  Japanese  peasant  than  is  expressed  by  the 
money  value  of  the  crops  possible  for  him  to  get  from  it,  being 
absolutely  necessary  for  his  existence.”  Nevertheless,  the  peasant 
insurrections  in  quite  recent  times,  with  their  causes,  show  that  the 
present  method  of  taxation  has  its  hard  features ; that  the  tax 
cannot  be  gathered  after  bad  harvests,  and  may  rouse  the  people 
to  desperation. 

According  to  those  investigations  and  decrees  of  the  Japanese 
ministry  of  finance,  in  1873,  which  had  reference  only  to  the  old 
O-yashima,  the  area  amounted  to  : — 


Rice  land 2,539,090  cho  = 2,5 18, 106  ha.2 

Dry-farmland 1,732,449  „ =1,718,122  „ 

Total  cultivated  land  . . 4,271,539  cho  = 4,236,228  ha. 


The  average  value  of  rice  land  was  : — 

5 31*24  yen  = 2 124-96  marks  per  cho  (or  hectare),  and  that  of  the  hata, 
20672  „ = 826-88  „ „ „ 

The  gross  product  of  the  average  harvest  was  reckoned  at  1177 
per  cent,  of  the  selling  piece  of  land  = 62-5  3 yen  per  ch6,  for  rice 

1 “Japans  Landwirthschaftliche  Verhaltnisse.”  Jena,  1882. 

2 ha  = hectare. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


land,  and  at  11-29  Per  cent.  = 23-37  yen  per  cho,  for  dry- farm  land. 
The  harvest  products  of  1 177  per  cent,  and  11-29  per  cent,  respec- 
tively, of  the  value  of  the  land  were  distributed  as  follows  : 

Rice  land.  Dry-farm  land. 


per  cent. 

per  cho. 

per  cent. 

per  cho. 

State  tax  ....  2-5 

13-28 

...  2-5 

5-17 

Ken  tax  ....  2-5 

I3'28 

...  2-5 

5-17 

Costs  of  production  277 

1472 

2-29 

475 

Net  earnings . . . 4-00 

21-25 

400 

8-28 

1177 

6273 

11-29 

2337 

On  this  basis,  the  ground  tax  for — 

2,539,090  cho  of  rice  land 

comes  to  . . 33,719,115  yen,  and  for 

1,732,449  ch6  of  dry-farm 

land  comes  to  8,956,761  yen;  and  for  both  together, 
4,271,539  ch6  of  cultivated 

land  comes  to  42,675,876  yen. 


And  43,029,745  yen  was  the  actual  revenue  taken  in  the  fiscal 
year  which  ended  June  30,  1884. 

At  present  the  area  of  Old  japan* 1 2 * *  (Hondo,  Kiushiu,  Shikoku, 
Awaji,  Sado,  Old,  Iki,  and  Tsushima),  comprising  18,537  ST  rl 
= 28,356,945  sq.  cho,  is  divided  as  follows  : — 


1.  Uncultivated  mountain  forests  and 

desert  land 17,302,928  sq.  ch6. 

2.  Cultivated  and  useful  land,  in  the 

broadest  sense 11,054,017  „ 

The  latter  embraces — 

a.  ta,  or  rice  land 2,642,25  1 sq. 

b.  hata,  or  dry  fields 1,852,455 

c.  hara  in  use  (for  grass,  hay,  and  pasturage)  756,127 

d.  yashiki,  or  building  ground 548,541 

e.  shio-hama  (flat  sea-shore  for  salt  evapora- 

tion)   6,364 

f cultivated  forests 5,240,571 

g.  artificially  made  pleasure-grounds  . . . 7, 70S 


ch6. 


11,054,017  sq.  cho. 

The  group  b (hata)  embraces  also — 
the  mulberry  plantations  for  silk  culture  110,174  sq.  chd. 
tea-plantations 42,174  „ 

1 According  to  information  kindly  given  by  the  imperial  Japanese  embassy  at 
Berlin,  with  reference  to  the  levies  of  1879,  and  also  of  Herr  Regierungsrath 
Rudolph. 


12 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


Also  the  land  devoted  exclusively  to  the  paper-mulberry,  to  the 
lacquer-tree  and  the  tallow-tree,  and  to  fruit-raising,  all  of  which 
would  come  to  60,000  cho;  so  that  from  the  above  1,852,455  cho, 
212,000  cho  in  round  numbers  are  to  be  subtracted,  and  there  will 
remain  for  agriculture,  under  a and  b , only  about  4,282,000  cho  in 
all,  or  15  per  cent,  of  the  total  area. 

If  one  takes  into  consideration,  moreover,  the  other  island  groups, 
it  becomes  apparent  that  only  the  Riukiu  islands,  with  their  156  sq. 
ri  = 244,026  square  ch6,  are  under  advanced  cultivation  ; while  the 
great  Yezo  with  the  Kuriles  = 6,093  square  0 = 9,477,280  square 
ch6,  has  a small  amount  of  agriculture  to  show.  We  shall  reckon 
it  and  the  Riukiu  high  enough  in  taking  the  total  area  of  the  latter 
as  cultivated  land,  and  adding  this  to  the  above  4,282,000  square 
cho.  So  then,  it  turns  out  that  the  whole  Japanese  Empire,  with 
24,799  square  0 = 38,564,345  square  cho,  has  at  the  most  an  area 
of  4,518,500  square  cho  for  the  cultivation  of  field  products,  that 
is  to  say,  not  quite  12  per  cent,  of  the  entire  surface.  And  even 
in  Old  Japan,  this  small  proportion  sinks  in  some  provinces,  as 
Hida  and  Inaba,  to  as  little  as  5 per  cent,  and  under. 

Of  the  Kuriles,  only  the  most  southerly  are  arable  at  all,  even 
in  streaks  and  patches  ; of  Yezo,  only  the  alluvial  plains  of  the 
Ishikari  and  other  rivers  in  the  west  and  south,  not  the  north  and 
east  coasts,  which  are  foggy,  and  cold  even  in  summer. 

In  Germany,  41  per  cent,  of  the  ground  is  devoted  to  agriculture, 
and  11  per  cent,  more  is  meadow-land,  for  which  Japan  has  no 
equivalent,  since  the  bottoms  of  the  valleys — with  us,  especially 
among  the  mountains,  used  for  raising  grass — are  in  Japan  put 
under  cultivation  for  rice  and  similar  products.  The  hara,  too, 
cannot,  in  an  economical  sense,  be  compared  with  our  pastures. 

Taking  the  population  of  Japan  as  37,000,000,  and  that  of  the 
German  Empire  as  47,000,000,  the  cultivated  arable  land  of  the  for- 
mer as  4,270,000  ha,  and  of  the  latter  as  22,181,000  ha  (41  per  cent, 
of  541,000  square  kilometres),  we  discover  that  there  are  in  Japan 
1 1 '5  Are  to  the  head,  against  47^2  to  the  head  in  Germany.  The 
cause  of  this  remarkable  fact  lies  partly  in  the  climate  and  the 
nature  of  the  soil,  partly  in  the  method  of  farming. 

Vegetation — and  consequently  agriculture  also — depends  above 
all  upon  climate,  particularly  upon  temperature,  light,  and  moisture, 
and  is  only  secondarily  conditioned  and  modified  by  the  nature  of  the 
soil  and  other  circumstances.  Now,  the  climate  of  Japan,  as  was 
minutely  explained  in  the  first  volume,  pp.  1 20-1 5 3, 1 is,  in  a reduced 
scale,  the  same  as  that  of  the  neighbouring  continent  and  that  of 
the  oceanic  islands,  to  a certain  extent  uniting  both.  Japan  lies 
under  the  influence  of  the  monsoons  and  of  the  sea,  which  deflects 
them  somewhat  and  weakens  their  effects.  Atmospheric  depressions, 

1 In  addition  to  that  work,  the  publications,  subsequently  issued,  of  E.  Knip- 
ping,  of  T6kio,  the  highly  deserving  director  of  the  meteorological  observa- 
tories in  Japan,  were  made  use  of. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


13 


as  a rule,  follow  the  main  directions  of  the  islands,  from  S.W.  to  N.E. 
In  winter  they  are  frequent,  and  generally  of  short  duration. 
The  prevailing  directions  of  storms  at  this  season  are  from  W.,  S., 
and  E.  In  summer  the  depressions  of  the  barometer  occur  more 
seldom,  are  slighter,  and  move  more  slowly  from  S.  to  N.,  or  from 
S.E.  to  N.W.  Soft  winds  are  accordingly  the  rule,  and  storms 
seldom  occur,  and  then  chiefly  from  the  S.  and  E.  In  late  summer 
and  autumn,  the  number  and  rapidity  of  depressions  increase 
rapidly,  their  direction  changes  to  S.W.,  the  normal,  and  several 
typhoons  are  developed  amid  widespread  heavy  and  lasting  rains. 

These  dreaded  whirlwinds  set  in  most  frequently  in  September, 
when  the  sea-water  has  reached  its  highest  temperature;  and 
this  was  the  case  with  both  of  last  year’s  storms,  of  which  the 
first  was  observed  on  September  15  th,  and  the  others  on  the  17th 
and  18th.1 

During  the  first,  on  September  15th,  1884,  which  travelled  from 
S.W.  to  N.E.  over  the  south-eastern  part  of  Hondo,  the  barometer 
sank  about  45  mm.,  down  to  705  mm.,  within  4!  hours,  and  rose 
again  almost  as  fast.  Apart  from  these  isolated  cases,  the  barometric 
changes  in  the  course  of  a year  are  slight. 

In  winter  the  high  barometric  state  of  the  continent  crosses  to 
Japan,  and  brings  heavy  winds  from  the  N.  and  N.W.,  and  a 
clouded  sky  with  great  fall  of  snow  on  the  side  next  the  Japan 
Sea,  but  a clear  sky  and  little  snow  on  the  other,  the  lee  side. 
The  transition  from  the  soft,  warm,  and  damp  south  winds  of 
summer  to  the  rough  and  relatively  dry  north  monsoon  winds  of 
winter  is  by  no  means  sharp  and  immediate.  Still  less  so  is  the 
reverse  process  in  spring.  This  vernal  and  autumnal  change  in 
the  direction  of  the  winds  marks  the  end  and  beginning  respec- 
tively of  the  two  chief  divisions  of  the  year,  winter  and  summer. 
When  the  south  monsoon  enters  upon  its  sway  in  spring  (in  March 
or  April,  according  to  the  latitude),  and  Japan  proper  receives  its 
first  warm  showers,  then  begins  the  sowing  of  summer  grain,  es- 
pecially of  rice  ; and  when  in  September,  after  heavy  rainfalls,  the 
summer  is  ended,  the  harvest  of  most  of  the  crops  begins.  A 
relatively  high  temperature,  light  winds,  great  dampness  of  the  air, 
and  frequent  rains,  which  alternate,  however,  once  or  oftener  with 
dry  spells  a week  long,  characterize  the  Japanese  summer. 

October,  the  general  harvest-month,  is  for  the  most  part  dry 
and  clear.  The  water  of  the  heavy  September  rains  has  gradually 
run  off;  but  above  the  highest  mountain-summits  the  precipita- 
tions of  vapour  have  already  acquired  a sharp  outline,  and  the  white 
hoods,  with  many  other  natural  appearances,  announce  that  winter 
is  near.  Trees  and  shrubs  in  gardens,  groves,  and  forests,  display 
a large  share  of  their  autumn  garments — a delightful  diversity  of 
colours,  from  the  deepest,  most  brilliant  dark  green  of  the  ever- 

1 See  “Annalen  der  Hydrographie  und  Marit.  Meteorologie,”  1885,  pp.  99  ff. 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY 


14 


green  varieties  through  all  the  shades  of  dull-green,  white,  yellow, 
red,  and  brown  of  the  deciduous  sorts.  The  nights  grow  colder, 
till,  towards  the  end  of  the  month,  the  change  of  season  is  quickly 
concluded  with  the  first  frosts,  and  winter  quiet  prevails  in  wood  and 
field.  From  this  time  on,  most  of  the  trees  are  bare  of  leaves,  at 
least  in  Central  and  Northern  Japan,  and  the  turf  appears  much 
duller  and  more  lifeless  than  with  us. 

As  in  all  Eastern  Asia,  so  in  Japan,  winter  is  the  dry  season,  in 
which  there  prevail  mostly  a clear  sky,  high  pressure  and  low  tem- 
perature— the  last  especially  at  night,  and  when  the  monsoon  has 
been  blowing  for  several  days  with  unusual  force.  On  such  days,  in 
January  and  February,  there  may  appear  in  Japan,  though  quite 
exceptionally,  those  dust-storms  which  make  winter  so  disagree- 
able in  China.  The  light,  porous  soil  is  whirled  about,  the  sun 
loses  its  lustre  and  the  winter  grain  in  the  fields  its  firm  hold. 
And  the  thermometer  sinks  during  the  night  to  —9°  or  — 10°  Centi- 
grade in  Tokio,  and  approaches  the  freezing-point  even  in  the  day- 
time. Night-frosts  occur  from  November  till  March  ; and  the  mean 
temperature  for  this  winter  of  five  months  is  only  5-5°  C.  This 
shows  that  the  cold  is  far  too  great  to  admit  of  vegetable  growth, 
although  never  very  severe,  and  that  therefore  the  fruits  of  the 
field  have  a long  period  of  rest.  The  mean  temperature  from 
April  to  October  is  20°  C.,  and  from  June  to  September,  the  four 
hottest  months,  23-5°C.  The  greatest  heat,  34-350  C.,  comes  to- 
wards the  end  of  July  or  in  the  beginning  of  August,  but  does  not 
last  long. 

From  the  sea-level  to  the  mountain-tops  the  elevation  is  more 
than  3,000  metres,  and  the  country  extends  over  twenty-seven 
degrees  of  latitude,  so  that  there  is  great  diversity  of  climate. 
The  Bonin-islands  and  Riukiu  (partly  of  coral  structure)  in  the 
south  approach  the  tropic  of  Cancer,  while  Yezo  and  the  Kuriles 
are  related  to  Siberia,  in  situation  and  climate  ; and  their  coasts  have 
cold  foggy  summers  and  long  winters,  in  consequence  of  the  above- 
mentioned  polar  current.  Thus  the  meteorological  observations 
for  1883  gave  a variation  in  mean  temperature  between  167°  C. 
in  Kagoshima  (310  30'  N.  lat.)  and  6'5°  C.  in  Sapporo  (430  4'  N. 
lat),  over  a stretch  of  country  as  wide  as  from  Lyons  to  Memel. 
It  is  apparent  from  this,  and  from  observations  at  the  intervening 
stations,  that  the  mean  annual  temperature  in  Japan  falls  on  the 
average  o-9°  C.  for  every  degree  of  latitude  going  north — a re- 
latively rapid  change.  It  is  considerably  lower  than  on  the  same 
parallels  in  the  west  of  Europe.  For  example,  the  station  Nobiru, 
in  latitude  38°  on  the  Pacific,  has  the  same  mean  annual  tempera- 
ture as  Cork  and  Valentia  in  Ireland,  in  latitude  5 2°.  The  differ- 
ence is  ascribable  to  the  long  winters  of  Japan,  with  their  rela- 
tively low  temperatures,  on  account  of  which  the  climate  of  Japan 
approaches  that  of  the  continent  of  Asia.  Thus  Nagasaki,  in 
latitude  320  44',  has  the  same  mean  winter  temperature  as  Mont- 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


pellier,  which  lies  n°  further  north;  and  Kagoshima,  although  in 
the  same  latitude  as  Damietta,  has  frequent  night  frosts  in  winter. 

January  was  the  coldest  month  of  1883  in  the  greater  part  of 
Southern  Japan  (Kiushiu,  Shikoku,  and  the  parts  of  Hondo  which 
border  on  the  Inner  Sea  and  the  Owari  Bay)  ; but  in  the  rest  of 
Hondo  and  in  Yezo  it  was  February.  August  proved  the  hottest 
almost  everywhere.  The  difference  between  the  mean  maximum 
and  the  mean  minimum  temperatures  increases  naturally  with  the 
latitude  and  with  the  distance  of  the  station  from  the  coast.  It 
amounted  in  Miyasaki,  for  example,  to  19°  C.,  and  in  Sapporo  to 
28°  C.  More  important,  for  vegetation  at  least,  are  the  greatest 
extremes  of  36’6°  C.  in  Wakayama  and  — 22’2°  C.  in  Sapporo.  In 
Kochi  the  difference  between  the  highest  and  lowest  temperature 
amounted  to  36°  C. ; in  Sapporo,  56°  C.  Variations  of  14  or 
i5°C.  on  the  same  day  and  in  the  same  place  are  not  unusual 
in  spring  and  autumn. 

With  reference  also  to  the  amount  and  distribution  of  rainfall, 
the  greatest  differences  were  indicated.  The  stations  in  Yezo  ex- 
cepted, Aomori,  Nobiru,  and  those  on  the  Inner  Sea  recorded  the 
least  rain-fall  (under  1,000  mm.)  ; Kanazawa,  the  highest  (2,400 
mm.) ; and  then  followed  Kiushiu  and  Shikoku.  During  the 
winter  months,  the  greatest  fall  is  on  the  north-west  and  west 
coasts.  The  largest  amount,  for  Kiushiu  and  Shikoku,  comes  in 
April,  May,  and  June,  while  in  March,  September,  and  October 
there  is  a more  equal  distribution  over  the  whole  country. 

In  general,  however,  Japan  is  blessed  with  copious  rains, 
especially  in  summer.  These,  together  with  the  large  amount 
of  snow,  which  in  winter  lies  everywhere  upon  the  mountains, 
and,  towards  the  north,  on  the  plains,  supply  a number  of  springs. 
The  water  supply  of  the  country  is  therefore  copious  and  is  of 
great  aid  to  vegetation,  partly  directly  and  partly  through  irriga- 
tion. Quiet  lakes,  murmuring  brooks,  and  rushing  cascades 
heighten  the  charm  of  the  landscape  in  mountains  and  forests ; 
but  there  is  not  room  enough  for  the  development  of  great  river 
systems  and  a thorough  utilization  for  commerce. 

The  long  extended  ro\y  of  the  Japanese  islands,  with  predomin- 
atingly mountainous  character  and  great  diversity  in  relief,  is  of 
varying  geological  structure.  This  subject  has',  since  my  departure 
from  Japan,  been  thoroughly  investigated,  especially  by  Gottsche, 
Lyman  Naumann,  and  others.  The  last,  particularly,  as  director  of 
the  geological  survey,  in  conjunction  with  T.  Wada,  the  royal  mini- 
sterial councillor  and  director  of  the  Royal  Geological  Institute, 
has  expended  much  industry  and  skill  in  this  department.1 

In  the  order  of  age,  there  follow  upon  the  original  gneiss, — 
which,  however,  has  been  found  outcropping  only  in  a few  spots, — 
widespread  and  often  extensive  deposits  of  crystalline  shales.  Great 

1 See  E.  Naumann  : “ Ueber  den  Bau  und  die  Entstehung  der  Japanischen 
Inseln.”  Berlin,  1885. 


i6 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


masses  of  mica-,  talc-,  chlorite-schist,  serpentine,  and  marble, — whose 
presence  on  both  sides  of  the  Bungo  Nada  I was  the  first  to  prove, 
and  which  can  be  followed  through  all  Shikoku  and  the  peninsula 
of  Yamato, — have  been  since  then  found  in  all  parts  of  the  country  ; 
but  this  formation  appears  to  be  most  extensively  developed  in 
Shikoku,  where,  according  to  Naumann,  it  composes  the  highest 
peaks. 

Then  follow,  according  to  age,  different  strata  of  clay-shale, 
greywacke,  quartzite  and  lime-stone,  all  of  which,  like  the  crys- 
talline shales,  often  exhibit  marked  faults — and  until  now,  with 
the  exception  of  the  varieties  of  lime,  have  yielded  no  fossil 
contents,  and  therefore  no  data  for  a nearer  determination  of  their 
age ; so  that  they  must  for  the  present  be  grouped  together  as 
palaeozoic  strata.  The  lime-formations  exhibit  in  various  localities 
rich  enclosures  of  Fusulines  and  other  characteristic  petrifications, 
which  establish  beyond  a doubt  that  they  belong  to  the  carbon- 
iferous formation.1 

In  1874,  through  the  discovery  of  petrifactions  in  the  brown 
Jurassic  formation  of  the  province  Kaga,  I furnished  the  first 
proofs  regarding  the  existence  of  mesozoic  strata,  an  indication 
which  has  been  followed  by  countless  others,  so  that  now  there  is 
no  doubt  as  to  the  appearance  also  of  trias  and  chalk. 

Miocene  and  pliocene  conglomerates,  sandstone,  slate  clays, 
peat,  volcanic  tufas,  and  sea-sand,  with  many  fragments  of  marine 
shells  or  a rich  land-flora,  lie  in  many  places  among  the  older 
mountain  ridges  already  mentioned,  and  especially  in  proximity 
to  the  sea,  along  the  coasts  and  inlets,  or  in  the  plains  which  long 
ago  arose  from  the  ocean  itself.  Of  eocene  formations,  however, 
as  well  as  of  the  diluvian,  there  has  not  yet  been  any  certain  in- 
dication. 

The  oldest  eruptions,— which  have  in  many  places  broken  through 
the  metamorphic  and  palaeontological  strata,  and  overlie  them, 
— were  of  granite,  which  is  very  widespread.  For  example,  in 
central  Hondo  (or  Honshiu),  it  forms  a large  part  of  the  higher 
mountains  ; the  border  range  between  Shinano  and  Hida,  parti- 
cularly, being  a case  in  point.  In  the  Komagatake  of  Kai,  the 
granite  reaches  a-  height  of  3,000  metres.  A great  number  of 
other  mountains  of  respectable  height  are  also  composed  of  it, 
and  it  underlies  many  others. 

Later  volcanic  formations  with  almost  greater  frequency  break 
through  most  varied  complexes  of  strata,  and  in  many  cases  over- 
lie  them,  as  they  do  the  granite.  Thus  they  often  compose  the 
tops  of  peaks,  or  they  appear  along  the  mountain  side  as  isolated 
advanced  outposts,  in  the  usual  conical  shape.  Among  these  the 
most  prominent  is  Fuji-san,  or  Fuji-no-yama.  This  “ mons  ex- 
celsus  et  singularis”  (Kaempfer)  lifts  its  head  (3,750  meters)  far 


1 See  the  first  volume  of  this  work,  p.  38,  and  Naumann,  pp.  12  ff. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


1 7 


above  all  other  peaks  of  the  land,  covered  with  snow  for  ten 
months  of  the  year,  and  a weather-sign  and  prognostic  for  farmers 
and  sailors.  It  is  the  most  popular  mountain  in  Japan,  and  the 
one  most  visited  by  pilgrims.  It  is  found  reproduced  on  many 
works  of  decorative  art. 

Hot  springs,  especially  neutral,  and  sulphur  springs,  are 
numerous ; and  no  province  is  wanting  in  them.  Earthquakes 
and  their  accompanying  floods,  as  well  as  mighty  eruptions, 
with  their  showers  of  ashes  and  streams  of  lava,  have  from 
time  to  time  thrown  the  country  into  terror  and  partly  devas- 
tated it. 

The  predominatingly  mountainous  character  of  Japan  and  the 
peculiar  method  of  farming,  with  rice  as  the  chief  staple,  confine 
agriculture  more  or  less  to  the  plains  and  the  valley  bottoms  ; and 
this  fact  accounts  for  the  low  percentage  of  cultivated  land.  A 
larger  part  of  the  soil  is  indisputably  fit  for  cultivation,  so  in  Yezo 
and  the  north  of  Hondo  and  particularly  of  the  Hara,  and  in  many 
of  the  glades  among  the  mountain  forests ; but  this  amount  is 
not  as  great  as  is  often  maintained.  To  bring  this  land  under 
cultivation,  however,  an  altogether  different  method  must  be 
employed,  and  must  go  hand-in-hand  with  the  establishment  of 
better  means  of  communication,  with  the  development  of  cattle- 
raising,— bringing  about,  as  the  latter  would,  a proper  system 
of  manuring, — and  with  the  introduction  of  a more  comprehen- 
sive method  of  management,  involving  more  appropriate  ap- 
pliances and  machines,  not  to  mention  rotation  of  crops  and 
many  other  improvements.  All  this  would  completely  transform 
the  domestic  and  business  habits  of  the  peasants,  and  for  this 
reason  alone  cannot  take  place  in  a day,  but  must  come  about 
gradually  and  without  arbitrary  interference  from  the  organs  of 
Government. 

Dr.  Fesca  proves  convincingly,  from  several  examples,  that  of 
the  three  deciding  factors  upon  which  agriculture  depends, — “ the 
general  agricultural  conditions,  the  soil,  and  climate,” — the  first  is 
more  influential  than  the  second,  and  has  indisputably  hindered 
very  much  the  development  of  Japanese  agriculture.  “The  cost 
of  transporting  rice,  which  is  the  highest  priced  product, — fifty 
kilogrammes  being  worth  about  five  marks, — amounts  to  the  market 
price  of  the  rice  itself  by  the  time  it  has  been  carried  only  twenty 
geographical  miles,  on  the  best  highways,  while  in  Germany, 
according  to  Settegast,  wheat  and  other  grain,  at  only  twice  that 
market  price,  say  ten  marks  per  fifty  kilo.,  can  be  transported  on 
ordinary  roads  6&6y  miles,  on  turnpikes  ioo  miles,  and  by  rail 
400  miles,  before  the  cost  of  carriage  reaches  the  market  price. 
And  on  the  poorer  roads  of  Japan,  rice  does  not  bear  a transport- 
ation of  five  miles.  We  find  accordingly,  that  at  some  distance 
from  the  coast,  even  good  soil  has  not  been  brought  under  cultiva- 
tion, where  the  margin  of  profit  is  too  narrow  for  it,  while  near 

II.  C 


i8 


AGRICULTURE  AMD  FORESTRY. 


the  coast,  even  sandy  dunes,  certainly  very  poor  soil,  are  success- 
fully cultivated.”  1 

The  onward  progress  of  agriculture  was  greatly  obstructed,  not 
only  by  insufficient  means  of  internal  communication,  but  also  by 
the  country’s  isolation  from  the  rest  of  the  world,  during  the  long 
reign  of  the  Tokugawa-Shdguns.  There  was  no  market  for  the 
surplus,  and  consequently  no  strong  stimulus  towards  any  con- 
siderable increase  in  production.  Production  was  thus  kept  within 
the  narrow  bounds  of  the  normal  domestic  demand. 

The  endeavour  of  the  farmer  must  everywhere  be  to  make  the 
best  use  of  the  soil  at  his  disposal,  and  consequently  to  increase  the 
products  derivable  from  it.  And  it  is,  no  doubt,  one  of  the  first 
duties  of  the  State  to  assist  agriculture  as  much  as  possible  in  this 
endeavour,  even  to  stimulate  it ; for  there  is  a certain  vis  inertice  in 
the  conservative  character  of  agriculture  and  a population  devoted 
to  it,  which  is  all  too  well  disposed  to  keep  everything  in  its  old 
groove  and  to  meet  all  innovations  with  distrust  and  opposition. 

From  this  point  of  view,  the  Japanese  Government  deserves  full 
recognition  for  its  efforts  to  promote  agriculture.  Neither  can  one 
withhold  approval  if  in  all  this  it  did  not  disturb  the  organization 
of  the  industry  as  the  peasants  have  been  used  to  carry  it  on  for 
many  centuries,  but  turned  its  attention  instead  to  regions,  which 
had  not  been  heretofore  subject  to  this  time-honoured  method  of 
farming — the  island  of  Yezo,2  for  instance,  and  the  vast  expanses  of 
the  neglected  forest  and  mountain  meadows,  or  Haras.  Cattle- 
raising, first  of  all,  and  also  agriculture,  were  recommended  and 
tried,  but  both  in  a different  way  from  that  formerly  pursued. 

A glance  at  the  measures  employed  to  attain  these  ends  enables 
us  to  recognise  the  work  of  incompetent  advisers,  and  a childish 
changeableness  in  the  selection  of  means- — a jumping  about  from 
one  attempt  to  another.  There  was  no  well-considered  plan  laid 
down  in  the  beginning,  and  no  steady,  business-like  carrying  out  of 
any  plan  whatever.  Naturally,  therefore,  the  long  history  of  these 
attempts  shows  an  irresponsible  waste  of  money  on  the  one  side, 
and  for  the  most  part  a miserable  result  on  the  other. 

This  is  particularly  true  of  the  Kaitakuski  (pronounced  kaitakshi, 
that  is  “ development  ”),  the  Colonial-office,  for  the  development  of 
the  resources  of  the  island  of  Yezo,  an  institution  established  in 
1869,  which  came  to  an  inglorious  end  a few  years  ago.  At  its 
head  was  placed  Governor  Kuroda,  with  the  rank  of  a minister. 
Having  heard  of  the  rapid  development  in  agriculture  and  mining 
in  various  parts  of  the  United  States,  they  took  that  country  as  a 
pattern,  and  invited  thence  their  advisers  and  officials.  General 

1 Dr.  Fesca  : “Die  Aufgaben  und  die  Thatigheit  der  Agronomischen  Abthei- 
lung  der  Kaiserl.  Japan,  geol.  Lan desaufnahme.”  Yokohama,  1S84. 

2 According  to  Lyman,  this  island  has  7,000  sq.  ri  of  land  suitable  for  farming, 
6,000  sq.  ri  of  pasturage,  5,000  sq.  ri  of  forest,  9,000  sq.  ri  of  mountains.  The 
arable  land,  therefore,  amounts  to  nearly  25  per  cent,  of  the  total  area. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


'9 


Capron  was  installed  as  organizer,  or  “ commissioner.”  Under 
him  were  a number  of  his  American  countrymen,  acting  as  geolo- 
gists, engineers,  farmers,  gardeners,  etc.,  and  in  addition  to  them, 
a host  of  young  Japanese,  who  were  to  serve  their  apprenticeship 
here.  Some  of  these  American  officials  were  certainly  capable 
men,  who  are  not  to  blame  because  the  success  of  the  undertaking 
did  not  by  any  means  meet  people’s  expectations,  and  whose  per- 
formances are  not  to  be  identified  with  those  of  General  Capron. 

On  his  recommendation,  the  Kaitakushi  established  on  the 
Yashiki-ground  of  several  former  Daimios,  near  Tokio,  three  so- 
called  model  farms,  of  altogether  about  ninety  ha.  These  were  to 
serve  as  experiment-stations  and  preparatory  schools  for  Yezo — the 
first,  for  the  reception  of  breeding  cattle  imported  from  North 
America  and  England,  and  the  growing  of  fodder  ; the  second,  for 
the  cultivation  of  vegetables  and  grain ; the  third,  for  the  intro- 
duction of  foreign  fruit-trees,  berry-bushes,  and  other  useful  plants. 
Of  the  cattle,  brought  at  great  cost  from  the  countries  named,  a 
considerable  number  were  carried  off  by  disease ; the  rest  were 
partly  lost  through  unsuitable  fodder  and  insufficient  attention. 
Other  model  farms  were  established  on  Yezo  itself,  at  Hakodate 
and  the  new  capital,  Sapporo.  There  was  opened,  also,  in  1876, 
an  agricultural  school  here,  called  “ The  Agricultural  College  of 
Sapporo,”  modelled  after  an  institution  in  Massachusetts.  There 
had  already  been  a fiasco  in  Tokio  with  another  college  designed 
for  the  Ainos.  The  geological  survey  of  Yezo,  the  building  of  a 
road  from  Hakodate  to  Sapporo,  new  saw-mills,  and  many  other 
things  consumed  a great  deal  of  money.  If  it  cannot  be  said 
that  every  undertaking  of  the  Kaitakushi  was  ill-conceived  and 
neglected,  and  came  to  nothing,  it  is,  however,  true  of  many.  The 
general  opinion  of  foreigners  in  Japan  was,  that  the  results  stood 
in  shocking  disproportion  to  the  enormous  outlay.  Vast  sums 
were  placed  by  the  central  Government  at  the  disposal  of  the 
Kaitakushi.  Thus,  for  example,  in  1877  an  additional  1,905,666 
yen  = about  ^380,000.  It  was,  indeed,  long  the  goose  from  which 
many  contrived  to  pluck  a golden  feather. 

In  aiming  to  imitate  America,  they  forgot  that,  in  its  case,  the 
Government  left  everything  to  free  competition  and  development, 
that  the  pioneers  from  Europe  and  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  who 
pressed  westward  and  spread  their  culture  over  deserts,  were  quite 
a different  race  from  the  Japanese  and  Ainos.  In  this,  as  in  many 
other  cases,  the  Government  displayed  lack  of  experience,  blindness 
towards  better  advisers,  and  a desire  to  do  everything  through  the 
State  and  as  quickly  as  possible.  And  consequently  the  great 
hopes  which  it  placed  upon  this  new  branch  of  its  activity  and 
development  of  power  were  followed  only  by  disappointments,  as 
was  natural.  An  army  of  officials,  divided  responsibility,  and  want 
of  earnest  personal  interest,  crippling  all  strength  and  energy,  will 
produce  no  better  result  anywhere.  The  mistakes  of  Governments 


20 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


have  never  been  more  prominent  than  in  colonization  affairs,  as 
the  latest  European  political  history  shows.  Courage,  intelligence, 
self-confidence,  and  perseverance  in  hard  work,  even  in  the  face  of 
misfortune — these  are  the  qualities  through  which  free,  independent 
men  have  founded  colonies  and  made  them  prosper.  And  if 
Governments  have  helped  to  this  end,  it  was  only  by  temporary, 
prudent  backing,  but  never  by  taking  matters  into  their  own  hands 
and  thus  crippling  the  individual  forces  at  work. 

And  just  as  the  Kaitakushi  was  extravagant,  planless,  and  incon- 
sistent in  its  operations,  so  many  another  bureau  acted  in  its  sphere. 
Thus,  in  1874,  American  cows  were  brought  to  Ki6to-fu  and  put 
up  in  buildings  over  a gravel  soil,  on  the  river-bank,  in  a place 
where  there  was  no  such  thing  as  pasturage  far  and  wide,  and  to 
which  fodder  had  to  be  brought,  with  great  labour,  from  a distance. 
The  same  administration  had  heard  about  the  advantages  of  flax- 
culture,  a thing  unknown  in  Japan.  The  requisite  flax-seed  was 
immediately  procured  from  a European  and  an  attempt  made 
with  it.  The  flax  grew  finely  on  the  piece  of  land  chosen  for  it  in 
Kioto,  as  I can  testify.  But  when  it  had  formed  capsules  and  was 
ready  for  the  harvest,  there  was  no  one  who  gave  it  the  necessary 
attention  and  performed  the  labours  that  were  now  necessary.  The 
flax  ripened  on  its  stalks  and  went  to  ruin  with  its  bast. 

Many  a reader  of  these  lines  will  recall  the  notorious  14  model 
farm  ” in  Shimosa ; but  I do  not  care  to  refer  here  to  all  the 
examples  of  such  perverted  attempts  to  elevate  agriculture.  The 
right  way  for  the  Government,  instead  of  taking  everything  into 
its  own  hands,  would  have  been  to  encourage  the  inclination  of 
foreigners  to  try  farming  in  Japan,  to  turn  over  to  them  for  a term 
of  years  State  lands  free  of  taxes,  or  for  a moderate  rent,  and  permit 
them  to  make  their  experiments.  Had  these  succeeded,  they  could 
have  served  as  patterns  for  the  people,  and  have  excited  them  to 
imitation  ; had  they  failed,  the  country  would  not  have  had  to  pay 
the  costs. 

But  all  such  considerations  were  thrown  into  the  background  by 
a fear  that  concessions  to  foreigners  for  the  pursuit  of  agriculture 
might  injure  the  Japanese  and  lead  to  entanglements. 

In  1867,  and  therefore  towards  the  end  of  the  Shogun  govern- 
ment, and  at  its  behoof,  a German  farmer,  named  R.  Gartner,  had 
established  a model  farm  on  Yezo  and,  two  years  later,  taken  it  up 
on  his  own  account.  “ Augustenfelde,”  as  he  called  the  estate, 
soon  developed,  under  Gartner’s  circumspect,  capable  oversight, 
into  a really  model  establishment,  perfectly  adapted  to  farming 
under  local  conditions.  But  this  did  not  last  long.  Scarcely  was 
the  new  Government  organized  and  established,  before  it  bought  in 
this  estate,  paying  a good  round  sum  for  it,  and  that  was  the  end 
of  its  prosperity.  Yezo  remained,  to  use  Gartner’s  own  words,  “ a 
large,  rich  house,  whose  owners,  like  swallows,  live  only  on  its  out- 
side, in  a state  of  extraordinary  wretchedness.”  Its  inhabitants 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


are  busied  and  even  supported,  though  scantily  enough,  by  catching 
the  numerous  fish  and  marine  animals,  and  by  gathering  marine 
algae  and  exporting  them  under,  commission  for  enterprising 
merchants.  Captain  Gill 1 says  of  Chinese  agriculture,  that  in  his 
opinion  it  has  been  very  much  over-estimated.  That  is  true,  also, 
of  the  Japanese,  so  closely  related  to  it.  In  one  respect,  however, 
they  are  peculiar,  namely  in  the  care  which  is  taken  with  ground 
once  under  cultivation,  to  see  that  nothing  is  lost. 

Japanese  farming  is  very  much  more  careful,  and  more  to  be 
compared  with  the  scientific  horticulture  and  market  gardening  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  our  large  cities.  Japan  possesses  all  the  re- 
quisites for  properly  carrying  out  such  methods,  namely,  division 
of  the  land  among  many  small  owners,  plentiful  watering,  through 
rainfall  and  canals,  and,  above  all,  immense  supplies  of  cheap  and 
willing  labour,  to  which  also  women  and  children  contribute. 

With  all  these  advantages  of  cheap  labour,  combined  with  great 
industry  and  skill,  the  Japanese  peasant  can  always  keep  the 
soil  of  his  small  holding  loose  and.  free  from  weeds.  He  can 
employ  manures  wisely,  so  as  to  get  the  most  out  of  them.  Of 
course,  this  kind  of  farming  does  not  bring  wholesale  results,  like 
robbing  the  soil  on  a large  scale. 

Kaempfer  and  Thunberg  and  other  later  travellers  in  Japan  have 
spread  the  impression, — a false  one, — that  terracing  has  been  more 
extensively  employed  than  anywhere  in  Europe,  and  is  .customary 
high  on  the  mountain-sides.  The  neighbourhood  of  Nagasaki  and 
the  Omura-bay  could  easily  give  rise  to  this  mistake.  The  basalt 
and  trachyte  rocks  of  these  regions,  so  much  decomposed  by  the 
weather,  and  peeling  off  so  easily,  furnish  such  a fruitful  soil  that 
rich  harvests  reward  the  weary  building  and  care  of  terraces. 
With  the  pumice-stone  of  volcanic  districts,  or  in  slate-hills,  the 
case  is  quite  different.  Here  the  mountain-walls  are  scarcely  ever 
terraced  very  high,  because  the  harvests  from  such  meagre  soil 
would  not  justify  their  existence.  And  terraces  become  gradually 
fewer  the  farther  north  one  goes.  Nowhere  do  they  exceed,  or 
even  reach,  in  extent,  in  systematic  development,  and  in  success  as 
marks  of  labour  and  skill,  those  of  our  own  vine-dressers  on  the 
Rhine  and  in  some  of  its  side-valleys,  as,  for  example,  along  the 
Mosel,  and  in  the  valley  of  the  Ahr  above  Walporzheim. 

Terracing  in  Japan,  as  elsewhere,  is  primarily  for  the  purpose  of 
protecting  the  soil  of  steep  mountain  declivities  from  being  carried 
away  by  heavy  rain-storms,  and  secondly  to  facilitate  cultivation 
and  irrigation.  Now,  since  plenty  of  water  is  absolutely  necessary 
for  raising  rice,  and  can  only  be  had  on  a level  field,  the  ground  is 
terraced  for  rice,  even  where  its  natural  slant  is  so  slight  that  there 
would  be  nothing  to  hinder  ploughing,  after  our  fashion,  and  also 
no  danger  of  the  loams  being  washed  off  by  rain.  But  to  make 
these  places  perfectly  suited  for  the  purpose,  it  is  sufficient  to  build 
1 “Journal  Royal  Geographical  Society,”  1878,  p.  60. 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


simple  smoothed  earth-walls,  25  to  40  centimeters  in  thickness  and 
height ; though  to  support  the  terraces  great  works  must  be  con- 
structed along  the  walls  of  the  valleys.  So  then  we  find  cyclo- 
pean  walls,  not  seldom  built  of  boulders  from  the  neighbouring 
river,  or  broader,  grassy  escarpments,  upon  which,  in  the  south, 
tea-bushes,  the  wax-tree,  or  the  paper-mulberry  have  here  and  there 
been  planted. 

There  is  only  an  apparent,  not  a real,  contradiction  between  this 
last-mentioned  fact,  that  terraces  are  often  used  for  raising  rice, 
and  my  former  assertion  that,  in  many  travellers’  accounts  the  ex- 
tent of  terrace-farming  in  Japan  is  much  exaggerated.  And  this 
latter  is  easily  seen  from  the  low  percentage  of  all  cultivated  land. 

There  were  formerly  no  enclosed  estates  in  Japan,  nor  pasturing 
herds.  It  was  the  universal  habit  to  respect  the  fields  and  what  was 
growing  there.  Thus  there  was  neither  opportunity  nor  reason  to 
fence  them  in  at  all  by  means  of  ditches,  walls,  hedges,  etc.;  and 
separate  pieces  of  land  lay  side  by  side,  and  do  so  yet,  although 
receiving  different  kinds  of  cultivation.  And  in  the  plains  and 
valleys,  in  order  to  save  as  much  land  as  possible  for  the  ever- 
important  rice,  dwelling-houses  were  built  shoulder  to  shoulder  in 
villages,  and  in  a line  with  the  roads.  On  this  account,  villages 
and  country  towns  often  lie  along  the  chief  avenues  of  communi- 
cation, with  no  side  streets  to  speak  of,  or  are  strung  out  on  the 
borders  of  small  plains.  No  vehicles  of  any  description  are  used 
in  Japanese  agriculture,  so  that  narrow  lanes  accommodate  the 
general  trade  from  place  to  place,  and  still  narrower  dams  between 
fields  serve  frequently  as  footpaths. 

As  we  have  seen,  agriculture  in  Japan  is  confined  to  a little  over 
one-tenth  of  the  country’s  area.  And  yet,  not  only  is  a very  large 
population  fed,  but  in  favourable  years  there  is  also  a not  incon- 
siderable exportation  of  rice.  It  would  be  natural  to  concludes 
from  this  that  the  farming-land  of  Japan  is  distinguished  by  great 
fertility ; and  up  to  within  very  recent  times  this  assertion  has 
been  often  made.  But  it  is  by  no  means  true.  On  the  other 
hand,  experience  and  even  chemical  analysis  have  shown  that 
without  most  careful  attention  and  manuring,  the  soil  of  Japan 
could  in  most  cases  produce  no  very  favourable  returns.  Without 
properly  understanding  or  applying  the  principle  of  rotation,  the 
Japanese  secures  these  results  by  subsoil  working  and  loosening  of 
the  ground,  by  keeping  it  clear,  or  by  repeated  treatment  with 
manure  while  the  plants  are  growing,  which  last  is  possible  with 
such  crops  only  as  are  sown  in  rows  and  terraces.  To  this  must  be 
added  plentiful  watering,  through  rainfall  or  irrigation,  and  lastly 
the  effect  of  long,  uninterrupted  summer  heat. 

Crops  in  Japan  are  seldom  injured  by  untimely  frosts  or  severe 
cold,  and  probably  never,  to  any  real  extent,  by  mice  or  locusts. 
Among  their  living  foes  come,  first,  wild  swine,  which  are  very 
numerous,  and  then  apes.  On  the  edges  of  the  forest  and  valley- 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


23 


steeps,  these  often  are  in  advance  of  the  peasant  in  the  autumnal 
harvesting  of  his  bulbs  and  grains,  so  laboriously  grown.  It  is  then 
a general  practice  to  keep  fires  burning  all  night  along  the  borders 
of  the  fields,  and  to  fire  off  guns  to  frighten  these  importunate 
guests  away.  But  the  greatest  damage  comes  from  inundations. 
After  many  days  of  uninterrupted  heavy  downpour  like  a cloud- 
burst, or  of  gentler  rain,  the  water  comes  dashing  down  the  moun- 
tain-sides, sweeps  away  the  terraces,  and  carries  off  their  loamy 
soil ; or  the  rising  streams  in  valley  and  plain  overflow  their  banks, 
bearing  dykes  and  dams  before  them,  and  covering  the  fields  far 
and  wide  with  mud  and  boulders.  The  fruits  of  long  industry,  the 
joys  of  a toilsome  existence,  often  disappear  in  a night.  Showers 
of  volcanic  ashes,  too,  and  typhoons,  leave  here  and  there,  at  longer 
intervals,  their  devastating  traces. 

The  soil  of  Japan  is  largely  the  product  of  old  shales,  granite 
and  trachytic  eruptions  decomposed  by  weather.  It  displays  in 
most  cases  small  natural  fertility,  so  that  newly-broken  ground 
yields  only  scant  harvests.  The  basic  group  of  crystalline  volcanic 
rock  is  poorly  represented  in  Japan,  especially  basalt.  Where  it 
or  basaltic  lavas  do  occur,  one  observes  in  their  concentric  rings, 
which  peel  off  under  the  action  of  the  weather,  that  species  of  ferru- 
ginous loam,  which,  as  in  the  basalt  mountains  of  Germany,  seems 
not  to  be  wanting  in  the  chief  requisites  of  a fruitful  soil.  I found 
such  soil  on  the  road  from  Nagasaki  to  the  Omura  bay,  as  well  as 
in  Gumai-gori,  on  the  Koshiu-kaido.  Those  rich  deposits  of  loess 
which  fringe  so  many  of  our  valley-bottoms  and  are  also  widely 
spread  in  Northern  China,  do  not  seem  to  exist  there  j1  and  marl- 
soil,  too,  which  is  so  productive,  is  not  so  frequently  found  in  their 
lowlands  as  one  might  expect. 

Analyses  of  the  soil,  in  any  degree  of  completeness,  were  only  lately 
instituted,  especially  by  Kinch,2  Korschelt,3  and  Kellner.4  With 
reference  to  the  plain  of  Kuwanto,  these  corroborate  fully  certain 
old  accounts  of  showers  of  ashes,  which  fell  upon  it,  at  different 
times,  during  eruptions  of  Fuji-san,  Asama-yama,  and  other  vol- 
canoes. And  they  also  proved,  as  was  formerly  discovered  through 
examination  and  microscopic  investigation  of  the  ground,  that 
the  topmost  layer  consists  essentially  of  volcanic  ashes  and  tufa. 
According  to  Korschelt,  the  soil  about  Tdkio  is,  to  a depth  of  6 
meters,  a cement-tufa,  six  parts  of  which,  with  an  equal  amount  of 
sand  and  one  part  slacked  lime,  give  a good  mortar,  sufficiently 
strong  in  all  cases  except  where  great  hardness  is  required.  This 
tufa-soil  consists  of  85  per  cent,  zeoliths  and  sesquioxides,  11  per 
cent,  mineral  sand,  i-5  percent,  clay,  i‘5  per  cent,  quartz  sand,  and 

1 At  least  I cannot  remember  ever  having  met  with  any  in  all  my  travels. 

2 “Transact.  Ass.  Soc.  of  Japan,”  vol.  viii.,  pp.  369-416.  1880. 

3 “ Mittheilungen  der  deutschen  Gesellschaft  Ostasiens,”  vol.  iii.,  pp.  180-201. 
1881. 

4 Nobbe:  “Landwirthschaftliche  Versuchs-stationen,”vol.  xxx.,  pp.  1-86.  1884. 


24 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


I per  cent,  organic  matter.  Kinch  very  properly  points  to  the 
remarkably  large  proportion  (40  per  cent.)  of  easily  broken 
silicates  ( i.e . the  above-mentioned  zeoliths),  and  the  almost  total 
absence  of  free  silicic  acid.  Its  richness  in  magnetic  iron,  to  which, 
besides  organic  matter,  this  tufa-soil  owes  its  dark-brown  colour, 
was  approximately  calculated  by  Kinch  with  a magnet,  and  loam 
from  Komaba  gave  2-5  per  cent,  in  one  test,  and  some  from  Shi- 
mosa  even  7 per  cent,  of  the  total  weight.  The  soil  of  Japan  has 
great  capacity  for  absorption  and  for  holding  water  ; but  being  deep 
and  porous,  it  suffers  little  from  sagginess,  even  after  heavy  rains. 

The  predominance  of  acid  silicates,  including  trachytic  tufa  and 
ashes, — of  which  the  best  loam  in  Japan  is  largely  composed, — 
explains  its  extraordinary  poverty  in  elements  most  necessary  for 
plant-food  : lime,  potash,  and  phosphoric  acid  ; and  this  poverty 
increases  from  the  surface  downward,  as  manures  tend  to  make  the 
top-layers  more  fertile.  Kinch  determines  as  follows  the  average 
content,  from  six  tests,  after  deduction  of  the  hygroscopic  water  : 

Phosphoric  acid,  O' 185  per  cent. ; potash,  0-363  per  cent.  ; lime, 
04.75  Per  cent. 

The  results  of  his  investigations,  and  those  of  Korschelt,  were 
confirmed  and  considerably  extended  a year  ago  by  the  analyses 
of  Kellner.  Two  of  these  follow  here,  taken  from  the  work  already 
cited,  in  Nobbe’s  “ Landwirthschaftliche  Versuchs-stationen,”  vol. 
xxx.  The  specimens  of  earth,  like  those  which  Kinch  examined, 
were  taken  from  the  Kuwantd. 

The  earth  was  dried  at  100°  C.,  and  then,  by  means  of  cold 
muriatic  acid  of  1*15  specific  weight,  were  extracted  the  following  : 


Soil  of  the  Hata. 

Soil  of  rice-land. 

Top-soil. 

Under-soil. 

Top-soil. 

Under-soil. 

Si  02 . 

0-31 

0'29 

0-82 

079 

ai2  03 

* 5 "93 

1973 

I5-SO 

14-15 

Fe2  03 

ii73 

IU36 

7-  00 

7'49 

CaO 

o-6o 

o"66 

0-75 

0-70 

Mg  0 

1 '4i 

1-44 

o-45 

o'55 

k2o 

0'2Q 

o-i8 

O'lO 

0-17 

Na2  0 

O'l; 

0-13 

0-14 

O'OI 

p.  0. 

OU9 

o-i8 

0-37 

035 

S o3 

O'l  I 

O’l  2 

o"i8 

Total 

3074 

34-09 

25-31 

24-21 

Insoluble  remnant  . . . 

48-30 

49-48 

So'oo 

51-16 

Humus  and  Water  of  com- 

bination   

23-67 

i8’33 

26-02 

K) 

CO 

Total 

I02-7I 

101-90 

101-33 

101-20 

AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


■>S 


This  comparison  shows  that  the  soils,  corresponding  to  their 
proportion  of  aqueous  double-silicates,  are  rich  in  chemically  com- 
bined water  and  easily  separated  bases.  Upon  digestion  with 
muriatic  acid,  38-9  per  cent,  of  top-soil  and  40  8 per  cent,  of  under- 
soil were  converted  into  bases  and  acids  in  solution ; of  the  rice-soil 
a little  less,  namely  33-6  per  cent,  of  top-soil  and  3ri  per  cent,  of 
under-soil.  The  amount  of  separated  components  equals  about  50 
per  cent,  of  the  total  mineral  substance  of  the  soil,  a proportion  so 
high  that  it  is  generally  observed  only  in  lime  and  serpentine  for- 
mations. The  soils  are  rich  in  clay  and  iron  compounds,  but 
noticeably  poor  in  lime  and  chemically  combined  carbonic-acid. 
The  differences  between  Hata  and  Ta,  with  respect  to  the  com- 
position of  their  soils,  is  not  very  considerable. 

By  treating  the  soil  with  hot,  concentrated  muriatic  acid,  the 
following  substances  were  dissolved  or  separated  : — 


Earth  free  from  hygroscopic  and 

Earth  dried  at  iooc 

’C. 

chemically  combined  water  and 

humus. 

Dry  Fields. 

Rice 

Land. 

Dry  Fields. 

Rice  Fields. 

Top- 

Under- 

Top- 

Under- 

Top- 

Under- 

Top- 

Under- 

soil. 

soil. 

soil. 

soil. 

soil. 

soil. 

soil. 

soil. 

Si  CV  . . . 

I5‘6o 

1815 

l8"6o 

I5-58 

2044 

22-23 

25-15 

2I'OI 

ai203.  . . 

1767 

21-03 

17-05 

14-80 

23-15 

2575 

23-05 

20"03 

Fe2Oa.  . . 

679 

5-06 

9’95 

2-68 

8-87 

6-i8 

578 

3-29 

FeO  . . . 

4'°3 

5-87 

471 

5-3i 

5-29 

7-20 

6-33 

7-60 

Ca  O . . . 

076 

0-90 

0-90 

080 

0-99 

I"IO 

I’22 

i-ii 

Mg  0 . . ■. 

170 

1-74 

o-66 

0-62 

2-23 

2‘l8 

0-89 

0-84 

K2  0 . 

0-27 

0-26 

0-32 

0-26 

0'35 

0-32 

0'43 

o’35 

. Na2  0 . . . 

023 

0-13 

o'lg 

0-25 

O-30 

o"i6 

0"26 

o'34 

P2  05  • . . 

°'34 

0-39 

049 

040 

045 

048 

o"66 

0-54 

so3  . . . 

0*20 

Oil 

016 

o-o8 

C26 

0-14 

0-2 1 

o"io 

Cl  ...  . 

o-o7 

0-09 

0-03 

0-03 

0-09 

O'll 

0-05 

0-04 

Total. 

47-66 

5373 

47-06 

40-81 

6242 

65-85 

63-63 

55-25 

Unseparated. 
Humus  and  1 

30-20 

28-64 

27-10 

33  40 

39-56 

35-o7 

36-63 

45-03 

water  off 
combina-  f 
tion . . . ) 

23-67 

i8'33 

26-02 

25-83 

— 

— 

Total. 

IOI'53 

100-70 

100-18 

160-04 

101-98 

100-92 

100-26 

100-28 

It  is  seen  from  this  that  the  separating  effect  of  boiling  hot 
muriatic  acid  does  not  much  exceed  that  of  cold. 

The  plain  of  the  Kuwantd,  to  which  the  preceding  analyses  refer, 
although  now-a-days  cultivated  like  a garden,  was  first  brought 
under  cultivation  in  its  present  extent  through  the  Tokugawa  and 


1 Soluble  in  Na2  C03  and  taken  up  by  H Cl. 


26 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


in  consequence  of  the  development  of  their  residence,  Yedo.  Its 
soil  has  the  reputation,  among  the  Japanese  themselves,  of  being 
less  fertile  than  that  of  many  other  parts  of  the  country,  especially 
of  the  richly  watered  plain  of  Mino,  the  plain  of  Hiroshima, 
the  province  of  Higo.  But  of  these  we  have  no  analysis. 

In  the  Japanese  system  of  soil-improvement,  stable  manure  and 
rotation  of  crops  play  only  a subordinate  rdle.  The  productive 
capacity  of  arable  land  is  gained  and  maintained  by  sub-soil  work- 
ing, appropriate  use  of  the  manure  which  is  on  hand,  proper 
watering,  and  extraordinary  care  in  working  their  fields  and 
keeping  them  clear. 

The  East  Asiatic  knows  and  has  followed,  from  time  immemorial, 
the  important  principle  of  rational  farming,  that  the  soil  must  receive 
back  in  manure  what  is  withdrawn  from  it  in  crops,  although  his 
action  is  no  more  based  on  scientific  knowledge  than  is  that  of  an  old- 
school  German  peasant.  But,  for  all  that,  he  must  be  acknowledged 
to  have  more  circumspection  and  more  intelligence  in  selecting  and 
using  manure.  Much  that  the  rational  farmer  in  Europe  had  to 
learn  through  theory  and  experiment,  was  in  part  an  old-estab- 
lished practice  in  the  agriculture  of  countries  of  the  Chinese  civili- 
zation. And  this  circumstance,  together  with  a favourable  climate, 
is  undoubtedly  the  reason  why  the  soil  in  China  and  Japan  has 
preserved  its  old  productive  power,  notwithstanding  that,  in 
Japan  at  least,  as  we  have  seen,  it  is  not  at  all  fertile  by  nature. 

Nowhere  else  in  the  world  is  manure  (Japanese,  Koyashi  or 
Koye)  more  carefully  and  industriously  collected  and  drawn  from 
various  sources,  or  more  rationally  utilized,  than  in  East-Asia. 
The  droppings  of  beasts  of  burden  along  the  roads  is  usually  taken 
up  on  the  cheapest  conceivable  shovel,  a flat  ear-shell  (Haliotis) 
on  the  end  of  a stick,  and  carried  to  the  fields  in  baskets.  At  no 
time  of  year,  however,  does  the  Japanese  put  manure  on  fallow- 
fields,  there  to  dry  up  and  be  robbed  by  the  wind  of  its  most 
valuable  element.  And  various  as  the  materials  may  be  which  are 
thus  turned  to  account,  care  is  always  taken  to  get  them  quickly  into 
the  ground,  where  they  can  begin  to  operate.  The  Japanese  does 
not  so  much  manure  the  soil  as  the  plants  themselves,  knowing  that 
only  in  this  way  a satisfactory  result  can  be  obtained.  He  pro- 
vides the  places  where  seed  is  planted  or  sprouts  are  set,  with 
manure.  As  they  grow,  he  supplies  the  plants  with  new  manure 
at  regular  intervals.  And  thus  he  follows  the  most  direct  and 
economical  method  conceivable,  which  we  call  “ head-manuring  ” 
(Kopf-diingung). 

Stable  manure,  the  chief  fertilizer  in  our  economy,  is  of  minor 
importance  in  Japan,  because  stock  is  so  scarce  ; and  only  in  moun- 
tainous districts,  with  their  wide  grassy  stretches  and  greater  need 
for  beasts  of  burden,  has  it  much  significance.  Here,  one  can 
sometimes  see  dung  piled  up  in  front  of  peasants’  houses,  as  in 
many  a German  village.  Cattle  and  horses, — the  only  domestic 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


27 


animals  hitherto  worth  taking  into  account, — are  fed  in  stalls  the 
whole  year  round,  with  few  exceptions,  so  that  the  traveller  in 
Japan  seldom  if  ever  sees  a pasturing  herd. 

Long  before  our  farmers  had  had  their  attention  drawn 
by  chemical  investigations  to  the  high  proportion  of  nitrogen, 
phosphoric  acid,  and  potash  in  cesspool  manure,  and  learned  to 
value  and  use  it,  this  played  a distinguished  rdle  in  the  empirical 
agriculture  of  China  and  Japan.  Human  excrements  compose 
here  the  manure  which  is  most  employed  and  therefore  of  most 
account.  Fish-guano  and  oil-cakes  are  the  only  things  preferred 
to  it.  The  chief  growth-giving  element  of  this  cesspool  manure, 
especially  for  grasses,1  and  thus  also  for  straw-plants,  is,  as  is  well 
known,  nitrogen,  which  is  mostly  present  in  the  shape  of  urea  and 
carbonate  of  ammonia,  but  escapes  if  the  manure  is  not  soon 
applied,  on  account  of  the  quickness  with  which  these  bodies  are 
decomposed,  forming  free  ammonia. 

How  they  gather  these  human  excrements  and  turn  them  to 
account  is  a highly  interesting  question,  since  the  problem  of  puri- 
fying our  cities,  and  meeting  the  increased  demands  upon  our 
agriculture,  has  been  already  so  much  discussed.  The  chief  points 
regarding  it  will  therefore  be  given  here. 

The  system  is  simple,  but  will  hardly  be  imitated  by  us,  for  it 
has  not  that  regard  for  eyes  and  noses  which  our  civilization 
demands.  The  corresponding  senses  of  the  Japanese  are  probably 
no  less  acute  than  ours  ; but  the  habit  of  seeing  and  smelling  dung 
has  evidently  made  them  accustomed  to  it,  in  much  the  same  way 
as  practitioners  in  anatomical  and  chemical  laboratories  get  used 
to  sights  and  smells  which  nauseate  the  beginner. 

There  are  regions  in  Europe  where  the  way  to  the  closet  is 
through  the  kitchen;  in  Japan  it  is,  as  a rule,  through  the  best 
room,  or  at  any  rate  close  by  it.  Japanese  dwelling-houses  are 
built  lightly  of  wood,  and  only  one  or  two  storeys  high,  tending 
generally  more  to  length  and  depth  than  to  height.  They  never 
have  cellars  and  chimneys,  and  generally  no  foundation-walls 
either.  The  lower  floor  rests  on  posts  or  stones  two  or  three  feet 
above  the  ground  ; kitchen  and  ordinary  living  rooms  almost 
always  face  the  street,  with  the  better  rooms  on  the  other  side, 
fronting  a garden,  from  which  they  are  separated  by  a verandah 
about  a meter  broad.  A step  along  this  verandah  takes  one  to  the 
closet  adjoining  it  at  one  end,  called  Chodzu-ba,  Yoba,  or  (vulgarly) 
Setzu-in.  On  account  of  the  light  open  framework  of  the  house,  it 
often  happens  that  the  odour  from  this  place  floats  directly  into  its 
best  rooms,  as  any  one  who  travels  in  Japan  can  often  enough 
observe. 

The  Chodzu-ba  has  a floor  of  deal,  with  a rectangular  opening 
in  the  middle,  and  a tub  or  a large  earthen  jar  as  a receptacle 

1 See  Lavves  and  Gilbert  : “ The  Effect  of  Different  Manures  on  the  Mixed 
Herbage  of  Grass-land.”  Journ.  Roy.  Agric.  Soc.,  vol.  xxiv.  Part  I. 


28 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


beneath.  There  is  no  seat ; but  the  removable  frame,  which  lies 
around  the  opening,  has  at  its  front  end  a small  post  to  hold  by. 
This  provision  distinguishes  the  Ch6dzu-ba  favourably  from  similar 
conveniences  among  very  different  nations,  the  inhabitants  of 
Morocco  for  instance,  and  the  ancient  Romans. 

For  urination  there  is  almost  always  some  particular  provision, 
except  only  at  night.  The  vessel  for  receiving  urine  stands  in  a 
corner,  and  is  usually  sunk  in  the  earth.  In  the  better  class  of 
houses  it  is  covered  with  a four-sided  based  pyramid,  the  interior  of 
which  is  half  filled  with  short  evergreen  twigs.  In  this  way  or 
otherwise  the  urinal  is  generally  concealed  from  passers-by.  But 
there  are  still  cities  that  are  far  enough  yet  from  such  a refinement 
of  manners,  and  where  the  old  Chinese  plan  is  still  in  vogue,  which 
appears  from  old  accounts,  Thunberg’s,  for  example,  to  have  been 
formerly  almost  universal. 

Two  particularly  striking  instances  of  this  sort  fell  under  my 
observation  in  1874,  while  travelling.  I suppose  I may  mention 
them  here.  In  the  town  of  Takaoka,  in  Echiu,  noted  for  its  bronze- 
foundries,  I found  two  rows  of  such  vessels,  only  quite  without 
cover  of  any  kind,  set  up  in  the  principal  street.  And  later,  in  the 
town  of  Sakata,  north-east  of  Niigata,  I came  across  this  publicity 
in  a still  more  striking  form.  Here  every  house  had  an  arrange- 
ment of  that  sort  right  at  the  entrance,  and  my  hotel  (the  Yadoya) 
had  two  of  them,  just  about  where  the  portier's  office  is  with  us. 
This  may  have  been  formerly  the  rule  in  all  towns,  now  it  has 
already  become  quite  an  exception.  Indeed,  there  is  really  less 
offence  against  public  propriety  now  in  Japan,  than  in  many  places 
in  Germany. 

In  large  towns  the  Koye-tori  (literally  bringer  of  manure)  comes 
almost  every  day  to  get  dung  (Daiben)  and  urine  (Shoben)  and 
carry  them  out  to  the  country.  He  mixes  both,  and  thins  the 
composition  with  water,  when  necessary,  which  is  an  easy  matter, 
owing  to  the  peculiarly  light  diet  of  the  Japanese,  consisting  of 
strongly-salted  soups  and  sauces  and  easily-digested  rice. 

But  there  are  others  still,  besides  the  regular  Koye-tori,  who  are 
glad  to  take  away  the  contents  of  these  tubs.  In  Germany  it  is  a 
common  sight  to  see  the  farmer  who  has  brought  milk,  butter,  and 
other  commodities  to  town,  go  back  laden  with  refuse  from  his 
customers’  kitchens,  with  which  to  feed  his  cattle.  In  Japan  there 
is  no  vendor  of  butter  and  milk,  and  consequently  no  need  of  fodder ; 
and  instead  of  kitchen  stuff,  the  countryman  who  comes  in  to 
market  often  takes  back,  for  his  fields,  cesspool  manure,  in  buckets 
slung  on  a yoke  of  bamboo-cane  or  evergreen  oak. 

The  Sumida-gawa  is  the  principal  depdt  of  this  refuse  in  T6kio, 
the  capital.  Flat  boats  laden  with  it  are  to  be  seen  every  day 
along  its  banks,  either  directly  filled  with  the  manure,  or  carrying  it 
in  tubs  arranged  in  rows  and  one  above  another.  These  manure- 
boats  float  in  the  river  and  through  the  fields  in  side-canals. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


29 


When  such  a boat  reaches  its  destination,  its  contents,  already 
thinned  with  water,  are  baled  out  with  dippers  by  Hiakushd 
(peasants).  Small  tubs  on  long  poles  serve  for  dipping  out  and 
transferring  the  manure,  and  still  smaller  ones  for  distributing  it  to 
the  plants.  Thus  the  plants  are  manured  and  watered  at  the  same 
time.  All  young  winter  produce  and  vegetables  are  treated  in  this 
way,  but  never  rice. 

It  is  only  in  time  of  a great  abundance  that  this  manure  is  col- 
lected in  little  vats  sunk  in  the  fields,  and  in  big  buried  casks  and 
tubs,  roofed  over  with  straw,  for  later  use.  As  a rule,  it  is  applied 
direct  and  fresh,  so  that  its  strength,  especially  of  ammonia,  is  kept 
from  being  dissipated. 

In  many  Japanese  cities  the  carrying  away  of  cesspool  matter 
is  provided  for  by  companies  under  whose  employ  are  the  above- 
mentioned  Koye-tori.  These  companies  pay  the  householders  for 
this  privilege  prices  which  rise  and  fall  with  the  time  of  year, 
according  to  the  demand.  They  are  highest  in  spring,  falling  off 
in  winter  frequently  by  more  than  one-half.  Ten  years  ago  the 
average  price  in  Yokohama  for  a ka  (a  man’s  burden,  here  two 
bucketfuls)  was  from  six  to  eight  sen.  Three  years  ago  it  rose  to 
ten  sen  ; in  April,  to  twelve  and  a half,  and  in  this  month  the 
company  sold  the  manure  to  farmers  for  fourteen  and  fifteen  sen 
per  ka.  In  Tokio,  where  the  demand  is  less  in  proportion  to  the 
enormous  amount  exported,  the  prices  are  relatively  lower;  in 
-many  smaller  places,  higher.  It  is  comparatively  within  recent 
times  that  cesspool  manure  has  become  of  any  value  and  an  object 
of  purchase  with  us,  as  in  Stuttgart,  where  it  is  bought  by  the 
Suabian  peasants. 

A great  role  is  also  played  by  compost  (Koye-tsuchi,  manure- 
earth,  or  Koyashi-tsuchi).  This  is  prepared  from  earth  and  every 
possible  sort  of  vegetable  and  animal  offal,  and  is  often  moistened 
with  dung-water,  or  even  with  water  merely,  in  order  to  hasten  de- 
composition. Lime  is  never  used  for  this  purpose.  On  being  applied, 
compost  often  receives  an  addition  of  dung  or  even  of  green  manure. 

Fish-guano  is  the  most  expensive  and  highly-prized  of  animal 
manures.  It  is  an  important  article  of  commerce,  made  up  of  the 
offal  of  various  kinds  of  fish,  but  especially  of  several  varieties  of 
herring,  for  example  the  Nishin  ( Clupea  harengus),  the  Iwashi 
( Clupea  melanosticta  and  Cl.  gracilis ),  and  the  Isaza  ( Engraulis 
japonicus).  These  fish  appear  in  great  shoals,  in  March  and 
April,  and  again  in  October  and  November,  off  certain  parts  of 
the  Japanese  coast,  the  eastern  shore  of  Yezo,  for  instance,  the 
coast  of  Hitachi,  along  the  shores  of  the  Japan  Sea,  etc.  They 
are  not  smoked  or  salted,  as  in  Europe,  but  chiefly  caught  for  the 
sake  of  a kind  of  train-oil,  while  their  ill-smelling  remains,  when 
dried,  appear  in  commerce  as  manure.  After  the  oil  has  been 
extracted  by  boiling  the  fish  in  water,  the  remains  are  spread  out 
in  the  fields,  dried  in  the  sun,  and  then  exported  either  loose  or 


3° 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


pressed.  Thus,  for  example,  a single  place,  named  Tomacomi,  on 
the  coast  of  Yezo,  furnishes  yearly  about  150  tubs  of  fish-oil  and 
nearly  7,000  Koku  of  fish-manure.  This  vile-smelling  but  very 
effective  fish-guano  is  used,  among  other  things,  for  manuring  tea- 
plants.  The  refuse  of  silk-worm  culture  is  also  made  useful  as  a 
fertilizer. 

Another  very  valuable  sort  of  manure  consists  in  oil-cakes,  or 
Abura-kasu,  which,  with  fish-manure  also,  is  employed  in  hastening 
the  growth  of  young  cotton  and  tobacco  plants.  They  are  obtained 
from  the  seeds  of  the  different  oil-bearing  plants,  as  Brassica , 
S inapis,  Perilla,  Sesamum  and  Gossypium,  and  have,  naturally,  very 
unequal  values  as  fertilizers.  Abura-kasu,  in  general,  signifies  the 
commonest  and  most  valued,  namely,  the  rape-seed  cakes. 

Besides  these  oil-cakes,  as  further  vegetable  manures,  boiled  or 
pounded  beans,  rape-straw,  barley-straw,  wheat-straw,  chaff,  and 
other  refuse,  and  especially  green  plants,  are  used.  Green  manure 
is  not,  like  clover  and  other  plants  in  China,  obtained  by  special 
sowing,  but  is  taken  from  uncultivated  patches  of  ground.  It  is  a 
mixture  of  grass,  weeds,  undershrubs,  and  young  branches,  as  they 
grow  on  mountain-sides  and  in  thin  forests.  Women  and  children 
gather  this  material  and  take  it  to  the  fields  in  baskets,  though, 
where  it  grows  higher  and  farther  among  the  mountains,  the  work 
is  done  by  men  with  pack-horses.  Like  rape-straw,  it  is  chiefly 
used  for  manuring  and  strewing  rice-fields,  when  the  latter  are 
made  ready  to  receive  the  young  seedlings  in  early  summer ; and 
it  is  totally  decomposed  in  a few  weeks  by  the  action  of  water  and 
mud. 

On  Amakusa  and  other  southern  islands,  I observed  coarse  sea- 
weeds spread  as  manure,  especially  Sargassum. 

Of  mineral  substances,  wood  and  straw  ashes,  especially  those  of 
rice-straw  (Wara)  and  rape-straw  are  used  ; also  the  mud  of  the 
irrigating  canals,  with  which  the  seed-beds  for  young  rice  are 
covered  in  spring.  Ashes  and  mud  are,  in  general,  favourite  fer- 
tilizers for  hastening  the  growth  of  young  crops. 

The  extensive  use  of  lime  has  a greater  interest  for  us.  As 
is  well  known,  the  French  distinguish  between  amendement  (soil- 
improvement)  and  engrais  (manuring).  Quick-lime  serves  both 
purposes.  Chemistry  teaches  that,  in  close  contact  with  clay, 
silicates,  and  water,  it  frees  the  silicic  acid  combinations  and  makes 
the  silicic  acids  accessible  to  the  plants,  and  that  therefore  a 
heavy  clay  soil  becomes  looser  and  more  fruitful  through  the 
addition  of  slacked  lime,  quite  apart  from  the  direct  worth  of  the 
lime  as  plant-food  in  soil  hitherto  devoid  of  lime. 

In  Germany  we  see  lime  thus  used,  for  example  in  the  valley 
of  the  Sieg,  in  .Saxony,  and  various  other  regions.  But  it  is  un- 
likely that  any  European  farmer,  by  his  own  observation  and 
experience,  arrived  so  early  at  such  practical  results  as  the  Japanese, 
or  has  so  long  been  used  for  manuring  heavy  clay  soil. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


3i 


I observed  powdered  quick-lime,  called  Ishi-bai  (stone-ashes), 
employed  in  various  parts  of  Japan,  principally,  however,  in  non- 
volcanic  districts,  where  the  soil  is  poorer,  being  the  product 
of  older  weather-worn  shales  and  crystalline  rocks.  Its  use,  more- 
over, was  confined,  as  a rule,  to  rice-fields.  When  these,  at  the 
beginning  of  summer,  are  prepared  for  the  reception  of  young 
seedlings,  and  green  manure,  or  rape-straw,  is  spread  out  over  their 
muddy  surface,  lime  is  strewn  over  all.  It  quickly  decomposes 
the  fibres  of  the  plants,  thereby  furthering  the  distribution  and 
effect  of  such  manure.  On  account  of  its  caustic  properties,  it 
cannot  be  applied  as  a fertilizer  to  growing  plants. 

Limestone  appears  only  exceptionally  as  a pure  carbonic  salt. 
So  it  is  plain  that  its  effect  as  a soil-improver  may  often  be  height- 
ened through  the  admixture  of  phosphate  of  lime,  magnesia,  iron 
and  other  bodies. 

Other  summer  plants  besides  rice  are  manured  generally  with 
straw-ashes  or  wood-ashes  at  seeding-time,  and  with  dung,  thinned 
with  water,  during  their  growth.  This  fluid  manure,  with  the 
frequent  rains,  renders  artificial  watering  of  the  Hata  unnecessary. 
The  porosity  of  the  soil  and  its  sloping  position  make  drainage 
likewise  dispensable,  except  such  drainage  indeed  as  is  provided 
through  the  division  of  fields  into  narrow  beds  with  deep  furrows 
between.  This  is  especially  the  method  of  planting  winter  pro- 
ducts ; as  is  done  also  in  the  South  of  France,  near  Bordeaux,  for 
instance.  Improvement  of  the  soil  by  mixture  is  not  known,  and 
neither  is  the  so-called  fire-culture  (Brandcultur). 

But  there  is  another  fertilizing  element  in  the  rice-lands  besides 
lime,  green  manure,  and  straw  manure,  and  that  is  the  flowing 
water  with  which  they  can  be  flooded.  In  this  are  contained  not 
merely  valuable  mineral  products  of  erosion,  but  also  decomposed 
vegetable  matter.  The  soil’s  power  of  absorbing  these  substances 
has  been  proved  beyond  all  doubt.  Kellner’s  chemical  examination 
of  water  as  it  passed  off,  after  trickling  through  the  ground,  showed 
fewer  mineral  constituents  than  were  found  in  river  water. 

Japanese  agricultural  implements  are  mostly  simple  and  service- 
able. But  the  latter  quality  cannot  be  claimed  for  those  used  in 
raising  and  harvesting  grain,  resembling  closely,  as  they  do,  those 
used  in  China  and  Corea,  and  having  evidently  been  little  changed 
in  the  course  of  many  centuries.  Manual  skill,  industry,  and  per- 
severance take  the  place,  in  Eastern  Asia,  of  our  better  adapted 
tools. 

The  plough  (Karasuki)  resembles,  in  its  commonest  form,  that  of 
Egypt,  which  we  know  is  made  and  used  to-day  just  as  in  the 
time  of  the  Pharaohs.  At  the  front  end  of  its  beam,  which  is 
about  two  meters  long,  there  is  the  simple  arrangement  of  a yoke 
for  attaching  the  horse  or  ox,  while  at  its  other  end  a crooked  piece 
of  wood  is  fastened,  pointing  out  backwards,  and  forming  at  its 
lower  extremity  the  breast,  ending  here  in  the  iron-pointed 


32 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


ploughshare.  A cross-bar  through  the  thinner  end  of  the  ploughtail 
forms  the  handle.  The  Japanese  plough  is  therefore  without  fore- 
plough, coulter,  or  loam-board,  that  is,  without  any  arrangement  for 
turning  furrows  or  for  ploughing  deep  or  shallow  at  will.  The 
peasant  carries  it  afield  on  his  shoulder,  walking  after  his  ox  or 
horse.  With  such  a plough  there  is  no  possibility  of  thoroughly 
working  the  soil  by  clean,  regular,  successive  furrows,  or  of  cutting 
roots  and  laying  them  bare.  It  is  no  wonder  that  it  is  not  ex- 
tensively used,  and  that  all  deeper  working  and  loosening  of  the 
soil  is  accomplished  with  the  hoe  (Kuwa)  mostly,  and  the  spade 
(Suki).  The  former  especially  is  known  in  all  forms  and  sizes, 
and  is  indisputably  the  most  important  tool  of  the  Japanese 
gardener  and  farmer.  It  consists  of  an  iron  disk,  which  as  a rule 
surrounds  a wooden  centre  or  hub,  through  which  runs  the  handle, 
sixty  centimeters  long.  A second  form  is  the  iron  four-tined  fork- 
hoe,  and  then  comes  the  Kumade  with  four  bamboo  tines,  and  the 
Matsubagaki,  with  seven  tines  of  the  same  material.  These  prongs 
radiate  from  one  point,  and  form  a right-angled  triangle,  at  whose 
base  they  end,  and  are  bent  downwards,  hook-fashion.  These  two 
implements  form,  to  a certain  extent,  the  transition  to  the  simple 
rake  (Sarai).  I have  seen  ploughs  used,  chiefly  in  spring,  for  work- 
ing rice-fields,  but  even  in  this  case  only  sparingly.  Remembering 
that  rice-land,  after  being  provided  with  dykes  and  then  flooded, 
is  worked  with  the  hoe  and  by  hand  to  an  even  and  uniform  paste, 
one  recognises  that  subsoil  culture  is  employed  here,  ploughs  or 
no  ploughs. 

For  a harrow  (Maguwa,  pronounced- Magwa),  they  often  use  an 
implement  which  resembles  more  a large  rake,  its  principal  feature 
being  a board  with  a row  of  wooden  or  iron  nails.  It  is  attached 
to  the  draught  animal  by  two  wooden  shafts,  and  has  a gallows- 
shaped arrangement  on  top  which  serves  as  a handle.  But  there 
are  many  modifications  of  this  implement. 

Wagons  (Kuruma)  are  not  used  at  all  in  Japanese  agriculture. 
They  have  not  even  the  wheel-barrow  (Ichirin-sha)  so  popular  in 
China.  Manure  and  seed  are  taken  to  the  fields,  and  their  pro- 
ducts in  turn  are  carried  home  or  to  market,  in  vessels  slung  on 
both  ends  of  poles  laid  across  the  shoulder,  or  on  the  backs  of 
pack-horses  or  oxen. 

Especially  simple,  or  rather  primitive,  is  the  grain-harvesting. 
Straw  is  used  chiefly  in  plaits  of  many  sorts,  ropes,  sandals  (even 
for  beasts  of  burden),  and  mats,  but  also  for  thatching,  and  some- 
what for  manuring  too.  Grain  is  usually  cut  close  to  the  ground 
with  a sickle  (Kama),  as  in  Germany,  and  then  bound  in  small 
sheaves.  These  are  either  stacked  about  the  stems  of  alder  or 
other  trees  along  the  edges  of  the  fields,  or  piled  in  front  of  the 
houses,  and  when  necessary,  exposed  to  the  sun  for  drying  and 
maturing. 

Taking  such  a bundle  by  the  stalks,  and  spreading  it  out  in  their 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


33 


hands,  they  draw  it  through  the  steel  or  bamboo  nails  of  a kind  of 
comb  like  a flax-rippler  (Ine-kogi  or  Mugi-kogi)  of  from  thirty  to 
forty  centimeters  in  diameter,  thus  separating  the  ears  and  panicles 
from  the  straw.  Instead  of  a rippler  of  this  sort,  poorer  people 
use  a piece  of  bamboo-cane  cut  in  the  shape  of  a fork  or  a comb 
(Kushi)  of  the  same  material.  The  panicles  of  rice  and  millet,  or 
rather  the  grains  themselves,  are  also  often  separated  from  the 
straw  by  beating  the  stalks  against  the  edge  of  a tub.  It  will  be 
asked  : Have  the  Japanese  no  flails  ? We  do  find  them  in  use, 
under  the  name  of  Kara-sao  and  Kururi,  but  in  an  exceedingly 
clumsy,  inadequate  shape.  They  consist  of  cylindrical  pieces  of 
wood,  tied  by  ropes  to  poles,  so  that  it  is  impossible  to  strike  out 
well,  or  to  beat  hard  with  them.  And  the  ears  of  grain  are  only 
threshed  after  being  broken  from  their  stalks  by  the  above-men- 
tioned processes.  The  threshers  stand  in  two  rows  opposite  each 
other,  and  each  row  strikes  in  unison,  so  that  there  is  no  such 
pleasant  triple  and  quadruple  beating  of  flails  as  salutes  the  ear 
from  the  threshing-floors  in  the  German  peasant  villages  in  autumn. 

Another  method  of  separating  the  grains  from  the  ears  or 
panicles  is  by  means  of  a stamping  trough  (Usu).  When  they 
are,  in  one  way  or  another,  separated  from  the  chaff,  the  cleaning 
is  not  done  on  the  threshing-floor  with  pitchforks,  but,  as  in 
almost  all  warm  countries,  with  the  help  of  the  wind,  the  mixture 
being  held  out  at  arm’s  length,  in  a sieve,  where  there  is  a draught, 
and  then  let  fall  to  the  ground.  The  light  chaff,  of  course,  flies 
away  from  the  grain,  the  reverse  of  what  happens  on  the  threshing- 
floor  by  using  the  fan. 

With  leguminous  plants,  the  pods  are  generally  opened  and  de- 
prived of  their  contents  by  hand,  and  less  often  with  mortar  and 
pestle.  But  for  rape-seed,  the  pods  are  opened  by  beating  the 
stalks  against  the  edge  of  a tub  or  a basket. 

Seed  is  said  to  be  sown  broadcast,  or  in  rows.  In  sowing  broad- 
cast, the  sower  strides  up  and  down  his  field  in  lines  and  with 
measured  paces,  and  scatters  the  seed  in  regular  movement,  with  a 
wide  sweeping  motion  of  his  right  arm,  trying  to  cover  it  afterwards 
with  harrow  or  rake,  as  the  piece  of  ground  is  large  or  small.  But 
this  never  succeeds  perfectly,  for  the  seeds  are  not  all  buried  to 
the  same  depth,  and  some  always  remain  on  the  surface,  and  go 
to  waste.  And  then,  too,  the  distribution  is  often  very  unequal, 
being  dependent  on  the  sower’s  skill,  the  lay  of  the  land,  the 
weather  (for  example,  the  presence  or  absence  of  wind),  and  other 
matters.  In  row-planting,  the  seeds  are  put  into  the  ground  at 
a more  equal  depth  and  distance,  and  into  open  holes,  from  two 
to  ten  centimeters  deep,  and  then  covered  to  an  even  height  with 
loose  earth. 

Drilling1  is  essentially  the  same  thing,  except  that  it  is  done  with 
machines  constructed  especially  for  the  purpose,  whereas  ordinary 
1 See  C.  J.  Eisbein  : “Die  Drill-cultur.”  Bonn,  1880. 

II.  D 


34 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


row-planting  is  done  with  the  hand  merely,  or  perhaps  with  a stick 
to  drill  holes.  The  former  is,  accordingly,  employed  in  farming  on 
a large  scale,  while  the  latter  is  more  in  use  among  small  farmers 
and  gardeners.  Although  row-planting,  of  which  planting  in  hills 
is  only  a special  form  (e.g.  beans),  has  long  been  customary,  broad- 
cast sowing  has  been  and  is  yet  always  the  rule  in  Germany,  where 
only  of  late  and  on  large  estates  it  has  been  laid  aside.  In  the 
South  of  France,  around  Bordeaux  for  instance,  sowing  in  rows  has 
long  been  thoroughly  carried  out,  and  the  fields  for  winter  crops  have 
in  consequence  been  divided  into  long  narrow  strips,  as  in  Japan. 

The  Chinese  and  Japanese  farmer,  who  works  only  with  simple 
tools,  avails  himself  almost  exclusively  of  row  and  terrace-planting, 
except  in  the  case  of  the  little  seed-beds  in  which  he  cultivates 
the  seedlings  of  rice  and  other  growths.  It  is  intimately  bound 
up  with  the  entire  agricultural  system  of  Eastern  Asia,  and  possesses 
a number  of  advantages — economy  of  seed,  and  simultaneous  and 
equal  sprouting,  rooting,  and  development,  in  consequence  of  the 
seeds  having  been  placed  at  an  even  depth  and  an  equal  dis- 
tance apart  ; but  above  all,  greater  possibility  of  loosening  the  soil 
often  and  keeping  it  clear,  and  a better  opportunity  of  watering 
and  manuring  the  plants  while  growing.  Finally,  too,  it  permits 
of  sowing  for  a second  crop  weeks  before  the  first  is  ripe  for 
harvesting.  Thus,  in  the  province  of  Higo,  wheat  is  sown  in  rows 
in  autumn,  beside  the  maturing  rice ; and  near  Sakai,  in  the  plain 
of  Ozaka,  cotton  is  sown  in  spring  beside  winter  barley.  I have 
often  observed  tobacco  and  rape  to  be  nurtured  in  the  seedbed,  and 
then  transplanted  to  the  fields  when  the  latter  had  become  free. 

With  their  loose  soil,  unencumbered  with  stones  and  weeds,  the 
Japanese  are  not  acquainted  with  the  obstacles  which  oppose 
drilling  in  other  countries,  and  make  it  necessary  to  sow  by  hand. 
And  it  is  a fact,  that,  when  skilfully  done  and  on  fertile  soil, 
broadcast  scattering,  as  experience  teaches,  brings  richer  harvests, 
because  the  stalks  grow  closer  together. 

The  greater  part  of  the  Japanese  rice-lands  lie  fallow  all  the 
winter,  for  either  the  soil  is  not  strong  enough,  or  the  winter  is  too 
long  for  the  succession  of  a winter  crop  and  a second  harvest. 
Soaked  with  water,  and  in  part  covered  over,  it  becomes,  with  its 
neighbouring  ditches  and  their  dead  rushes,  the  gathering-place 
of  many  water-fowl,  in  the  inclement  season.  Only  in  milder 
districts  and  on  particularly  fertile  land,  are  the  fields  turned  into 
a dry  hata  after  the  rice-harvest ; and  then  comes  the  planting 
of  barley,  wheat,  peas,  broad-beans,  rape,  mustard,  or  radishes, 
with  which  the  other  kind  of  ground  is  also  covered,  that  which 
serves  for  all  kinds  of  dry-crops  in  summer. 

When  rice  harvest  is  over,  about  the  end  of  October,  the  ground, 
already  dried,  is  subjected  to  a thorough  turning-over  with  the  hoe, 
and  the  field  is  divided  into  long,  narrow,  high  beds,  in  which  the 
seed  is  planted  in  from  two  to  four  rows,  from  twelve  to  eighteen 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


35 


centimeters  apart.  In  many  cases,  however,  this  takes  place  early 
in  October,  before  the  rice  harvest,  or  the  rape, — which  has  been 
started  in  seed-beds,  like  cabbage-plants  with  us, — is  set  out  in 
furrows  beside  the  rice,  so  that  it  is  only  necessary  to  dig  over 
and  heap  up  the  earth  when  the  latter  has  been  removed.  In  either 
case  the  winter  crop  is  richly  manured  again  in  March,  and  the 
earth  is  loosened  and  piled  up  around  its  stalks,  as  we  do  with 
potatoes  and  other  vegetables.  This  custom  originated,  perhaps, 
in  consequence  of  the  fierce  storms  of  dust  in  February  and  March, 
which,  occurring  after  long  dry  spells,  blow  away  the  light,  finely 
powdered  loam,  and  lay  bare  many  a root. 

As  in  Andalusia  and  other  districts  of  the  Mediterranean  basin, 
so  in  Japan,  rape-seed,  peas,  and  broad-beans  blossom  in  April  ; 
barley  and  wheat  put  forth  their  stalks  and  ears;  and  then,  to- 
wards the  end  of  May,  or  in  June,  follows  the  harvest  of  all  these 
plants. 

Where  there  is  rice-culture  in  addition,  the  field  must,  of  course, 
be  first  turned  into  a swamp,  and  thus  suffer  a total  change.  But  if 
the  land  is  to  bear  other  summer  growths,  their  seeds, — as  of  beans, 
maize,  and  millet  of  various  kinds, — are  sown  three  or  four  weeks 
previously,  in  rows  beside  the  ripening  stalks  of  rape,  barley,  and 
wheat ; or  the  little  tobacco  and  cotton  plants,  egg  plants,  and  other 
products  which  have  been  raised  in  the  seed-bed  are  transplanted, 
generally  weeks  before  the  winter  crop  is  ready  for  harvesting.  It 
does  not  always  happen  that  a great  part  of  the  plain  is  given  over 
exclusively  to  rice  culture  in  summer.  Here  and  there,  singly  and 
scattered,  dry  fields  appear,  lying  from  one-third  to  one-half  a 
meter  higher,  and  planted  with  millet,  cotton,  beans,  various  roots, 
and  other  growths.  They  stand  out  above  the  bright  green  rice- 
plain  as  the  isolated  flower-beds  in  our  gardens  rise  above  the  well- 
kept  turf. 

In  the  classification  and  consideration  of  Japanese  field  products 
to  which  we  now  proceed,  I have,  in  general,  followed  the  natural 
division  of  plant-culture  in  the  majority  of  our  agricultural  text- 
books. The  first  and  chief  object  of  agriculture  is  to  furnish  food 
for  man.  This  is  obtained  principally  through  cereals,  pulse,  and 
root  crops.  These  groups  therefore  naturally  precede  all  other 
products  of  the  field,  and  their  cultivation  has  the  oldest  history. 
After  these  come  vegetables  and  other  similar  growths,  which 
in  some  cases,  as  melons  and  the  garlic  family,  have  also  been 
cultivated  for  thousands  of  years.  Next  come, — with  respect  to 
their  use,  at  least, — eagle-fern,  mushrooms,  sea-weeds  and  prepara- 
tions of  sea-weed,  and  also  the  edible  fruits  furnished  by  the  fruit- 
tree  and  the  forest.  Then  follow  the  articles  of  food  and  luxury, 
which,  like  Sake,  Shoyu,  Tofu,  and  others,  are  manufactured  from 
grain  and  pulse.  And  the  division  which  then  follows  of  plants  of 
commerce,  embraces  stimulants  and  drugs,  and  also  oil,  textile,  and 
dye-plants. 


36 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


Some  important  representatives  of  this  last  group,  as  oil-seeds, 
flax,  hemp,  and  tobacco,  flourish  in  Japan,  and  even  in  Yezo,  most 
excellently.  It  will  therefore  be  necessary,  in  the  extension  and 
rational  pursuit  of  agriculture,  to  pay  particular  attention  to  their 
cultivation.  In  grain-culture  the  introduction  of  better  seed  in 
place  of  the  ordinary  sort  is  demanded  for  wheat  and  barley,  since 
these  have  decidedly  degenerated  in  the  course  of  time,  bearing 
lighter  kernels  and  producing  smaller  crops  than  with  us.  They 
are  of  less  importance  in  Japanese  household  economy  than  rice, 
and  hence  the  same  attention  has  not  been  paid  to  them. 

Rice,  leguminous  plants,  fish,  and  eggs  have  always  played  the 
chief  part  in  the  food  of  Japan,  in  which  combination  the  rice,  so 
rich  in  starch,  is  sufficiently  complemented  by  the  amount  of 
protein  in  the  others.  But  in  mountainous  regions  it  has  been 
largely  replaced  by  the  various  sorts  of  millet.  In  this  relationship 
modern  times  have  brought  about  no  appreciable  change. 

The  Japanese,  like  his  neighbour  to  the  westward,  first  became 
acquainted  with  bread  and  similar  baked  foods  through  the  Portu- 
guese. From  them  too  he  adopted  the  names  Pan  and  Kasutera 
(pronounced  Kastera,  that  is,  Castilla),  by  which  is  designated  a 
spongy,  saffron-yellow  cake.  He  remained,  however,  true  to  his 
old  way  of  living,  and  did  not  imitate  the  bread  at  all,  and  the  cake 
only  in  rare  cases,  so  that  even  now  a foreigner  travelling  in  the 
interior  of  the  country  must  provide  himself  with  bread  or  some 
substitute  for  it,  unless  he  can  and  will  accommodate  himself  to  the 
Japanese  fashion,  and  be  satisfied  with  rice  and  grits. 

Of  the  various  more  or  less  extensive  catalogues  of  cultivated 
and  useful  Japanese  plants,  the  following  are  known  to  me  and 
were  made  use  of  in  preparing  the  divisions  of  my  subject  which 
come  next : — 

1.  Kaempfer:  “Amoen.  exot.,”  pp.  766-912.  Lemgo,  1712. 

2.  Thunberg  : “ Flora  Japonica.”  o Leipzig,  1784. 

3.  Thunberg  : “ Resa  4.  delen.  Akerbruket,”  pp.  76-92.  Up- 
sala,  1793. 

4.  Von.  Siebold  : “ Synopsis  Plantarum  CEconomicarum  Universi 
Regni  Japonici,”  in  “ Verhandelingen  van  het  Bataviasch  Genoot- 
schap,”  XII.  deel.  Bat.,  1830. 

5.  Scherzer  : “ Fachmannische  Berichte  liber  die  osterr.-ungar. 
Expedition  nach  Siam,  China  und  Japan.”  Stuttgart,  1872.  pp. 
175-220. 

6.  Kinch  : “List  of  Plants  used  for  Pood,  etc.,  in  Japan.  Trans- 
act. Asiat.  Soc.  Japan.”  Vol.  xi.,  pp.  1-3 1.  Yokohama,  1883. 

7.  Dupont:  “Essences  Forestieres  du  Japan.”  Paris,  1880. 

8.  Reports  on  various  Universal  Exhibitions. 

In  order  to  make  the  subject  clear,  and  to  accompany  the 
several  names  of  plants  with  such  remarks  as  suit  the  measure 
of  their  importance,  I have  decided  to  adopt  a plan  of  my  own  in 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


37 


grouping  and  handling  the  subject,  relying  chiefly  on  my  own 
studies  and  observations,  and  this,  not  so  much  on  account  of  the 
greater  or  less  completeness  and  correctness  of  these  lists,  as  be- 
cause, with  the  exception  of  those  mentioned  under  5,  7,  and  8, 
they  fail  entirely  to  indicate  the  relative  importance  of  the  plants 
which  they  record. 

2.  Food-Plants. 

(a)  Grain,  Stalk-plants  or  Cereals,  Japanese  Koku-motsu. 

(Some  of  these  names  of  millet  have  been  translated  literally  ; the  translator 
not  being  able  to  find  English  equivalents.) 

Of  this  group,  the  following  are  cultivated  in  Japan  as  winter 
crops  : barley  (O-mugi),  naked  barley  (Hadaka-mugi),  and  wheat 
(Ko-mugi)  ; and  as  summer  crops,  rice  (Kome  or  Ine),  common 
millet  (Kibi),  Italian-millet  (Awa),  crowfoot-millet  (Hiye),  finger- 
millet  (Kamomata-kibi),  Guinea-corn  (Morokoshi),,  maize  (To- 
morokoshi),  and  Job’s  tears  (Dzudzu-dama).  It  follows  from  this 
list  that  two  of  our  cereals,  rye  and  oats,  are  wanting.  If  they  are 
nevertheless  found  here  and  there  referred  to  among  the  cultivated 
plants  of  the  country,  such  reference  is  to  recent  attempts  at  their 
introduction,  or  other  kinds  of  grain  have  been  mistaken  for  them. 
I have  never  seen  them  growing  there,  and  the  witness  of  Ito 
Keiske,  and  others  acquainted  with  the  flora  of  Japan,  shows  that 
they  are  not  known  in  that  country.  And  the  fact  that  v.  Siebold’s 
list1  of  Japanese  frumenta  does  not  include  rye  and  oats,  agrees 
with  this.  On  the  other  hand,  buckwheat  (Soba),  although  be- 
longing to  an  entirely  different  family,  must  be  mentioned  next 
in  order,  for  the  nutritive  quality  of  its  seeds  and  their  use. 

As  already  mentioned,  the  land  which  supports  these  various 
varieties  of  grain  is  of  two  kinds,  namely  ta,  rice-land,  and  hata, 
dry-land  ; the  difference  being  merely  that  the  former  is  flooded 
and  turned  into  a sort  of  marsh.  It  is  the  larger  in  extent,  cor- 
responding to  the  preponderance  of  rice  in  amount  and  importance 
over  the  total  products  of  all  other  grain.  Having  regard  to  the 
immense  predominance  of  rice,  I shall  begin  now  with  a descrip- 
tion of  it  and  its  cultivation,  and  then  add  shorter  notices  of  the 
other  stalk-plants. 

I.  Rice  (Japanese  Ine,  Urushine,  or  Kome — Oryza  sativa,  L.). 
Upon  a hollow  stalk,  not  very  strong,  and  from  50  to  120  cm.  high, 
the  rice-plant  (Ine,  or  Urushine)  develops  a narrow,  overhanging 
panicle,  with  single-blossoming  ears,  and  from  thirty  to  sixty — 
even  occasionally  one  hundred — grains  of  seed.  There  are  over 
two  hundred  sub-species  of  this  ancient  plant,  with  or  without 
awns,  varieties  with  white,  yellow,  brown,  and  black  chaff  and 

1 “Verhandl.  van  het  Batav.  Genotschap,”  XII.  deel.  Batav.  1830.  “Synopsis 
Plant.  Oec.  Univ.  Regni  Jap.” 


38 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


beards,  some  that  ripen  early  and  some  late.  There  is  also  a 
variety,  mountain-rice  ( O . montana , Lour.),  Japanese  Okabo,  which 
does  not  require  so  great  an  amount  of  water  as  the  others,  being 
satisfied,  like  other  cereals,  with  the  ordinary  moistening  of  its 
roots  by  rain.  Hence  it  grows  in  higher  places  and  on  sloping 
ground,  and  has  also  a shorter  term  of  vegetation  (four  months, 
instead  of  five  or  six),  flourishing  therefore  in  climates  which  are 
too  severe  for  common  rice.  But  the  stalks  of  this  mountain-rice 
are  shorter,  its  grains  smaller,  its  crops  less  than  those  of  the  other 
kind.  We  therefore  find  it  grown  only  to  a very  subordinate  ex- 
tent in  the  chief  rice-countries  of  the  world. 

The  grains  of  rice  grow  in  close  union  with  the  awns,  and  are 
therefore  angular,  so  that  in  this,  as  in  their  general  shape  and  size, 
and  in  colour,  they  bear  most  resemblance  to  barley,  without  how- 
ever being  so  well  filled  out  in  the  middle.  Unhulled  rice  goes, 
in  India  and  in  the  trade,  by  the  name  of  Paddy . It  is  often 
brought  to  Europe  now-a-days  in  this  condition,  is  hulled  here,  and 
in  this  way  comes  into  the  inland  trade  in  fuller,  handsomer  form 
than  that  which  was  imported  ready  for  the  kitchen.  To  this  ad- 
vantage it  adds  also  greater  durability. 

In  other  than  tropical  countries  rice  is  one  of  the  summer 
crops,  and  in  its  term  of  development, — usually  six  months  (from 
May  to  October),— it  requires  an  average  temperature  of  at  least 
20°  C,  and  a soil  saturated  with  water,  at  least  in  the  early  half 
of  its  period  of  vegetation.  Its  need  of  a warm  climate  is  greater 
than  that  of  most  other  kinds  of  grain ; and  it  demands  a larger 
amount  of  moisture  than  almost  all  other  cultivated  plants  of  any 
importance,  not  excepting  the  date-palm.  In  consequence  of  these 
requirements  we  find  rice  culture  only  in  the  tropical  and  warmer 
parts  of  the  temperate  zone,  especially  in  depressions  where  it  is 
possible  to  water  the  level  plain,  or  where  this  is  rendered  unneces- 
sary by  frequent  copious  rains.  In  all  Eastern  and  South-eastern 
Asia,  as  Grisebach  rightly  remarks  in  his  “ Vegetation  der  Erde,” 
the  first  natural  principle  of  rice-culture  in  its  earliest  stage  is  the 
utilization  of  the  rainy  season,  which  follows  the  change  of  monsoon 
in  spring. 

But  the  advent  of  these  monsoon  rains  does  not  take  place 
always  and  everywhere  with  its  usual  regularity  and  strength. 
Wherever,  as  in  most  parts  of  Hindostan  and  Further  India,  irriga- 
tion is  not  extensively  carried  out,  a delay  of  these  monsoon  rains 
causes  a general  protraction  of  planting ; and  a short  supply 
of  rain  brings  failure  of  the  crops,  and  famine.  Japan  is  to  a 
certain  extent  independent  of  these  monsoon  rains,  thanks  to  its 
mountains,  rich  in  snow  and  water,  and  to  its  systems  of  irrigation, 
which,  like  those  of  China,  are  in  part  several  thousand  years  old. 
It  has  therefore  a fixed  time  for  sowing  and  harvest,  which  we 
must  consider  quite  necessary,  owing  to  its  long,  cold  winter.  The 
climate  in  India,  on  the  contrary,  being  warmer,  the  time  for  rice 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


39 


and  other  crops  can  be  made  to  correspond  with  the  rainy  season  ; 
on  the  coast  of  Coromandel,  for  instance,  it  occurs  on  this  account 
in  winter. 

The  northern  limit  of  rice-culture  reaches  lat.  45 0 at  certain 
points  in  the  Old  World — for  example,  in  the  valley  of  the  Po  ; in 
America,  it  remains  ten  degrees  further  south.  In  the  southern 
hemisphere  it  goes  only  a little  over  the  tropical  line — in  Madagas- 
car, for  instance.  For  Japan,  the  Tsugaru-strait,  in  lat.  412°  N., 
forms  the  northern  barrier. 

Wherever  its  main  conditions  are  perfectly  carried  out,  rice  re- 
wards the  farmer’s  labour  better  than  any  other  cereal,  and  bears 
from  30  to  40  bushels  (at  from  20  to  25  kg.1)  per  acre,  or  qo’S  per 
are.  In  Japan  one  Tan  (300  Tsubo,  or  10  are)  of  the  best  rice- 
land  brings  a return  of  2 '4  koku  (4'36  hi.)  of  hulled  rice,  corre- 
sponding to  5 ’8  hi.  of  paddy,  or  58  hi.  to  the  ha,  while  the  average 
yield  per  ha.  is  equal  to  2/‘5  hi.  of  hulled  rice,  or  36-6  hi.  of  paddy. 
In  Northern  Italy,  where  rotation  is  the  rule,  and  uninterruped 
rice-culture  a rare  exception,  fresh  land  bears  in  the  former  case, 
when  circumstances  are  favourable,  70  hi.  per  ha.,  and  in  the  latter, 
40  hi.  The  greater  bearing-capacity  is  here  to  be  ascribed  to 
rotation  and  broad-cast  sowing,  and  in  part  also  to  the  greater 
fertility  of  soil. 

Rice  was  cultivated  in  the  monsoon  region  of  Asia  far  back  in 
antiquity ; and  although  all  certain  traces  of  its  origin  are  lost, 
the  Buddhist  peasantry  of  China  and  Japan  regard  it  as  a direct 
gift  of  the  gods.  But  this  much  is  certain — that,  like  so  many 
other  useful  plants,  it  was  disseminated  abroad  from  India.  The 
history  of  ancient  China  points  to  this  in  unmistakable  manner,  and 
not  less  so  the  circumstance  that  from  the  Sanskrit  name  vrthi  come 
the  Iranic  brizi  and  the  Graeco- Latin  oryza,  from  which  last  word, 
again,  all  Romanic,  Germanic,  and  Slavic  names  for  it  are  easily 
derived.2  The  Russian  calls  it  either  riss  or  saratschinskoe  pscheno 
— that  is,  “ Saracen  millet.” 

At  present  rice  is  grown  throughout  nearly  the  whole  monsoon- 
region, — all  over  Japan,  except  in  Yezo  and  the  Kuriles  ; in  Corea, 
China,  all  the  Malay  islands,  in  Hindostan,  Farther  India,  in  the 
Tarim-basin  (for  example,  at  Yarkand,  and  at  Kabul  nearly  2,000 
meters  above  sea-level),  in  Persia,  Armenia,  and  Mesopotamia,  and 
(so  far  as  is  possible  with  their  neglected  systems  of  irrigation)  in 
Arabia.  Madagascar,  probably  in  consequence  of  Malay  immigra- 
tion, was  early  acquainted  with  this  plant,  which  furnishes  there,  to 
this  day,  enough  for  the  chief  article  of  food  and  to  spare  for  the 
Mascarenes  besides.  Until  after  contact  with  Europeans,  bread 
was  as  unknown  here  as  in  Eastern  Asia.  Arabs  first  brought  rice- 
culture  to  the  eastern  coast  of  Africa  and  into  the  region  of  the 

1 Kg.  = kilogram  ; gr.  = gramme. 

2 See  de  Candolle  : “ L'origine  des  Plantes  Cultivdes,”  p.  310;  and  Hehn  : 
“ Culturpflanzen  und  Hausthiere.” 


40 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


Mediterranean — to  the  Nile  Delta,  Sicily,  and  Spain.  Even  now 
the  rice-trade  of  Eastern  Africa  and  the  Mascarenes  lies  entirely  in 
their  hands.  Through  the  same  agency,  rice  culture  penetrated 
through  inner  Africa  to  the  tropical  West  Coast,  where  it  is,  how- 
ever, carried  on  only  in  certain  localities,  as  in  Ashantee  on  the 
Volta,  and  in  Liberia,  whose  coloured  colonists  introduced  it  from 
America. 

In  Egypt  rice-culture  is  confined  to  the  Delta  region,  being 
especially  important  at  Rosetta  and  Damietta. 

On  the  Balkan  peninsula,  land  and  climate  occasionally  are 
favourable  to  rice-culture,  but  the  lazy  Turks  never.  Where  it  used 
to  flourish,  as  on  the  Maritza,  the  great  negligence  of  the  Govern- 
ment has  caused  it  to  disappear.  The  same  is  true  in  part  also 
of  Portugal  and  Spain.  Rice  is  still  grown  in  the  latter  country, 
in  so  far  as  the  old  aqueducts  in  the  huertas  of  Valencia  permit  it. 

Among  European  States,  Italy  alone  plays  an  important  part  as 
a rice  producer.  In  Lombardy,  especially  about  Vercelli,  in  Pied- 
mont, Venetia,  and  the  ^Emilia  (but  little  in  Sicily  and  Tuscany), 
there  is  raised  yearly  about  70,000,000  lire  worth  of  rice,  on  an  area 
of  about  230,000  ha.,  so  that  rice-culture  is  an  important  factor 
of  the  national  prosperity. 

Let  us  now  cast  a glance  at  the  New  World,  to  complete  this  short 
survey.  The  first  attempts  to  introduce  rice  in  the  Carolines  date 
from  1647.  In  1694  some  more  seed  rice  came  to  Charleston  in 
a Dutch  ship  (from  Madagascar),  and  was  divided  among  the 
colonists  by  the  governor,  Smith.  This  was  the  basis  of  the  rice- 
culture,  which  developed  rapidly  from  that  time.  It  is  spread 
to-day  over  South  Carolina  and  Georgia,  and  extends  also  some 
distance  into  neighbouring  States.  The  total  production,  in  the 
United  States,  of  this  most  valuable  of  all  sorts  of  rice  is  reckoned 
at  4,000,000  kg. 

Rice-culture  has  never  attained  much  importance  in  the  Spanish- 
American  republics,  though  it  has  in  Brazil,  where  it  is  carried  on 
in  the  coast  provinces  between  the  Amazon  and  San  Francisco  rivers. 

The  majority  of  the  world’s  inhabitants  eat  rice ; and  for  at  least 
one-third  of  them  it  is  the  chief  daily  food.  It  is  estimated  that 
a Malay  labourer  of  Farther  India  consumes  monthly  twenty- 
eight  kg.  of  rice,  and  a Siamese  as  much  as  thirty-two  kg.,  while 
the  Chinaman  and  Japanese  requires  also  not  less  than  one  kg. 
daily,  if  his  food  consists  principally  of  rice.  In  Europe  the  Turks 
and  the  English  are  the  greatest  rice  consumers ; the  former  be- 
cause the  chief  ingredient  of  their  national  dish,  the  Pilau,  is  rice 
boiled  in  water,  and  the  latter  using  large  quantities  in  making 
puddings. 

The  chief  sources  of  supply  are  the  Indian  ports  of  Calcutta, 
Akyab,  Malmein,  Bassein,  and  Rangoon,  also  Bangkok  and  Batavia, 
Egypt,  Northern  Italy,  South  Carolina,  and  Brazil. 

Rice  contains  less  nourishment  than  most  of  the  other  kinds  of 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


4 


grain,  but  is  the  most  digestible  of  all.  It  is  on  this  account 
peculiarly  suited  to  children  and  old  people,  and  is  given  to  such 
and  to  sick  persons  in  China  and  Japan,  even  in  regions  where  it 
is  regarded  as  a luxury  which  the  healthy  peasant  and  artisan  may 
only  exceptionally  enjoy,  as,  for  example,  in  the  Chinese  provinces 
of  Honan,  Shensi,  and  Shansi,  and  in  the  mountain  districts  of 
Japan. 

The  attention  which  the  farmer  of  Eastern  Asia,  especially  of 
Japan,  bestows  upon  his  rice-field  is  worthy  of  the  highest  recog- 
nition. At  the  season  of  tilling  he  adds  to  his  bee-like  industry 
that  cheerfulness  of  disposition  which  enables  him  to  perform  this 
severe  and  dirty  labour  with  ease  and  rapidity.  The  work  begins 
in  April  with  the  laying  out  of  one  corner  of  the  rice-field  as  a 
seed-bed.  To  this  end  the  ground  is  first  dug  over  with  a long- 
handled  hoe,  then  levelled  and  surrounded  with  a little  smoothed 
and  hardened  wall  of  earth,  from  25  to  40  cm.  in  height  and  thick- 
ness. A small  gutter  or  irrigation-channel  is  brought  into  connec- 
tion, when  possible,  so  that  the  bed  can  be  flooded  when  necessary. 
A favourite  manure  is  the  slime  dug  up  from  a neighbouring 
canal,  if  one  is  near.  The  seed-bed  is  covered  with  this  to  a depth 
of  about  20  cm.  In  default  of  such  slime,  ashes  must  serve,  and 
other  quick-working  fertilizers,  such  as  stamped  beans,  compost, 
and  faecal  matter.  Next,  the  dam  is  broken  at  some  point  and 
water  admitted,  until  the  bed  is  covered  to  a depth  of  about  6 cm., 
when  the  seed,  borne  in  a flat  winnowing  basket,  is  scattered  over 
its  surface  with  the  hand.  This  seed  is  most  carefully  selected. 
In  many  cases  it  is  kept  under  water  several  days  beforehand. 
The  grains  of  rice  sink  quickly  and  lie  pretty  close  together  on 
and  in  the  mud  at  the  bottom.  In  four  or  five  days  they  sprout. 
Among  other  uses,  the  water  serves  to  protect  the  fresh  seed  from 
birds.  It  soon  evaporates  or  sinks  into  the  ground  and  must  be 
replaced,  in  case  no  rain  falls,  with  a new  supply  from  the  ditch. 
As  a rule,  however,  the  seed-bed  is  flooded  only  at  night  and  left 
dry  by  day.  Thus  it  is  protected  against  cold,  while  enjoying  the 
warming  influence  of  the  sun. 

In  most  parts  of  Japan  the  sowing  of  rice  takes  place  towards 
the  end  of  April  or  in  the  beginning  of  May,  and  the  time  for 
transplanting  is  from  about  thirty  to  forty-five  days  later.  In 
certain  districts, — for  example,  in  the  provinces  of  Mino  and 
Shinano  (south-west  of  Tokio,  in  the  interior  of  Hondo), — it  is 
customary  to  begin  cultivation  from  two  to  four  weeks  later,1  in 
others,  as  at  Kdchi,  in  Tosa  (on  the  island  of  Shikoku),  as  much 
earlier.  This  depends  partly  on  climatic  causes,  according  as  the 
temperature  of  earth  and  water  requisite  for  the  development  of 
rice  is  attained  late  or  early  in  spring.  But  a more  important 
reason  for  this  variation  in  time  is,  that  in  fertile  depressions,  like 


1 In  Shindno  the  thirty-third  day  before  Hange  (July  2)  is  sowing-time. 


42 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


the  rich  low-lands  in  Mino,  the  rice-land  did  not  lie  fallow,  and  its 
winter  crops,  especially  barley  and  rape-seed,  are  not  harvested 
till  June,  so  that  the  field  cannot  be  got  ready  for  young  rice-plants 
before  the  middle  or  end  of  this  month. 

By  far  the  greater  part  of  the  rice-land  of  Japan  lies  fallow  all 
winter  and,  covered  in  part  with  water,  forms  a kind  of  swamp,  the 
rendezvous  of  wild  ducks,  geese,  and  snipe.  This  is  especially  the 
case  where  the  ground  is  not  adapted  to  producing  two  crops  a 
year,  either  because  the  winter  is  too  long  and  the  season  of 
vegetation  limited  to  a few  months,  or  because  the  soil  is  com- 
posed mostly  of  the  less  fertile  products  of  disintegration, — old 
schists  and  crystalline  rocks, — and  therefore  requires  an  occasional 
rest.  But  this  is  the  only  sort  of  rotation  thought  of  in  the  rice- 
land  of  Eastern  Asia.  It  has  served  the  same  purposes  every 
summer  for  many  centuries. 

In  other  countries  rice-fields  are  worked  with  the  plough,  drawn 
by  buffaloes  or  oxen.  In  Japan  and  China  this  work  is  generally 
done  by  hand.  The  labourer  goes  about  it  barefoot  and  clothed 
only  in  coarse,  hemp-linen  drawers,  reaching  to  the  loins.  His 
usual  implement  is  a long-handled,  three-pronged  hoe,  or  a small 
spade.  Thus  one  seldom  observes  draught  animals  used  in  rice 
farming — in  the  neighbourhood  of  Tokio  and  Nagasaki,  for  in- 
stance. In  certain  other  districts,  however,  as  at  Ozaka  and  in  the 
province  of  Mino,  the  land  is  ploughed. 

The  dams  about  old  rice-fields  and  canals  are  covered  here  and 
there,  in  early  May,  with  the  beautiful  blossoms  of  a kind  of  creep- 
ing papilionacese  ( Astragalus  lotoides ) as  with  a red  carpet.  At 
this  time  the  preparation  of  the  fields  for  the  young  plants  is 
begun.  To  improve  the  ground,  rape-straw,  lime,  and  above  all, 
green  manure  are  strewn  over  it,  as  in  China.  But  green  manure 
is  not  produced  here,  as  in  China,  by  raising  clover  and  other 
plants  for  this  purpose.  It  is  rather  a mixture  of  grass,  weeds, 
and  underbrush,  as  they  grow  in  abundance  on  the  mountain- 
slopes  and  in  the  clearings  of  forests.  As  noted  on  p.  30,  women 
and  children  gather  this  manure  and  carry  it  in  bundles  to  the 
field,  for  which  work  the  women  are  clad  like  the  men,  in  home- 
made light-blue  coarse  hemp-linen  drawers  and  blouse.  When, 
however,  this  green  manure  has  to  be  got  higher  and  farther  back 
in  the  mountains,  it  is  carried  on  pack-horses.  This  vegetable 
manure  is  either  thrown  into  the  furrows  in  ploughing  or  hoeing 
the  ground,  or  is  scattered  over  its  level  surface,  like  powdered 
quicklime.  Being  covered  with  mud  and  water,  it  decomposes 
quickly,  so  that  every  trace  of  it  disappears  from  the  surface  in 
a few  weeks.  I have  seen  quicklime  and  hydrate  of  lime  used 
as  manure  for  rice-land  in  the  most  widely  different  parts  of  the 
country,  though  never  for  other  crops,  and  generally  where  the  soil 
consisted  of  the  products  of  crumbled  schist  and  granite  formation, 
not  yet  containing  much  decayed  vegetable  matter,  and  seldom  in 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


43 


volcanic  regions.  Faecal  matter  is  less  used  in  rice-farming  than 
in  other  crops.  One  is  thus  not  so  much  offended  by  the  smell 
of  it  as  might  be  imagined,  on  going  through  the  flooded  rice  in 
summer. 

When  a rice-field  has  been  dug,  levelled,  manured,  and  flooded 
with  water, — which  must  be  preceded  by  the  construction  of  dams, 
—it  is  fully  prepared  to  receive  the  young  plants. 

The  system  of  irrigation  is  particularly  important.  Every  par- 
tition-wall of  the  rice-field  has  one  or  more  small  apertures,  here 
for  the  admission  of  water,  there  to  let  it  out.  When  it  comes 
from  a mountain-slope,  it  is  conducted  first  to  that  field  of  the 
valley-bottom  or  terrace  which  lies  highest. 

The  little  stream, — a stronger  one  would  be  too  dangerous, — 
floods  the  field  to  a certain  depth  and  then  flows  over  into  the 
next  piece  of  ground,  does  the  same  thing  here,  and  then  goes  on 
to  the  next  level,  and  so  forth,  from  terrace  to  terrace,  till  the  entire 
system  is  watered.  Natural  river-beds,  or  canals  with  beds  sunk 
lower  than  the  fields,  intersect  the  whole,  so  as  to  receive  and  drain 
away  the  water  when  it  has  served  its  purpose.  Thus  it  always 
remains  under  perfect  control,  except  only  in  case  of  long-continued, 
heavy  rains. 

In  insufficiently  watered  districts,  those  that  depend  more  on 
rain  than  on  a supply  brought  in  streams  from  higher,  wooded 
hill-country,  there  have  been  ponds  made,  to  help  out,  with  their 
stored-up  contents,  the  dry  summers  when  natural  resources  fail. 
Many  of  these  ponds  are  of  a great  age.  Works  of  this  sort 
are  mentioned  in  the  oldest  history  of  the  country  as  laid  out 
by  this  or  that  Mikado.  In  flat  neighbourhoods  and  after  long 
droughts  water-wheels  are  employed,  as  in  China,  India,  and  else- 
where, to  raise  the  indispensable  water  from  the  deeper  ditches 
and  conduct  it  to  the  rice-fields.  This  is  often  done,  too,  with 
bare  hands  and  with  shovels.  A favourite  plan,  which  I saw  used 
also  in  Japan,  is  as  follows : two  men,  on  opposite  banks  of  a 
stream,  suspend  a closely-plaited  winnowing-basket  on  a rope 
between  them,  and  swing  it  backwards  and  forwards  in  such  a way 
that  it  dips  into  the  water  at  every  downward  movement  of  the 
arms,  and  empties,  at  the  upward  swing,  into  a conduit  leading  to 
the  field.  In  autumn,  when  the  ripening  crop  needs  no  more 
water,  or  at  any  time  when  there  is  rain  enough  to  supply  every 
need,  the  places  of  influx  are  stopped  up  and  the  spring-water  is 
left  in  its  natural  channels. 

Japanese  rice-culture  contrasts  favourably,  through  this  artificial 
watering,  with  that  in  the  southern  monsoon-region — in  Siam,  for 
instance  ; but  it  by  no  means  comes  up  to  that  of  the  North- 
Italian  plain,  either  in  rational  management  or  results. 

There  is  probably  nowhere  in  the  world  a system  of  watering 
carried  out  on  a large  scale  so  methodically  and  effectively  as 
that  by  which  the  “ Societa  d’  Irrigazione  dell’  Ovest  della  Sesia  ” 


44 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


conducts  the  water  of  the  Sesia  to  the  rice-fields  of  Vercelli  and 
its  neighbourhood.  Every  liter  of  it  must  be  paid  for ; but  its 
rational  use  richly  rewards  this  expense,  and  many  others,  with 
high  profits. 

In  June, — seldom  earlier  or  later,  and  about  30  to  45  days  after 
sowing-time, — in  Japan  the  young  rice-plants  are  transplanted 
from  the  seed-bed  to  the  ground  prepared  for  them,  which  has 
been  flooded  to  a depth  of  6 to  10  cm.  These  shoots  (nae)  have 
then  a height  of  18  to  24  cm.  After  being  pulled  up,  they  are  tied 
into  small  bunches,  not  too  large  round  to  be  spanned  with  the 
hand.  One  man  takes  a number  of  such  bunches  under  his  arm, 
and  wading  through  the  field,  throws  them  singly  right  and  left 
over  the  water,  wherever  they  are  needed.  Others,  both  men  and 
women,  pick  them  up,  and  the  planting  begins.  They  set  out  the 
little  bunches  in  rows,  4 to  6 plants  in  a bunch,  calculating  the 
intervals  of  20  to  25  cm.  skilfully  with  the  eye,  so  that  between 
1,200  and  3,000  bunches  go  to  an  are.  Silver-herons  and  cranes 
follow  the  busy  planters,  as  starlings  and  wagtails  fly  after  the 
plough  with  us,  picking  up  slugs  and  snails. 

Let  one  instance  here  show  with  what  astounding  rapidity  all 
the  above-mentioned  proceedings  take  place  : 

In  the  spring  of  1875  I had  occasion  to  traverse,  at  different 
times,  the  plain  of  6zaka,  which  is  watered  by  the  Yodogawa,  the 
outlet  of  the  Biwa  Lake.  On  April  1,  the  first  rape-blossoms  were 
visible.  Barley  and  wheat  had  not  yet  put  forth  their  stalks.  There 
were  but  few  fallow  rice-fields  to  be  seen.  On  June  3,  scarcely  nine 
weeks  later,  as  I again  travelled  the  same  road,  rape  and  barley 
harvest  had  commenced,  and  wheat  was  quickly  nearing  maturity. 
Once  more,  on  June  26,  three  weeks  later,  I had  an  opportunity  of 
seeing  this  fruitful  plain  and  rejoicing  in  its  fine  cultivation.  What 
a change  had  taken  place  in  that  short  time  ! Of  the  winter  crops 
— rape-seed,  barley,  wheat,  peas,  broad  beans — of  the  high  beds 
and  deep  furrows  in  the  dry  fields,  of  the  countless  happy  mortals 
who  were  busy  with  the  harvest  on  June  3 — of  all  these  there  is 
now  nothing  to  be  seen.  The  whole  wide  plain  appears  as  if 
transformed  by  magic.  Great  reaches  of  it  have  been  levelled, 
girt  about  with  dikes  and  ditches,  and  changed  to  a marsh.  The 
muddy  ground  is  covered  everywhere  with  rice-plants  of  a lovely 
green,  out  of  which,  here  and  there,  dry  patches  with  other  crops 
project  singly.  Now  and  again  one  sees  a solitary  farmer  stalking 
through  this  field  of  rice,  here  regulating  the  ingress  of  water  with 
his  hoe,  there  pressing  in  a plant  more  firmly  with  his  hands  or 
replacing  those  that  have  not  sprouted.  Silver-herons  fish  in  this 
artificial  swamp  between  the  green  rows  of  rice-bunches,  and  men 
fish  in  the  intersecting  ditches.  Yet  a few  weeks,  and  one  looks 
out  over  a continuous  carpet  of  the  loveliest  emerald-green,  like  a 
cultivated  lawn,  in  which,  also,  there  is  no  lack  of  flower-beds,  in  the 
form  of  small  dry  patches  bearing  cotton,  millet,  and  vegetables. 


A GRICUL  TURA  L IND  US  TRIES. 


45 


When  the  rice  has  been  transplanted,  the  earth-dykes  are  put 
to  a further  use.  Small  circular  depressions  are  made  upon  them. 
In  each  of  these  are  placed  3 to  6 dwarf  beans,  which  are  covered 
over  with  earth  and  rice-chaff.  Then  the  chief  labour  is  at  an  end. 
It  only  remains  to  go  every  fourteen  days  or  so,  when  the  rice- 
plants  have  commenced  to  grow  again  in  their  new  soil,  and  set 
them  in  more  firmly,  and  to  crush  and  level  any  clods  that  still  lie 
in  the  mud  and  water — operations  which  are  performed  solely  with 
the  arms  and  hands. 

Now  it  is  only  necessary  to  attend  to  watering,  and  later  on 
to  weeding  and  a second  hoeing  along  the  rows. 

Part  of  the  farmer’s  time  and  energy  can  now  be  devoted  to 
other  employments,  such  as  silk-culture,  and  gathering  and  pre- 
paring dyer’s  knot-grass  [Polygonum  tinctorium ),  which  serves  as  a 
blue  dye,  like  indigo.  And  there  is  leisure,  besides,  for  taking  a 
day’s  pleasure  on  some  festival  of  the  gods,  or  going  on  a pilgrim- 
age to  some  celebrated  mountain  or  temple,  if  a good  harvest  last 
year  furnished  the  needful  money. 

The  rice  blossoms  in  early  September.  Harvest  takes  place 
from  the  end  of  September  to  the  end  of  October,  and  even  as 
late  as  November.  It  is  the  season  when,  in  the  temple-groves, 
the  sere  leaves  of  the  Icho  or  Ginko  ( Salisburia  adianthifolia , 
Smith)  fall  to  the  ground,  broken  off  by  the  morning-dew,  and  the 
Momiji  [Acer  poly  morphum,  S.  and  Z.)  become  a splendid  red. 

“ Behold  the  full  panicles  in  the  autumnal  rice-field,  every  one 
a witness  of  the  summer’s  heat  and  labour !”  as  is  beautifully  and 
appropriately  said,  in  a recent  collection  of  Buddhist  sermons. 
And  well  may  the  sight  of  these  “ golden  crops  in  the  valleys  ” 
make  glad  both  eye  and  heart.  A whole  bundle  of  straw,  with 
heavy  panicles,  which  has  grown  from  every  little  group  of  shoots, 
richly  rewards  the  industry  spent  upon  them. 

As  in  China,  the  ripe  rice  is  cut  off  with  short  sickles  close  above 
the  ground,  for  the  straw  too  is  a valuable  and  much-used  material. 
The  grain  when  reaped  is  hung  up  on  poles  in  small  armfuls, 
rather  bundles  than  sheaves,  or  it  is  arranged  about  alder-stalks 
along  the  rows,  or  brought  directly  home.  For  threshing  they  do 
not  use  the  flail,  as  with  us,  nor  cattle  (oxen  and  mules),  as  in  the 
Mediterranean  countries,  but  arrangements  peculiar  to  themselves, 
which  remind  one  of  our  flax-ripplers,  used  for  separating  the  cap- 
sules from  the  stems.  Another  method,  mentioned  by  Thunberg, 
is  simply  to  strike  the  panicles  against  the  edge  of  a barrel  or  a 
tub,  whereby  the  grains  fall  from  the  stalks. 

The  grains  of  rice  are,  as  a rule,  not  husked  until  needed.  A 
simple  and  very  widespread  arrangement  for  this  purpose  consists 
of  a round  trough1  hollowed  out  of  a block  of  wood  or  a stone, 
into  which  the  paddy  is  poured,  to  be  pounded  with  a wooden 

1 The  island  of  Lugon  (Lozon),  or  Isla  de  los  Losones,  gets  its  name  form 
these  stamping-troughs  (lusong). 


46 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


pestle  until  hulls  and  kernels  are  separated.  Water-power  and 
similar  arrangements  are  also  in  use  as  with  us  the  stamping- 
apparatus  in  oil-mills. 

The  simplest,  most  primitive  husking-machine  is  often  found 
in  Japanese  mountain-valleys,  and  is  used  also  for  pulverizing 
materials  in  the  pottery  industry.  A hewn  beam  plays  the  part 
of  a two-armed  lever.  The  heavier  arm  bears  at  its  extremity  a 
rectangular  bolt  shod  with  iron.  This  end  is  kept  under  cover  in  a 
frame  building  with  the  rice  trough.  The  other  end  projects  out- 
side. It  is  generally  the  longer,  and  its  extremity  is  hollowed 
out  in  the  shape  of  a scoop.  Upon  this  scoop  there  flows  a stream 
of  water,  which  fills  it,  and  causes  it  to  sink ; whereupon  the  scoop 
empties  itself,  and  the  other  end  falls  like  a raised  hammer,  and 
so  on.  The  work  advances  slowly,  but  here,  in  reality,  “ time  is 
not  money.” 

Rice  is  as  closely  bound  up  with  the  life  of  the  Japanese  as  with 
the  Malay  and  Hindu.  This  is  shown,  among  other  things,  by 
the  fact  that  his  language  has  a different  word  for  almost  every 
particular  form  of  it.  Thus  the  young  rice-slip  in  the  seed-bed 
before  being  transplanted,  is  called  Naye  (pronounced  nae)  ; when 
more  developed,  in  the  field,  Ine.  Kome  (or  Kuromai)  is  the 
name  for  the  grains  (Paddy)  after  being  cleaned  from  chaff.  By 
Momi  or  Mominai  they  designate  the  unhulled,  and  Hakumai 
and  Tsukigome  the  hulled  rice.  When  the  latter  is  boiled  and 
warm,  it  is  called  Meshi,  Gozen,  or  O-mamma  (children’s  name  for 
it),  but  Hiya-meshi  when  it  is  cold.  According  to  the  time  of 
ripening,  they  distinguish  Wase,  Nakade,  and  Oku,  that  is,  early, 
middle,  and  late  rice.  The  first  is  harvested  in  the  middle  of 
September,  the  late  rice,  on  the  other  hand,  not  till  the  end  of 
October.  The  latter  is  by  far  the  most  important,  and  constitutes 
the  principal  crop. 

As  before  mentioned,  Okabo  is  the  name  for  mountain  rice, 
Uruchi  for  common  rice,  Mochi-gome  (Chinese  no , Malay pulut , 
Javanese  kattan , French,  riz gluaiite)  for  glutinous  rice  ( Oryza  gln- 
tinosa,  Rumph.),  a special  sort,  often  with  black  hulls,  of  which  it 
was  formerly  thought  that  a part  of  its  starch  had  been  resolved 
into  dextrin.1  When  hulled,  the  grains  of  this  glutinous  variety 
can  be  recognised  instantly  from  their  light  colour  and  lack  of 
lustre,  as  well  as  from  their  resemblance  to  stearine  when  fractured. 
Its  meal  affords  a tough,  highly  elastic  dough,  like  the  most 
glutinous  kind  of  wheat-flour.  It  is  particularly  used  for  making 
little  round  cakes,  which,  filled  with  bean-meal  and  sugar,  are  eaten 
without  being  baked  and  are  very  much  relished.  It  is  also  used  for 
paste.  This  glutinous  rice  is  cultivated  throughout  the  monsoon 
region  ; and  in  its  properties,  though  not  in  appearance,  is  the  most 
noteworthy  of  all  the  many  varieties  of  rice. 

Since  rice,  boiled  in  water  or  steam,  is  the  foremost  dish  in  each 
1 F or  more  exact  information,  see  the  analyses  infra. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


47 


of  the  three  meals  among  the  Japanese,  these  are  called  simply 
Gozen,  and  are  spoken  of  as  Asa-gozen,  Hiru-gozen,  and  Yu-gozen 
(literally,  morning,  noon,  and  evening  rice),  just  as  the  Germans  say 
Morgen-,  Mittag-,  and  Abendbrod} 

The  chief  rice-harvest,  that  of  the  Oku,  occurs  towards  the  end 
of  October,  but  the  sowing  in  the  latter  half  of  April  or  the  early 
part  of  May  ; so  that  this,  the  most  important  variety  of  Japanese 
rice,  requires  half  a year  to  develop.  Rice  has  an  almost  equally 
long  term  of  vegetation  in  the  Batta  Lands  of  Sumatra  and  in 
various  other  tropical  monsoon  regions.  Comparing  in  this  respect 
the  rice  of  the  plain  of  the  Po,  about  Vercelli,  eg.,  with  Japanese, 
it  appears  that  the  former  begins  to  grow  and  stops  growing  a 
month  earlier.  Ostiglia  and  Japanese  late  rice  are  here  sown  about 
the  end  of  March  and  harvested  towards  the  end  of  September. 
After  the  first  week  in  October,  very  little  rice  is  to  be  seen  in  the 
fields  of  Northern  Italy. 

It  has  been  already  stated  that  the  revenues  of  the  Daimios 
and  Samurai  used  to  be  reckoned  in  koku  of  rice1  2 3 and  were  paid  in 
kind,  and  also  that  the  receipts  from  rice-land  form  the  staple  of 
modern  taxation.  Even  the  censuses  were  formerly  made, — incom- 
pletely enough  to  be  sure, — according  to  the  production  and  con- 
sumption of  rice.  Nevertheless,  there  are  hundreds  of  thousands 
of  poor  mountaineers  who  are  glad  if  their  small  fields  bear  barley 
and  millet.  With  them  rice  is  a luxury,  which  at  the  most  is  given 
to  the  sick  and  to  delicate  children,  but  seldom  to  healthy  adults. 

Three  principal  rice  districts  are  to  be  distinguished  in  Japan. 
The  northern  one  of  these  sends  its  surplus  chiefly  to  Tokio.  From 
the  middle  and  southern,  the  greater  part  still  goes  to  6zaka,  which 
was  always  the  great  market  for  the  rice  and  silk  trade  while  the 
country  was  closed.  The  foremost  rice-growing  neighbourhoods 
of  Honshiu  or  Hondo  are  as  follows : the  larger  plains  along  the 
lower  courses  of  the  three  leading  rivers  (San-dai-ka),  the  Tone-, 
Kiso-,  and  Shinano-gawa,  the  plain  of  the  Kuwanto,  the  plain  of  the 
provinces  of  Mino,  Owari,  and  Ise,  and  also  that  of  Echigo.  Be- 
sides these  are  also  to  be  noted  the  plain  of  Ozaka  on  the  lower 
Yodo-gawa,  the  Sendai  plain,  the  plain  of  Akita  on  the  Sea  of 
Japan  and  of  Mongami  in  the  interior,  the  Aidzu-taira  and  Iwaki- 
taira,  and  several  others.  On  Shikoku  the  following  places  are 
noted  for  extensive  rice-culture  : Awa,  parts  of  Sanuki,  and  the 
neighbourhood  of  Kochi ; on  Kiushiu,  Higo,  especially  near  the 
capital,  Kumamoto,  besides  Bungo,  Chikugo,  and  Eastern  Hiuga, 
on  the  Pacific. 

Japanese  rice  is  esteemed  the  best  in  all  Eastern  Asia,  and  is 
valued  higher  than  that  of  Java  or  India.  When  hulled,  it  shows 

1 In  China  a meal-time  is  similarly  termed  tschi  fan , “ to  eat  rice.” 
Williams  : “ The  Middle  Kingdom,”  vol.  i.  p.  772. 

2 A koku  of  rice  (i82'5  liters  weighs  on  an  average  145  kg.  and  costs  in  Japan 

3 to  4J  dollars  (12  to  18  shillings). 


48 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


a medium-sized  handsome  grain,  with  a dull  silky  lustre  and  glassy 
fracture.  It  is  very  palatable.  This  especially  holds  good  of  the 
valuable  sorts  from  the  provinces  of  Higo  and  Mino.  It  was  from 
the  latter  that  the  household  of  the  Tokugawa  Shbgun  in  Yedo 
always  drew  its  supply.  A part  of  the  rice  of  Japan  is  used  in 
making  Sake,  or  rice-beer.  (See  the  chapter  on  this  subject.) 
Rice-straw  is  not  much  used  for  foddering  or  bedding  cattle,  nor  for 
thatching  roofs,  but  it  is  chiefly  employed  in  an  industry  of  no  little 
importance  ; sandals  (for  men  and  beasts  of  burden),  rope,  and  other 
packing  materials  are  prepared  from  it. 

Of  the  various  analyses  of  important  Japanese  food-stuff's  which 
have  recently  been  published,  the  following,  with  reference  to  rice, 
may  conclude  this  subject : — 

Table  I. 


A. 

Common  Rice. 

B. 

Mountain  Rice. 

C. 

Glutinous  Rice. 

D. 

Glutinous  Rice. 

Per  Cent. 

Per  Cent. 

Per  Cent. 

Per  Cent. 

Raw  protein  . . . 

Too 

875 

5-87 

8-89 

Raw  fat  ...  . 

2*29 

2-58 

3 ‘44 

o-68 

Raw  fibre .... 

4-58 

I '98 

S‘i9 

076 

Starch  ) 

7698 

Dextrin  > . . . . 

8476 

85*53 

83-89 

3‘35  . 

Sugar  ) 

8-65 

Ashes  

1 '37 

ri8 

i-6i 

0-69 

lOO'OO 

I00'02 

IOO’OO 

IOO'OO 

In  these  analyses,  A,  B,  and  C,  refer  to  unhulled,  and  D,  to  hulled 
rice.  The  first,  with  Table  II.,  was  published  by  Kellner  in  Nobbe’s 
“ Landwirthschaftliche  Versuchsstationen,”  vol.  xxx.,  1884;  the 
last,  by  Kreusler  and  Dafert,  in  the  “ Landwirthschaftliche  Jahr- 
biicher,”  vol.  xiii.,  p.  767.  Kellner  found  no  difference  worthy  of 
remark  in  the  chemical  composition  of  swamp  rice,  mountain  rice 
and  glutinous  rice.  On  the  other  hand,  the  other  two  chemists 
state  most  emphatically  that  the  starch  of  the  glutinous  rice  gave 
a brown  iodine  reaction,  instead  of  the  dark  blue  of  ordinary  rice- 
starch.  This  difference  was,  moreover,  already  mentioned  by 
Atkinson,  on  p.  2 of  his  treatise  on  “ The  Chemistry  of  Sake-brew- 
ing,” (Tokio,  1881).  But  this  by  no  means  settles  the  question 
as  to  the  cause  of  the  unusual  glutinosity  of  the  meal  of  Oiysa 
glutinosa,  Rumph. 

I received  samples  of  the  three  chief  kinds  of  rice  from  last 
year’s  harvest  in  Japan,  all  three  of  them  being  yellow-awned  rice 
and  scarcely  distinguishable  when  unhulled.  The  weight  of  one 
hundred  grains  of  paddy  was  2,672  gr.  for  glutinous  rice,  2,560  gr. 
for  swamp  rice  (Oku),  2,209  Sr-  f°r  mountain  rice,  and  of  hulled 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


49 


2, 1 88  gr.,  2,189  gr-,  and  1,908  gr.  respectively,  so  that  37 -4  corns  of 
unhulled  glutinous  rice,  39  corns  of  swamp  rice,  and  45-2  corns  of 
mountain  rice  go  to  a grain.  Of  these  weights,  81  •9  %,  85*5  °/Q,  and 
86‘3  % respectively  are  due  to  the  kernels  and  the  rest  to  the  husks. 

Table  II. 


2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

’c3 

s' 

3 

ii 

.s 

Swam 

Rice 

Moun 

Rice 

Maize 

Millet 

*S) 

O 

C/3 

1 2 

Ph 

§ p 

S 8 

0 

Water  .... 

14/20 

1277 

19-27 

12-04 

12-37 

I2'20 

15-28 

In  the  dry  sub- 

stance. 

Raw  protein  . . 

9-84 

11-27 

15-22 

8-43 

12-34 

20-84 

25-55 

Fat 

2-66 

2-57 

5-o8 

4-40 

6-17 

1-62 

176 

Raw  fibre  . . . 

Ashes  (without  C 

1 '45 

1-62 

2-50 

i’54 

572 

6-89 

I3-54 

and  C02) . . . 

I ‘02 

1-29 

1-07 

1-26 

5-26 

2-96 

4-24 

Starch  .... 
Raw  sugar  and\ 

77-86 

77’34 

7372 

51-99 

54-49 

6578 

44-84 

dextrin  . . 
Glucose  . . . 1 
Other  extractive-  f 

10-17 

5-91 

2-41 

3278 

2-47 

f 2-31 

10-06 

stuffs,  free  from 
Nitrogen  . . ' 

'10-93 

J 

Total  Nitrogen 
Albuminous  Nitro- 

1-571 

r8o 

2‘435 

i-35 

i-975 

3725 

409 

gen  . . . . . 

Non  - Albuminous 

1-441 

i'34 

2-103 

I '21 

1738 

3-055 

3-05 

Nitrogen 
(though  Cu  OH) 

0-130 

0-46 

0-332 

O'H 

0-237 

0-270 

1 -04 

Ditto  (through 

Phospho- tungs- 
tic acid)  . . . 

0-047 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

o-8i 

Analysis  of  Ashes. 
In  100  parts  of 
pure  ashes : 

K20 

22-94 

21-73 

32-64 

20-57 

21-44 

45-14 

35-99 

Na2  0 

4 94 

1-59 

174 

3-34 

4-89 

2'6i 

1-85 

Ca  0 

3’24 

2-I2 

2'2I 

276 

2'6i 

3-49 

8-29 

Mg  0 . . . . *. 

10-54 

6-6 1 

10-45 

14-12 

14-48 

9-98 

7-66 

Fe2  0., 

1-03 

i -66 

I 28 

0'44 

r8o 

1-09 

078 

P2  05  

Si‘37 

51-99 

44-13 

39-59 

4972 

33-05 

36-93  • 

S 03 

1-85 

2-o8 

3-48 

372 

2’49 

0-91 

5'i7 

Si  02 

3-i4 

2-63 

1-97 

11-59 

0*22 

0-55 

0-63 

Cl 

1-05 

4-49 

175 

373 

i‘35 

2-36 

2-15 

Total  .... 

IOO-IO 

101-90 

99-65 

99-07 

99*00 

99-18 

99'45 

Deduct  0 for  Cl 

0-24 

roi 

0-39 

0-84 

0*30 

o-53 

0-49 

99-86 

100-89 

99-26 

98-23 

9870 

98-85 

98-96 

II.  E 


5° 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


I and  2 are  hulled  rice  ; 3 is  maize,  small  yellow  grains  ; 4,  Pani- 
cum  italicum ; 5,  Sorghum  saccharatum ; 6,  Ph.  radiatus,  much 
cultivated,  of  the  bean  order  ; 7,  Canavallia  incurva,  forms  vines, 
little  cultivated,  husks  about  20  cm.  long,  6 to  8 reddish  seeds,  each 
weighing  about  2'5  gr. 

2.  Wheat,  Ko-mugi  ( Triticum  vulgare,  L.)  Mugi  is  a collective 
name  for  wheat  and  barley,  which  are  distinguished,  from  the 
size  of  their  respective  grains,  as  little  (ko)  and  big  (o)  mugi.  I 
have  only  met  with  this  one  kind  of  wheat  in  Japan  (finding 
neither  spelt,  English  wheat,  nor  any  other).1  And  it  has  always 
been  as  a winter  crop  that  1 have  found  it, — generally  bearded, 
though  sometimes,  too,  without  beard,  both  forms  frequently 
being  mixed  in  the  same  field.  Sowing,  as  a rule,  takes  place 
in  November,  the  development  of  blossoms  and  ears  in  May,  and 
harvest  in  Jude.  In  northern  parts,  however,  and  in  high-lying 
neighbourhoods,  like  Shinano,  harvest  does  not  begin  till  towards 
the  end  of  July  or  the  beginning  of  August. 

It  has  been  remarked  in  a former  passage,  and  Maron  noted  it 
also,  that  wheat  does  not  play  a prominent  part  in  Japan,  and 
gives  an  impression  of  having  degenerated,  probably  in  conse- 
quence of  insufficient  seed-interchange.  Its  flour  is  mostly  made 
into  small  cakes  (Mochi),  with  a diameter  of  scarcely  5 or  6 cm. 
and  eaten,  like  those  made  from  glutinous  rice  (Mochi-gome),  either 
by  themselves,  or  in  the  form  of  dough,  strewn  with  black  bean- 
meal  and  brown  sugar. 

3.  Barley,  O-mugi  ( Hordeum  vulgare,  L.).  The  four-lined  sub- 
species, H.  tetrastichum , and  the  six-lined,  H.  hexastichum , L.,  a 
short-awned  variety,  are  both  cultivated,  though  as  winter  crops 
only.  Sowing  takes  place  mostly  in  October  or  November,  bloom  in 
early  May,  and  harvest  in  July.  Like  buckwheat  and  the  different 
kinds  of  millet,  its  grain  is  used  chiefly  in  porridge,  though  as 
horse-feed  and  chicken-feed  also.  Two-lined  barley,  which  Maron 
mentions  also,  I have  never  found,  nor  do  I find  it  copied  in  any 
Japanese  book.  On  the  other  hand,  naked  barley , Japanese  Ha- 
daka-mugi  ( Hordeum  vulgare,  ft,  nudum  s.  coeleste,  L.),  occurs  fre- 
quently ; it  is  easily  distinguished  from  the  common  four-lined 
form  by  the  mere  outward  appearance  of  its  ears.  Kinch  mis- 
takenly designates  Hadaka-mugi  as  rye  ( Secale  cereale,  L.).  It  has 
also  been  confounded  with  spelt,  eg.,  by  Scherzer),  an  error  that  is 
hardly  possible  in  the  field,  though  perhaps  easy  enough  when  the 
grains  alone  are  compared,  they  having  more  resemblance  to  hulled 
spelt  than  to  rye.  Japan  possesses  neither  rye  nor  oats,  as  has 
been  already  stated.  Kaempfer,  certainly,  brings  in  Avena  saliva, 
L.,  under  the  name  of  Karasu-mugi  (raven  barley?).  “Amoen. 
exot,”  834  ff.,  as  also  Thunberg  after  him.  “ Flora  jap.,”  p.  34. 
But  it  is  found  neither  in  Siebold  nor  in  Kinch,  and  I do  not  know 
any  Japanese  representation  of  it. 

1 Thunberg,  Siebold,  and  Kinch  also  mention  only  Triticum  vulgare,  L. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


5 


From  April  to  June  inclusive,  the  various  kinds  of  millet  are 
sown  in  small  furrows — less  frequently  in  beds  for  subsequent 
transplanting.  They  are  harvested  in  September  and  October. 
There  come  now  for  our  consideration  : — 

4.  The  common,  or  panicle  millet,  Japanese  Kibi  (Panicum 
miliaceum , L.),  which  is  grown  much  less  extensively  than  the  two 
following. 

5.  Club,  or  Italian  millet,  Japanese  Awa  ( Panicum  italicum , L.  ; 
vcrticillatum , Th. ; Setaria  italica , Kunth),  a grain  which,  with  the 
sort  that  follows,  is  oftenest  grown  on  dry,  light  soil,  especially 
in  mountain  regions.  It  is  instantly  recognisable  by  its  thick 
cylindrical  hanging  panicles.  There  are  a good  many  varieties, 
among  which  those  predominate  which,  from  their  prominent, 
unfruitful,  bristle-shaped,  blossom-pedicles,  appear  as  short-awned. 
The  sweet  yellow  meal  of  its  small  seeds  is  of  great  importance  as 
food,  both  in  Japan  and  China. 

6.  Crow-foot  millet,  Hiye,  Ko-kibi  (little  millet),  in  Thunberg 
(, Panicum  crus-galli , L.  ; P.  corvi,  Thunb.  ; Oplismenus  crus-galli, 
Kunth).  Panicum  frumentaceum , Roxb.  ( Oplismenus , Kunth),  is  also 
grown  under  this  name,  Hiye,  but  not  as  often  as  the  former  sort. 

7.  Finger  millet,  Japanese  Kamomata-kibi,  or  Shishi-hiye  and 
Nora-hiye  ( Eleusine  coracana , Gaertn. ; Cynosurus  coracanus , L.).  In 
certain  parts  of  India,  as  Mysore  and  the  Punjab,  this  smallish  un- 
pretentious grain  is  much  cultivated  under  the  name  Raggi,  and  fur- 
nishes the  poor  people  a valuable  food-supply.  In  Japan  it  is  quite 
subordinate  to  the  two  already  mentioned  (Awa  and  Hiye),  so  that 
you  might  wander  through  the  country  for  days  together  without 
meeting  it.  I found  it  in  Echigo,  after  harvest,  where  its  short  stalks 
had  been  left  standing  and  only  the  tops,  with  their  three  to  five 
ears  standing  together  finger-fashion,  cut  off.  I discovered  it  also  in 
Kaga,  where  the  peasants  called  it  Kamoashi  and  Kamo-mata-kibi. 
They  preferred  its  meal  to  Ko-mugi-no-ko  (wheat-flour)  for  small 
dough-cakes.  In  other  places  I heard  the  name  Sankaku-hiye, 
three-cornered  (three-edged)  hiye,  which  refers  no  doubt  to  its 
three-edged  stalk.  In  Thunberg  and  Kaempfer  are  to  be  found 
the  Japanese  terms,  Kokusa  and  Nanban-kibi,  eg,  Barbarian 
millet. 

8.  Guinea  corn  or  Durrah,  Japanese  Morokoshi  ( Sorghum  vul- 
gare , Perse  ; Holcus  sorghum , L.);  called  also  Taka-kibi  (high  millet), 
is  of  only  small  importance  for  Japan.  This  grain  is  seldom  found 
except  along  the  borders  of  fields,  encircling  them  in  a furrow ; and 
even  this  but  rarely.  It  is  raised  in  April,  in  a seed-bed.  Later, 
having  attained  a height  of  about  15  cm.,  it  is  transplanted  at 
intervals  of  from  25  to  30  cm.  It  is  harvested  in  September.  The 
same  holds  good  for  the  long-panicled  form,  the  broom-corn,  so 
often  grown  in  Northern  Italy,  and  of  whose  panicles  brooms  are 
also  made  in  Eastern  Asia. 

9.  Job’s  tears,  Japanese  Dzudzu-dama  and  Yokui-nin  (Coix 


52 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


lacryma  Jobi , L.).  This  grain,  which  is  dioecious  and  related  to 
maize,  is  found  almost  always  near  houses,  in  small  moist  beds. 
Its  white  seeds,  which  are  nearly  globular  and  hard,  are  used,  not 
so  much  for  food,  as  for  making  Buddhist  rosaries,  and  even  these 
only  exceptionally.  I do  not  know  whether  the  tear-grass  is  used 
in  Japan  to  make  mats,  as  in  Canton.  (See  Scherzer.) 

io.  Maize  (Zea  Mais , L.)  is  called  T6-moro-koshi,  T6-kibi, 
Satsuma-kibi,  and  Nanban-kibi  by  the  Japanese.  Of  the  three 
great  gifts  which  the  New  World  offered  the  Old  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  tobacco  was  most  joyfully  received,  and  found  the  quickest 
entrance  and  dissemination  among  the  nations  of  the  earth.  Maize 
' followed  it,  and  then  the  potato.  This  last  did  not  begin  its  eastern 
journey  till  late,  and  advanced  slowly,  only  winning  warm  friends, 
outside  of  Europe,  among  the  Maoris  of  New  Zealand.  Maize,  in  its 
half-ripe  condition,  on  the  cob,  offered  a ready  food,  quickly  and 
easily  prepared  by  boiling  or  roasting,  with  a sweet  taste,  which  is 
more  pleasing  to  the  people  of  Africa  and  Asia  than  the  stronger 
flavour  of  our  common  potato.  This  explains  its  more  rapid  spread 
in  favourable  climates. 

An  additional  reason  is,  that,  with  its  various  sub-species,  it 
accommodates  itself  within  a wide  zone  to  manifold  conditions 
of  climate  and  soil,  from  the  equator  to  latitude  50°  in  North 
America,  as  in  Europe,  and  to  the  fortieth  parallel  in  the  southern 
hemisphere, — from  the  hot,  damp  shores  of  Eastern  Mexico  to  the 
plateau  of  Anahuac  and  the  plain  of  Utah,  where  its  cultivation  is 
only  rendered  possible  by  irrigation. 

Like  rice,  maize  is  a summer  growth — more  modest,  it  is  true, 
than  the  latter  in  its  demands  for  warmth  and  moisture,  but  yet 
more  dependent  upon  them  than  are  our  European  cereals.  To 
develop  and  ripen  its  grains,  it  requires  a mean  summer  warmth 
of  at  least  150  C.  But  to  flourish,  it  must  have  also  a bountiful 
supply  of  water,  natural  or  artificial,  for  its  deep-growing  roots. 
Hence  its  cultivation  is  restricted — in  the  Mediterranean  basin, 
for  example,  almost  entirely  to  its  northern  side,  where,  as  in 
the  valley  of  the  Po,  there  is  no  lack  of  rain  in  summer.  On  the 
other  hand,  some  of  its  sub-species,  with  a short  period  of  vegeta- 
tion (three  months,  instead  of  five  or  six),  reach  in  America  quite 
to  the  Red  River  of  the  North,  the  southern  tributary  of  Lake 
Winnipeg.  The  climate  there  is,  I suppose,  harder  than  that  of 
Northern  Germany  ; but  with  a greater  rain-fall  in  the  short,  warm 
summer,  and  an  extremely  fertile  virgin  soil,  the  development  and 
ripening  of  maize  is  sufficiently  fostered,  as  is  not  the  case  in 
Thuringia,  say,  under  almost  the  same  parallel. 

On  the  discovery  of  America,  Columbus  found  maize,  among 
other  things,  cultivated  in  Hispaniola,  and  later  by  the  Indians  at 
the  various  points  on  the  mainland  where  he  touched.  The  Carib 
term  Mahis  was  adopted  and  changed  to  maize.  To  this  day 
maize  flourishes  best  in  American  soil,  where,  according  to  Alex- 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


S3 


ander  von  Humboldt,  it  returns  in  some  places  harvests  of  three- 
hundred  fold.  Moreover,  the  greatest  number  of  sub-varieties  are 
found  in  America  (over  sixty) ; a point  of  no  little  significance 
in  answering  the  question  as  to  its  origin.  Many  of  these,  too, 
lose  their  character  when  transplanted  to  other  countries.  In  the 
fertile  Central  States  of  the  Union — Iowa,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Ohio, 
Tennessee,  Kentucky,  and  Missouri,  its  strong  roots  find  abundant 
nourishment  in  their  deep  alluvial  soil  and  copious  summer  rains. 
Maize-culture  has  therefore  acquired  an  extent  and  significance 
unequalled  anywhere  else  in  the  world. 

As  the  various  Teutonic  nations  bestow  the  word  corn  upon 
their  principal  grain, — the  German  on  rye,  the  Swede  on  barley, 
the  Englishman  on  wheat, — so  the  North  American  calls  maize 
“ corn,”  or  “ Indian  corn,”  in  proper  recognition  of  its  value. 

Its  cultivation,  as  already  remarked,  spread  rapidly  over  the 
Old  World,  and  first  to  the  three  great  peninsulas  of  Southern 
Europe,  from  west  to  east  successively,  but  gained  no  real  foot- 
hold except  in  the  countries  adjoining  on  the  north,  particularly 
in  the  valley  of  the  Po  and  the  lands  of  the  Lower  Danube.  In 
the  former,  polenta , prepared  from  Indian  meal,  became  a national 
dish ; in  the  latter,  among  the  Roumanians,  mamaliga,  a cake 
made  from  the  meal  of  Kukuruz  (maize). 

From  the  lands  of  the  Lower  Danube,  maize-culture  spread  to 
the  fertile  Ukraine,  and  has  since  then  been  a competitor  there 
with  wheat.  The  Portuguese  spread  it,  as  well  as  tobacco,  with 
their  naval  supremacy,  along  the  coasts  of  Africa 1 and  Southern 
and  Eastern  Asia.  Its  introduction  followed  their  first  landing,  in 
China  in  1517,  on  the  Philippine  Islands  1520,  in  Japan  1542, 
though  perhaps  not  immediately. 

Different  authors  have  disputed  whether  this  was  really  the  course 
of  the  advance  of  maize  in  Eastern  Asia.  Von  Siebold  believed 
he  had  discovered  maize-cobs  on  an  old  Japanese  coat-of-arms, 
and  had  found  other  proofs  of  a very  ancient  cultivation  of  Zea 
maize  in  China  and  Japan.2  The  French  agronom  Bonafous,  also, 
to  whom  we  owe  the  most  complete  work  on  maize,3  doubts  whether 
Eastern  Asia  became  acquainted  with  maize  until  after  the  dis- 
covery of  America.  The  same  was  the  case  again  in  more  recent 

1 In  Dapper:  “ Beschreibung  von  Africa,”  published  by  Jacob  von  Meurs,  1670, 
we  find,  p.  457  : “Erstlich  hat  man  den  Reis,  als  auch  den  Tiirkischen 
Weitzen,  den  die  Indier  Mays  nennen,  und  die  Portugallier  am  allerersten 
aus  Westindien,  da  er  iiberfliissig  wachset,  auf  der  Insel  des  heiligen 
Thomas,  und  von  da  auf  den  Goldstrand  gebracht,  und  den  Schwartzen 
mitgeteilet.  Dan  vor  der  Portugallier  Zeit  war  ihnen  dieses  Gewachse  unbekant : 
aber  itzund  wachset  es  bey  ihnen  iiberall  in  grosser  menge.  Auch  backen  sie 
Broht  darvon,  darunter  sie  zuweilen  Hiirse,  zuweilen  keine  menge.” 

2 “Ex  antiquis  temporibus  in  insulis  Japanicis  cultum  frumentum.”  See 
“ Synopsis  Plantarum  CEconomicarum  Universi  Regni  Japanici,”  in  “ Verhand- 
lingen  van  het  Batavisch  Genootschap,”  XII.  Bat.,  1830. 

3 “Histoire  nat.,  agric.  et  dconomique  du  Mais.”  Paris,  1836. 


54 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


times  with  the  interpreter  of  the  English  embassy  in  Pekin,  W.  F. 
Mayers.  Both  base  their  view,  that  maize  was  known  in  China 
before  the  discovery  of  America,  chiefly  on  the  Chinese  work 
“ Pen-tsao-kang-mu,”  the  well-known  Materia  Medica  of  the 
Chinese,  which  contains  an  undeniable  representation  of  our  plant. 
But  Li  Shi  chen  (Tung  pi),  the  celebrated  author  of  that  work, 
compiled  it  in  the  twenty-six  years  from  1552  to  1578.1  This 
then  does  not  at  all  contradict  the  view  that  maize  did  not  come 
to  Eastern  Asia  till  after  America  was  discovered.  This  view  has 
been  repeated  and  most  convincingly  established  by  the  famous 
Genevan  botanical  geographer,  A de  Candolle,2  so  that  to  take  up 
the  subject  again  would  seem  almost  unnecessary.  There  are, 
however,  other  proofs,  to  my  mind  more  direct,  of  my  statement 
that  maize  was  introduced  into  Eastern  Asia  by  the  Portuguese — 
proofs  which  De  Candolle  did  not  use,  though  among  other  things, 
he  correctly  stated  that  maize  has  no  Sanscrit  name,  and  is 
mentioned  neither  by  Marco  Polo  nor  Mendez  Pinto. 

Then  too,  as  Von  Siebold  also  mentions,  it  is  a significant 
fact  in  this  connection,  that  Japan  raises  only  two  sorts  of  maize. 
Now,  it  is  highly  probable  that  a larger  number  of  sub-species 
would  have  been  developed  in  the  case  of  such  an  old  culture, 
as  of  almost  all  other  fruits  of  the  field.  Further,  it  must  be 
emphasized  that  now-a-days  this  corn  plays  only  a very  subordinate 
role  among  the  other  nutritious  plants  of  the  country,  its  culti- 
vation being  restricted  to  the  borders  of  fields  and  to  solitary  beds, 
and  never  extended  over  wide  stretches.  Also  its  grain  is  used 
only  for  a few  weeks  in  summer,  when  the  green  ears  are  roasted 
over  burning  coals  and  then  eaten.  But  this  is  a street  custom 
in  various  parts  of  the  East.  Considering  the  conservatism  of 
Japanese  agriculture  and  its  adherence  to  fixed  methods,  we  may 
take  for  granted  that  there  has  been  little  change  in  the  use  of  this 
grain  since  its  introduction,  and  that  it  never  was  an  important 
part  of  the  country’s  agricultural  products.  But  a weightier  and 
more  convincing  reason  for  thinking  that  the  culture  of  maize 
in  Japan  is  not  old,  but  was  introduced  by  the  Portuguese,  is  the 
fact  that  Indian  corn  has  no  proper  Japanese  name.  All  other 
plants, — those  brought  over  from  China  no  less  than  most  of  the 
indigenous  ones, — have  such  names.  But  all  the  designations  for 
maize  already  mentioned  are  borrowed  names,  which  clearly 
indicate  a foreign  origin  for  this  grain.  Thus  the  term  “To- 
morokoshi  ” means  Chinese  sorghum  ; To-kibi,”  Chinese  millet, 
and  “ Nanban-kibi,”  millet  of  the  southern  barbarians.  Moreover, 
the  Chinese  in  Formosa  call  maize  “ Fan-meh,”  that  is,  foreign 
grain — an  expression  they  certainly  would  not  have  employed  if 
the  thing  itself  had  been  known  to  them  in  their  mother-country 

1 Bretschneider  : “Botanicum  Sinicum,”  p.  55. 

2 A.  de  Candolle : a.  “ Biblioth&que  universelle  de  Geneve,”  aout,  1836.  b. 
“Gdogr.bot.  raisonnde,”  p.  942.  c.  “L’origine  des  plantes  cultivees,”  pp.  311-319. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


55 


The  words  “Fan,”  foreign,  and  “ Nanban  ” (pronounced  Namban), 
that  is,  southern  barbarians,  point  to  Europeans  coming  from  the 
South,  especially  the  Portuguese  ; for  they,  above  all,  were  called 
foreigners  and  “Nanban.”  The  expressions  “ T6-morokoshi  ” and 
“To-kibi”  are  no  less  easily  understood,  however,  than  “ Welsch- 
korn  ” (Italian  Corn),  and  “Tiirkischer  Weizen  ” (Turkish  wheat) 
to-day.  The  Germans  became  acquainted  with  maize  through  Italy 
and  Turkey,  and  therefore  call  it  after  these  countries.  The 
same  is  true  of  the  Japanese  with  regard  to  maize,  as  coming  from 
China.  The  grain  came  from  that  country,  and  was  also,  in  part, 
like  tobacco,  brought  directly  by  the  Portuguese,  in  the  period 
of  Tensho  (1573-1592  A.D.),  at  the  time  of  Hideydshi. 

11.  Buckwheat  (Fagopyrum  esculentum , Moench ; Polygonum 
Fagopyrum,  L.),  Japanese  Soba.  The  home  of  this  plant,  which  is 
spread  throughout  the  northern  temperate  zone,  seems  to  be 
Mantchooria  and  the  neighbouring  regions  of  Central  Asia,  where, 
according  to  Maximovicz,  it  grows  wild.1  From  here  it  was  early 
carried  over  the  north-eastern  monsoon  region,  and  in  the  middle 
ages  across  Western  Asia  to  Europe  by  Mongolian  and  Turkish- 
Tartar  peoples.  As  to  its  cultivation  and  use,  buckwheat  is  related 
most  to  the  millet  varieties.  Like  them,  it  is  principally  a summer 
growth  ; like  them,  it  is  satisfied  with  light,  sandy  soil,  and  fur- 
nishes in  its  seeds  a meal  which  is  made,  in  a similar  fashion,  into 
soup  and  broth.  This  meal,  however,  is  also  used  to  make  little 
cakes,  though  not  in  the  form  of  the  “ Blinies  ” so  much  relished 
by  Russians,  and  the  buckwheat  cakes  of  North  America.  These 
are  unknown  in  Japanese  kitchens,  in  which  another  method  of 
preparation  prevails.2  As  with  us,  buckwheat  in  Japan  blossoms 
in  late  summer  and  autumn.  Its  harvest  is  in  October.  It  is  also 
raised  as  a winter  crop,  though  rarely. 


(b)  Pulse , or  Leguminous  Plants. 

The  agricultural  products  included  under  this  general  name 
come  undoubtedly  next  to  grain  in  range  and  importance.  In 
their  high  proportion  of  protein,  and  in  nutritious  value,  they  far 
exceed  all  other  sources  of  vegetable  food,  and  resemble  eggs. 
Alone,  or  with  eggs  and  fish,  they  take  the  place  of  meat  for  many 
millions  of  the  earth’s  inhabitants,  especially  in  Eastern  Asia. 
They  are  called  by  the  Japanese,  Mame,  a name  which  is  applied 
especially  to  various  kinds  of  beans,  the  most  important  and  wide- 
spread representatives  of  the  family  in  Japan.  Their  use  is  more 
diverse  than  in  most  other  countries.  When  boiled,  they  furnish 

1 Maximowicz  : “ Primitiae  florae  Amurensis.”  St.  Petersburg,  1859. 

2 “ E farina  hujus  placentae  rotundae,  saepe  coloratae,  coctae  in  usum  pere- 
grinantium,  in  omnibus  tabernis  venales  extant.” — Thunberg,  “ Flora  Japonica,” 
p.  169. 


56 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY 


a favourite  relish  to  the  rather  insipid  water-cooked  rice  and 
millet,  and  other  starchy  grains.  Some  of  them  also  serve  in 
preparing  sauce,  vegetable  jelly,  and  other  things  known  under 
the  names  Sh6yu,  Tdfu,  and  Miso,  and  much  used  in  Japanese 
housekeeping.  With  the  exception  of  peas  and  broad  beans,  all 
the  plants  in  this  group  are  raised  only  in  summer,  because  the 
winter  of  Japan  is  too  severe  for  them.  In  the  case  of  the  latter, 
terrace-cultivation  is  general ; of  the  former,  cultivation  in  rows. 

There  are  grown  in  Japan  : 

1.  The  ground-nut,  Japanese  Rakkuwashd  (pronounced  Rak- 
kashd),  and  To-jin-mame,  that  is,  Chinese  bean  ( Arachis  hypogcea , 
L.)  It  is  planted  only  in  the  warmer  southern  parts  of  the  country, 
and  over  a small  territory.  Sometimes  it  is  roasted  and  eaten,  at 
others,  made  into  oil.  (See  further  under  oil-plants.) 

2.  The  soy-bean,  Japanese  Daidzu  and  O-mame  ( Glycine  hispida , 
Moench. ; Soja  hispida , Miq. ; Dolichos  soja,  L.),  was  introduced 
into  our  botanical  gardens  nearly  a century  ago.1  But  it  did  not 
receive  much  attention  from  us  till  after  the  Vienna  Exhibition. 
There  is  now  scarcely  a European  country-in  which  attempts  to 
raise  it  have  not  been  made ; within  the  last  ten  years,  scarcely  a 
journal  of  horticulture  or  agriculture  which  has  not  pictured  or 
described  it.2  In  France  and  Austro-Hungary  especially,  much 
attention  has  been  paid  to  the  soy-bean  during  this  period ; and 
its  cultivation  has  been  attempted  in  many  places,  with  greater 
or  less  success.3  The  results  of  these  studies  and  experiments  in 
Austria  have  been  recorded  in  an  interesting  work  by  Prof.  Haber- 
landt,  through  whom  principally  they  were  undertaken,  in  and 
on  behalf  of  the  imperial  high-school  of  agriculture,  with  seeds 
from  China,  Japan,  and  Mongolia.4  These  results  seem  to  estab- 
lish the  fact  that  the  soy-bean  can  be  raised  in  a temperate 
climate,  and  to  bear  witness  to  its  great  productiveness,  its  extra- 
ordinary nutritiousness,  and  the  various  other  qualities  for  which 
it  is  celebrated.  They  thus  possess  a manifold  interest.  Among 
the  pulse  of  Japan  (and  not  less  of  China),  the  soy-bean  ranks 
first  in  extent,  variety  of  use,  and  value;  and  chemical  analyses 
prove  the  empirical  judgment  to  be  well  founded. 

In  point  of  nutriment,  the  soy-bean  is  of  all  vegetables  the 
nearest  to  meat.  It  contains  nearly  two-fifths  of  its  weight  in 
legumin  rich  in  nitrogen,  and  nearly  one-sixth  in  fat.  The  soy-bean 
is  to  the  inhabitants  of  Japan  what  their  garbanzos  (chick-peas)  are 
to  the  Spanish,  and  their  feijdo preto  (black  beans)  to  the  Brazilians. 
But  chick-peas  are  only  served  as  relish  and  garnishing  to  meat, 

1 In  the  “Hortus  Kewensis”  of  Ait.  the  year  1790  is  given  as  the  date  of  its 
introduction  into  England. 

2 See  also  Ue  Candolle  : “ L’Origine  des  Plantes  cultivdes,”  p.  265. 

3 As  good  representations  of  the  soy-bean,  I may  mention  that  of  E. 
Kaempfer,  1880,  pp.  154  and  185. 

4 “ Die  Sojabohne.”  Vienna,  1878. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


57 


while  Daidzu  serves  as  a substitute,  being,  indeed,  in  a certain 
sense,  oil  and  spice  to  the  insipid,  starchy  rice  and  the  barley  or 
millet  porridge  with  which  it  is  eaten. 

The  numerous  varieties  of  the  soy-bean  grow  on  fine,  leafy 
bushes  from  0‘50  to  i-oo  metre  high,  with  many  and  regular  twigs. 
The  number  and  extent  of  its  branches  correspond  to  strength  of 
trunk  and  root.  Among  further  distinctive  features  of  the  plant 
is  its  abundant  foliage  of  large  triplet  leaves,  which  appear  at  the 
numerous  internodes.  But  still  more  distinctive  is  the  thick 
reddish  brown  hair  with  which  pods,  le^fi-stalks,  .the  upper  surfaces 
of  leaves,  and  even  twigs  are  covered. 

The  axes  both  of  trunk  and  branches  in  the  black-seeded  species 
have  a marked  tendency  to  wind,  but  do  not  require  props.  This 
winding  is  much  less  noticeable  with  the  stiffer  stems  of  the  pale 
yellow  and  reddish  brown  varieties.  At  every  higher  whorl  of 
leaves  there  is  developed  a little  cluster  of  blossoms.  The  blossoms 
themselves  are  plain-looking,  like  those  of  lentils,  in  colour  a white 
lilac  or  pale  violet.  They  are  followed  by  rich  growths  of  fruit, 
which,  with  the  development  of  blossoms,  continue  from  the  middle 
of  summer  till  late  autumn,  when  night-frosts  usually  bring  them 
to  a sudden  end. 

The  pods,  roughly  haired  and  hanging,  appear  mostly  in  pairs, 
though  often  in  threes  and  fours  on  a common  stem.  They  have 
short  stems  and  are  short  and  cylindrical  themselves.  They  end 
in  a beak  and  have  as  a rule  two  seeds,  with  a strongly-marked 
division  between  them,  as  Kaempfer’s  picture  shows.  However, 
among  some  species  there  are  many  pods  of  three  and  four  beans 
and  sometimes  these  outnumber  the  others.  Its  great  need  of 
light  and  warmth  being  supplied,  a single  soy-plant  in  proper  soil, 
will,  according  to  Haberlandt,  put  forth  two  hundred  pods,  on  an 
average.  In  regular  field  cultivation,  the  crop  is,  of  course,  much 
smaller.  Attempts  at  cultivation  in  Austria  up  to  1878  gave 
widely  divergent  results,  from  680-fold  down  to  a total  failure 
of  the  crop  in  consequence  of  long-continued  wet,  cold  weather. 
Haberlandt  put  down  at  73-fold  the  average  produce  of  1877, 
after  a summer  of  rain  and  low  temperature.  But  the  crop-returns 
of  China  and  Japan  by  no  means  agree  with  this.  In  the  latter, 
for  example,  according  to  Scherzer,  six  Sho  of  seed-beans  of  the 
early-ripening  Shiro-mame  are  credited  with  a crop  of  120  Sho  on 
300  Tsubo  of  land.  This  means  a harvest  of  only  20-fold,  or,  taking 
account  of  seed  lost  in  sprouting,  about  twelve  pods  of  two  beans 
each  to  every  plant. 

In  Japan  the  varieties  of  soy-bean  are  distinguished — according 
to  colour,  as  white  (more  properly  yellowish),  black,  brownish  red, 
green,  and  spotted ; according  to  duration  of  growth,  as  early- 
ripening,  middle-ripening,  and  late-ripening;  according  to  form, 
as  spherical,  ellipsoidal,  kidney-shaped,  and  compressed  laterally  ; 
according  to  use,  as  those  which  serve  principally  in  making  Shoyu 


58 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


(soy),  Tofu  (bean-cheese),  and  Miso  (a  sort  of  sauce),  and  those 
eaten  in  any  plain  shape.1 

(a)  White  (pea-yellow)  soy-beans,  Japanese  Shiro-mame  or 
Haku-daidzu.  To  this  division  belongs  an  early-ripening  sort 
with  very  small  seeds,  called  Goguwatsu-mame,  or  “ five-months- 
kind,”  because  it  ripens  in  the  fifth  month  of  the  old  Japanese 
calendar,  our  July ; also  another  small-seeded,  early-ripening 
variety,  the  Wase-mame  or  Natsu-mame,  that  is,  early  and 
summer-bean.  These  two  are  also  called  Tofu-mame,  because 
they  are  used  chiefly  in  making  Tofu.  Another  sort  serves  to 
produce  Miso.  It  is  called  Nakate-mame,  “middle-late  bean,”  its 
time  of  maturity  occurring  half-way  between  that  of  the  early  and 
late  kinds.  Its  seeds  are  round  and  somewhat  larger.  The  late- 
ripening  varieties,  Okute-mame  (late-bean),  ,Maru-mame  (bullet- 
bean),  and  Teppo-mame  (gun-bean),  or  Aki-mame  (autumn-bean) 
have,  as  their  names  indicate,  mostly  bullet-shaped  seeds,  which 
become  harder  and  larger  than  the  early  ones.  The  variety  last 
named  is  used  in  making  Shdyu,  while  Maru-mame  is  valuable  as 
horse-feed. 

(/3)  Black  soy-beans,  Japanese  Kuro-mame  or  Koku-daidzu. 
These  are  eaten  boiled,  with  sugar,  as  an  entree  or  as  a relish  to 
rice.  There  is  a middle-late  sub-species  with  round,  elliptical 
seeds,  Kuro-mame,  in  short,  and  another  like  it,  with  big,  bullet- 
shaped beans,  called  Kuro-teppo-mame.  And  again  there  is  a 
late-ripening  sort  with  flat,  elliptical  seeds  under  several  names. 

(7)  Brown  soy-beans,  Japanese  Katsu-daidzu  (thirsty  soy-bean) 
are  much  less  grown  than  the  white  and  black  sub-species,  and 
are  used  like  the  latter.  They  are  distinguished  as  Aka-mame, 
red  soy-beans,  round,  of  red-brown  colour,  in  different  varieties,  and 
Cha-mame,  tea-beans,  three  light-brown  sorts  of  small  extent  and 
significance. 

(S)  Greenish  or  bluish  green  soy-beans,  Japanese  Ao-mame  or 
Sei-daidzu,  are  eaten  mostly  boiled  and  with  sugar,  like  the  black 
and  brown-red  varieties.  And,  with  the  brownish  sorts,  they  are 
much  less  widely  grown  than  the  black  and  yellowish.  The 
Japanese  distinguish  the  following  sub-species  of  Ao-mame  : — 

a . Sei-hito, — epidermis  green,  inside  a whitish  yellow. 

b.  Nikuri-sei,  — greenish  throughout.  Both  sub- varieties  run 
from  roundish-ellipsoidal  to  a bullet  roundness,  are  of  medium  size, 
and  remind  one  of  green  peas. 

c.  Kage-mame,  with  pale  green,  round  beans. 

(e)  Speckled  soy-beans,  Japanese  Fuiri-mame  or  Han-daidzu. 
This  group  is  not  important.  Its  cultivation  is  confined  to  a 
small  area,  in  a few  provinces.  Its  sub-varieties  are  known  as  : — 

a.  Kuro-kura-kake-mame,  with  a black  spot  on  the  saddle  (eye), 
otherwise  greenish  ; flat  and  with  the  outline  of  an  egg. 

1 I doubt  the  spontaneous  appearance  of  the  soy-bean  in  Japan,  although  it 
is  asserted  in  several  works  on  the  flora  of  that  country. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


59 


b.  Aka-kura-kake-marne,  with  a brown  spot  on  the  saddle  (eye), 
otherwise  yellowish-green,  flat  and  drawn  out  long. 

c.  Fuiri-mame  or  Udzura-mame,  speckled  or  spotted  soy-bean, 
yellowish-green  with  many  dark  flecks.  A rare  variety,  grown 
only  in  a few  places,  especially  in  Harima. 

Early-ripening  soy-beans  are  sown  as  early  as  April  in  Southern 
Japan,  in  Central  Japan  during  May.  Those  that  ripen  in  autumn 
need  much  more  warmth,  and  are  sown,  as  a rule,  one  month  later. 
In  mountain-districts,  land  is  often  chosen  which  has  lain  fallow 
all  winter,  or  wheat  and  barley-fields  are  taken.  The  soy-beans  are 
here  planted  in  terraces,  being  put  into  holes  beside  the  stalks  of 
ripening  winter  grain.  Hence,  when  this  is  harvested,  the  pulse 
needs  only  to  be  hoed  and  manured.  Late-ripening  Daidzu  is  also 
a favourite  for  planting  along  the  edge  of  fields  and  on  the  new- 
built  dykes  of  rice-fields. 

With  its  thick  foliage,  the  soy-bean  needs  more  light  and  warmth 
than  our  pulse.  If  air  and  light  are  denied  it,  the  blossoms 
and  fruit  are  scanty,  and  without  the  required  warmth,  the  latter 
does  not  ripen.  The  shade  of  tea-bushes  in  Eastern  Asia,  and  of 
grape-vines  with  us,  is  sufficient  to  diminish  considerably  its  fruc- 
tification. It  is  therefore  not  profitable  to  plant  it  in  tea-gardens 
and  vineyards.  For  the  same  reason  its  seeds  should  be  planted 
far  apart,  from  four  to  fifteen  in  a square  meter. 

It  has  been  found  that  the  early  ripening  sorts  require  an  aver- 
age warmth  of  from  20°  to  30°  C.,  according  as  they  are  sown  at 
the  beginning  or  in  the  middle  of  May.  This  varies  not  merely 
with  the  sub-species,  but  also  according  to  the  time  of  sowing, 
inasmuch  as  a delay  in  the  latter  until  the  middle  or  end  of  May 
brings  about  a quicker  development  and  a shortening  of  the  period 
of  vegetation,  in  the  higher  temperature  of  air  and  soil  that  then 
prevails.  These  early-ripening  sorts  flourish  farther  north  even 
than  the  limit  of  successful  maize-culture.  The  others  are  pre- 
vented by  the  first  frosts  from  reaching  the  natural  conclusion  of 
their  growth,  for  their  blossoms  and  unripe  pods  die  when  the 
temperature  falls  below  — 2°  C. 

At  the  end  of  his  above-mentioned  treatise,  Haberlandt  summed 
up  in  five  noteworthy  propositions,  the  results  of  his  experiments 
with  the  soy-bean  and  of  its  chemical  analysis.  His  conclusions 
are  as  follows  : — 

(a)  The  acclimatization  of  the  early-ripening  sorts,  particularly 
those  with  yellow  and  reddish  brown  seeds,  appeared  to  have  fully 
succeeded  in  Central  Europe. 

{b)  The  seeds  obtained  were  larger,  heavier,  and  handsomer 
than  those  from  Eastern  Asia,  the  chemical  composition,  however, 
remaining  unchanged. 

(c)  The  soy-plant  resists  light  spring  frosts  better  than  our 
young  beans,  and  endures  greater  dryness  in  summer  than  most 
leguminous  plants,  though  otherwise  much  like  other  kinds  of  beans. 


6o 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


(d)  It  is  distinguished  by  heavy  crops,  besides  furnishing,  in  its 
stems  and  leaves,  either  green  or  dried,  a nourishing  feed,  of  which 
cattle  are  very  fond. 

{e)  In  their  high  percentage  of  protein  and  fat,  they  far  excel 
all  other  pulse  in  nutritive  quality ; and  when  properly  prepared 
are  second  to  none  in  flavour. 

After  such  favourable  judgments,  it  might  have  been  expected 
that  the  soy-bean,  at  least  in  the  warmer  regions  of  Austro- 
Hungary,  would  soon  become  popular  and  generally  cultivated. 
The  result,  however,  was  quite  otherwise.  The  hopes  which  he 
had  aroused  in  behalf  of  this  plant  seem  to  have  disappeared  with 
Haberlandt,  who  died  in  1878. 

As  I know  from  a reliable  source,1  people  soon  became  con- 
vinced that  it  was  possible  to  cultivate  with  certainty  the  early- 
ripening  yellow  sorts.  The  crops  from  these,  however,  are  un- 
satisfactory. It  is  so  difficult  to  boil  them  soft  that  they  have  no 
sale  and  cannot  be  turned  to  due  account. 

In  view  of  the  interest  attaching  for  all  these  reasons  to  the 
cultivation  and  use  of  Glycine  hispida  in  Japan  and  neighbouring 
countries,  I introduce  two  tables  at  the  close  of  this  section,  the 
first  giving  several  analyses  of  it  and  of  its  straw,  the  second  a 
view  of  its  chemical  composition  as  compared  with  other  leguminous 
plants. 

3.  Ray-fruited  dwarf-bean,  Jap.  Adzuki  ( Phaseolus  radiatus , 
L.).  Kaempfer  gives  an  excellent  description  of  this,  a variety  that 
is  always  provided  with  hairs  on  stalk  and  leaf.  Its  short  petioles, 
springing  from  the  base  of  the  leaf,  form  a cluster  of  yellow 
blossoms,  followed  in  turn  by  from  four  to  six  hanging  pods,  either 
spread  out  in  wheel-shape  or  drawn  together  to  a head.  These 
pods  are  cylindrical.  The  beans  are  no  larger  than  small  peas, 
but  shaped  like  a blunt  ellipsoid,  smooth  and  shining,  and  greatly 
differentiated  according  to  colour  and  size.  Since  the  Adzuki  have 
a better  taste  than  most  other  leguminous  plants,  their  cultivation 
and  consumption  have  always  been  more  extensive  throughout 
the  whole  monsoon  region — in  fact,  second  only  to  the  soy-bean. 
The  numerous  sub-species  are  grouped  by  Salvatier  2 as  follows  : — 

(a)  Typicus.  Umbellated  pods,  horizontally  flattened,  and 
covered  with  red  or  black  hairs.  To  this  division  belongs  Adzuki 
or  Oku-adzuki  (large  adzuki ) with  relatively  large,  brownish  red 
beans. 

(1 h ) Pendulus.  Pods  smooth  or  set  with  short  hairs,  and  hanging 
in  sets  of  four,  two  opposite  two.  The  following  varieties  are 
worthy  of  notice  here. 

a.  Kuro-adzuki,  black-fruited  adzuki. 

/3.  Shiro-adzuki,  white-fruited  adzuki.  The  colour  is  no  more 

1 According  to  written  information,  kindly  furnished  by  Prof,  von  Liebenberg, 
of  Vienna. 

2 “ Enumeratio  Plantarum,”  etc. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


6: 


white  than  in  the  case  of  the  Dolichos.  They  are  yellow,  like 
many  peas,  which  at  first  glance  they  appear  more  to  resemble 
than  beans,  though  smaller  and  of  attenuated  shape. 

7.  Tsuru-adzuki,  twining  Adzuki. 

(c)  Subtrilobatus , Jap.  Bundo  and  Yayenari,  each  having  from 
four  to  six  cylindrical,  hanging  pods. 

4.  The  Japanese  sword-bean,  “le  haricot  du  Japon,”  Jap. 
Nata-mame  ( Canavalia  incurva , D.  C. ; Dolichos  incurvus,  Thunb.), 
a kind  of  climbing  bean  with  somewhat  large,  pink  blossoms  in 
simple  clusters.  Leaves  three-cleft,  as  with  all  species  of  beans ; 
the  leaf-divisions  oval,  pointed,  smooth.  Pods  hanging,  curved 
somewhat  like  a sword,  thick,  broad,  and  often  20  cm.  long,  with 
large  beans.  In  the  case  of  one  variety,  they  are  pink  (Aka-nata- 
mame)  ; of  another,  white  (Shiro-nata-mame).  The  young  pods 
are  cooked  with  the  beans  or  eaten  pickled. 

5.  Coast  sword-bean,  Jap.  Hama-nata-mame  ( Canavalia  lineata , 
D.  C. ; Dolichos  lineatus , Thunb.),  growing  wild  in  several  reaches  of 
the  southern  coast ; seeds  little  used. 

6.  The  common  bean,  Jap.  Ingen-mame  ( Phaseohis  vulgaris , 
L.),  is  also  cultivated  in  the  climbing  form,  though  mostly  as  a 
dwarf-bean.  But  it  is  evident  from  its  small  number  of  sub- 
species (not  more  than  twelve  or  fifteen)  that  its  cultivation  has 
not  the  antiquity,  and  certainly  not  the  importance,  which  it  has  in 
many  other  countries.  The  seeds  are  generally  eaten  when  ripe, 
though  sometimes  with  the  young  pods. 

7.  Phaseolus  multiflorus,  L.  The  scarlet-runner  is  mentioned 
by  Kinch,  but  without  native  names.  It  appears  to  have  been 
only  lately  introduced,  as  no  older  botanist  refers  to  it,  and  I have 
never  come  across  it. 

8.  Phaseolus  Mungo , L.  I noticed  beans  of  this  kind,  probably 
the  smallest  of  all,  in  the  Kew  collection  from  the  Japanese  division 
of  the  Vienna  Exhibition,  with  the  note,  “ Used  for  food  in  Japan.” 
How  far  this  is  the  case,  I cannot  say,  nor  do  I find  them  else- 
where mentioned  as  Japanese. 

9.  Vigna  Catjang  Walpers  (. Dolichos  Catjang , L.). 

10.  Pachyrhizus  angulatus,  Rich.  ( Dolichos  bulbosus,  L.).  Of 
both  these  kinds,  which  I also  saw  in  Kew  as  from  Japan,  the 
same  thing  is  true  as  of  No.  8. 

11.  Umbellate- blossomed  dolichos-bean,  Jap.  Sasage  or  Sasagi 
{Dolichos  umbellatus , Thunb.).  The  stalk,  which  is  sometimes  a 
climber,  puts  forth  from  the  bases  of  its  leaves  long  blossoms. 
These  umbels  are  followed  by  as  many  long,  slender,  cylindrical 
pods  with  small  seeds.  The  latter  are  eaten  sometimes  ripe,  some- 
times with  the  green  pods.  There  are  also  a number  of  sub-species 
belonging  to  this  species,  which  are  distinguished  and  named  partly 
after  the  colour  of  their  beans,  and  partly  after  other  features  ; 
Midori-sasagi,  Haku-fur6-sasagi,  Hata-sasagi,  Adzuki-sasagi 
Yekko- sasagi,  etc. 


62 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


12.  Megane-sasagi  ( Dolichos  bicontortus,  Durieu),  lately  intro- 
duced from  France. 

13.  Kidney-bean  (Lablab  cultratus,  D.  C.  ; Dolichos  cultratus, 
Thunb. ; and  D.  ensiformis,  Thunb.).  The' different  forms  of  this 
bean,  which  has  sometimes  white  blossoms,  sometimes  red,  are 
named  in  Japan  Sengoku-mame,  Fuji-mame  or  Azi-mame,  Shiro- 
hana-azi-mame,  and  Hira-mame.  They  are  distinguished  from 
dolichos-beans  proper  by  the  fact  that  the  blossoms  grow  like  ears 
of  corn,  and  also  by  their  pods,  which  are  short,  like  those  of  peas. 

The  seeds  of  certain  wild  kinds  of  beans  also  serve  for  food. 
They  are : Tankiri-mame  ( Rhynchosia  volubilis,  Lour. ; Glycine 
villosa,  Thunb.),  No-adzuki  ( Atylosia  subrhombea , Miq.),  Tsuru- 
mame  or  No-mame  ( Glycine  soja,  S.  and  Z.),  No-sasage  or  Karasu- 
mame  ( Dumasia  truncata , S.  and  Z.). 

14.  Peas,  Jap.  Yendo  (pronounced  Endo),  Endo-mame  and 
Nora-mame  (Pisum  sativum , L.).  Three  chief  varieties  of  this 
species  are  cultivated,  viz.,  first,  the  typical,  white-fruited,  which,  as 
a rule,  is  eaten  with  the  pods  (Saya)  while  still  unripe,  Saya-endo, 
and  secondly,  the  sub-species,  P.  s.  thebaicum , Alefeld-  (Konigsberg 
dice-pea)  with  grey-green  seeds  (Midori-endo)  or  with  brownish 
red  (Aka-endo).  The  latter  predominates.  They  are  all,  more- 
over, cultivated  pretty  frequently ; are  sown  in  November,  and 
harvested  in  May. 

15.  Broad-bean,  Jap.  Sora-iname  ( Vida  f aba,  L.).  This  also  is 
a winter  crop,  being  sown  in  October  and  harvested  in  June. 

As  in  the  Mediterranean  region,  the  ripe  beans  are  usually 
shred  and  used  as  horse-feed  ; but  they  serve  also  as  food  for  men. 
They  are  not  so  extensively  cultivated  as  in  many  other  countries. 


Analyses  of  Soy-beans  (Glycine  bispida,  Moench). 


I. 

Jap. 

beans. 

II. 

Jap. 

beans. 

III. 

Jap. 

beans. 

IV. 

Seeds. 

V. 

Empty 

Pods. 

VI. 

Straw 

and 

Leaves. 

VII. 

Yellow. 

Beans 

VIII. 

Red 

Brown. 

from  Vi 

IX. 

Black. 

enna. 

X. 

Red 

Brown 

from 

S.  Tyrol 

Water  . . . 

6*91 

12*88 

11*32 

1400 

14-OO 

14*00 

8*x 

9"4 

9‘9 

10*1 

Protein  . . 

38-29 

3500 

37-75 

3232 

4-64 

6*o8 

36*8 

31*6 

31*2 

38-1 

Fat  ...  . 
Extractive  mat- 

1871 

15*60 

20*89 

16*76 

I *29 

2*03 

17*6 

17-4 

18*1 

17*8 

ter  free  from  N. 

26*20 

29*92 

24*18 

26*56 

41*87 

37*12 

? 

? 

? 

p 

Raw  fibre 

5 '33 

4*40 

2*00 

S’ 5 7 

30-45 

22*97 

48 

4’3 

4*2 

p 

Ashes  . . . 

4*56 

4*20 

3-86 

476 

77  9 

9'3i 

5'4 

5’I 

4*8 

5'2 

1 0000 

102*00 

100*00 

99-97 

100*04 

9i'33 

7207 

67*8 

68*2 

6i*2 

Remarks  : 

Of  these  analyses,  I.,  IV.,  V.,  VI.,  VII.,  VIII.,  IX.,  and  X.  were 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


63 


taken  from  Haberlandt’s  “ Die  Sojabohne.”  The  last  four  origin- 
ated with  Mach ; IV.,  V.,  and  VI.,  with  Caplan  ; I.,  with  Senfif. 

Analysis  II.  was  made  by  Levallois  of  the  Inst.  Agronomique  in 
Paris,  and  is  taken  from  the  “Revue  horticole  ” ; III.  is  traceable 
to  Kinch,  and  is  found  in  the  “Transact.  Asiat.  Soc.  of  Japan,” 
viii.,  p.  398. 

Comparative  Table  of  Analyses  of  Various  Pulse. 


I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 

•-  3 

l33 

l)  d 3 

avallia 

Durva 

mame). 

seolus 

garis 

-mame). 

B 

a 

tj'o' 

CvJ  TJ 

w a 

JD  B 

s = 

g c 

0 tJ 
a g 

5 «! 

•la 

5 

ri  ' 3 *3 
i£2<L 

C c 
o~| 

Pha 

vul 

(Ingen- 

|b 

S 

^ CD 

g J 
w 

G £ 

'5.J2 

43  b/}  g 

1 5 

Water .... 

6-91 

i6‘o8 

133 

15-0 

13-92 

i6-i6 

I3‘4 

I2‘6i 

6‘3 

Raw  Protein  . 

3829 

1775 

217 

269 

22-72 

24-88 

24-0 

35 ‘32 

28-2 

Fat 

Extractive  mat- 

1871 

o'34 

1 -6 

3° 

2-OI 

1 67 

2-6 

4'97 

41-2 

ter  free  from  N. 

26'20 

48-10 

477 

48-8 

54  27 

47-16 

49  4 

29-17 

T 2 

Raw  Fibre  . . 

5 '33 

14-96 

n-8 

2-8 

4’S1 

6-85 

6-9 

14-15 

I3'9 

Ashes  .... 

4-56 

277 

37 

3‘5 

2-57 

3-23 

37 

378 

3-2 

99-90 

IOO'OO 

99-8 

IOO'OO 

IOO’OO 

100  00 

IOO’OO 

100-00 

IOO'OO 

Of  these  analyses,  I.,  IV.,  V.,  VI.,  VII.,  and  VIII.  are  taken  from 
Haberlandt’s  “Die  Sojabohne  II.,  from  Dwars  in  “Transactions 
Ass.  Soc.  of  Japan,”  vol.  vi.  ; III.  was  calculated  after  an  analysis 
of  Kellner  in  Nobbe’s  “ Landwirthschaftliche  Versuchsstationen,” 
vol.  xxx.,  1884  ; IX.  is  traceable  to  Wolff,  and  is  taken  from 
Ollech’s  : “ Die  Riickstande  der  Oel-fabrikation,”  because  it  turns 
out,  through  comparison  with  the  soy-bean  and  the  other  starchy 
leguminous  plants,  that  fat  represents,  to  a certain  degree  the 
hydrates  of  carbon. 


(c)  Starch-producing  Bulbs. 

Under  this  head  we  shall  consider  all  of  the  so-called  “ Root- 
crops  ” ( Hackfriichte ) which  are  raised  for  the  sake  of  their  starchy 
bulbs  or  roots,  and  also  all  uncultivated  plants  which  in  similar 
manner  are  useful  as  food  in  Japan  on  account  of  their  containing 
starch  ; hence  all  kinds  of  potatoes  and  their  substitutes,  called 
collectively  Imo.  The  number  of  species  in  this  group,  and  the 
variety  of  its  forms  which  are  rich  in  meal  and  grow  underground, 
are  greater  than  in  most  other  countries.  Undoubtedly  the  oldest 
inhabitants  of  Japan  derived  an  important  food-supply  from  wild, 
though  often  valuable,  species  ; but  in  the  course  of  time  there 
was  added  to  these  a number  of  others,  some  from  China,  some 


64 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


from  the  Malay  archipelago.  The  growth  and  consumption  of 
these  foreign  species  were  peculiarly  favoured  by  circumstances  of 
climate,  or  else  were  developed  as  the  results  of  particular  tastes. 

The  Japanese  prefer  above  all  the  sweet  bulbs  of  several  Aracese, 
especially  the  Taro,  and  also  the  Batate.  They  are  therefore  more 
largely  cultivated  than  all  the  others.  To  follow,  however,  the 
natural  order,  let  us  here  consider : 

1.  The  lotus-plant,  Jap.  Hasu  and  Renge  ( Nelumbo  nucifera , 
Gaertn. ; Nelumbium  speciosum,  Wild. ; Nymphcea  nucifera , L.).  Its 
home  is  the  Indian  monsoon-region,  where  it  was  first  sacred  to 
Siva,  then  to  Buddha.  It  is  difficult  to  determine  whether  Buddhist 
priests  transplanted  it  thence  to  the  countries  of  Chinese  civiliza- 
tion, or  whether  it  was  already  indigenous  there.  As  far  as  Japan  is 
concerned,  I incline  to  the  former  supposition.  It  is  certainly  never 
found  growing  wild,  either  in  China  or  Japan.  On  the  contrary,  it 
is  ofteft  planted  in  ponds,  partly  for  the  sake  of  its  magnificent 
blossoms,  partly  to  obtain  its  edible  rhizome,  called  Renkon  in 
Japan,  or  on  account  of  its  oily  nuts. 

Its  cylindrical  white  rhizomes  attain  a considerable  length,  and 
a thickness  of  from  8 to  12  cm.  They  lie  far  down  in  the  mud. 
They  are  divided  by  constricting  fibres  into  long  fingers,  which 
when  cut  across  disclose  a very  porous  substance  permeated  by 
numerous  concentric  canals.1  These  rhizomes  contain  a tolerable 
amount  of  starch,  and  are  boiled  and  eaten  in  considerable  quan- 
tities. To  Europeans  their  insipid  mealy  taste  is  not  agreeable  ; 
but  the  Japanese  and  Chinese  think  a great  deal  of  them,  chiefly 
because  they  consider  them  very  healthy,  being  easily  digested  by 
children  and  old  men.  (For  Nuphar  japonicum  and  Nymphcea 
tetragona , see  the  chapter  following.) 

2.  Arrow-head,  Jap.  Kuwai  ( Sagittaria  sagittcefolia , L.).  This 
plant  does  not  follow  in  the  botanical  system,  but  by  the  nature  of  its 
cultivation  and  use  it  does.  In  China,  too,  the  arrow-head  is  grown  in 
ponds  as  a food.  Its  rhizomes  form  white,  spherical  protuberances, 
which,  when  boiled,  taste  like  chestnuts  (water-chestnuts).  The 
starch  prepared  from  them  is  said  to  be  used  in  China  like  arrow-root. 

3.  Ogi  ( Hedysarum  esculentum. , Led.).  Like  the  two  kinds 
that  follow,  this  papilionacea  is  not  cultivated,  and  is  of  no  great 
consequence  in  Japan  as  a source  of  food.  The  tubercle  produced 
by  it  (I  had  an  opportunity  of  seeing  it  only  once)  outwardly  re- 
sembles truffles.  As  noted  by  Gmelin  in  his  “ Flora  Sibirica,”  the 
plant  prefers  stony  places,  as,  for  example,  in  Japan,  the  slopes 
of  Fuji-san.  Its  proper  home  is  Siberia,  where  it  is  much  eaten  by 
the  Samoyedes. 

4.  Hodo,  or  Hodo-imo  (Apios  Fortunei,  Maxim.).  Found  in  con- 

1 According  to  Herodotus,  II.  92,  the  edible  root  of  the  Egyptian  lotus  was 
round,  and  about  the  size  of  an  apple.  If  his  statement  is  correct,  the  plant 
must  have  been  some  other  Nymphaeacea,  but  was  certainly  not  the  same  as 
the  lotus  of  the  monsoon-region,  with  which  we  are  concerned  here. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


65 


siderable  quantities  in  bushy  or  wooded  regions,  and  on  mountains  ; 
forms  a tuber  more  spherical  than  pear-shaped,  which  is  mealy 
when  boiled  and  is  good  for  food. 

5.  Kudzu  {P  tier  aria  Thunbergiana , Benth.  ; Pachyrliizus  Thun- 
bergianus , S.  and  Z.).  This  plant  is  of  frequent  occurrence,  es- 
pecially on  the  edges  of  forests  and  among  bushes,  through  which 
its  long  tendrils  twine.  Its  thick  roots  furnish  a starch  meal,  which 
is  used  for  food. 

6.  The  batata,  or  sweet-potato,  Jap. : Satsuma-imo  or  Riukiu- 
imo  ( Batatas  edulis , Choisy ; Convolvulus  Batatas , L.  ; C.  edulis, 
Thunb.).  The  cultivation  of  this  important  vegetable  has  spread 
over  the  greater  part  of  the  tropical  and  sub-tropical  regions  of 
the  earth.  In  Europe  and  North  America  its  territory  adjoins  that 
of  our  common  potato  on  the  south,  for  example  in  Andalusia 
and  the  Gulf  States,  whose  long-continued  high  temperature  in 
summer  is  quite  sufficient  for  it.  As  to  its  origin,  opinions  still 
differ,  but  there  are  strong  arguments  in  favour  of  South  America. 
It  was  undoubtedly  not  brought  to  the  eastern  monsoon-region  till 
after  the  discovery  of  the  New  World,  a fact  that  is  proved  not 
only  by  the  names  here  applied  to  it,  but  also  by  historical  dates. 
In  the  Malaccas  it  is  called  batata,  as  in  Portugal,  though  on  the 
Philippines  it  is  named  Castillian. 

About  the  year  1610  the  cultivation  of  the  batata  reached  China 
from  Luzon  ; from  here  the  Riukiu  Islands,1  where  it  is  called 
Kara-imo  (Chinese  potato)  and  is  the  principal  food  of  the  inhabit- 
ants. They  took  up  with  it  at  once,  and  have  cultivated  it  ever 
since.  They  were  proud  of  possessing  a precious  vegetable  that 
Was  unknown  to  their  northern  neighbours.  In  1698  their  king 
presented  the  Daimib  of  Satsuma  with  a basketful  of  batatas, 
which  the  latter  planted  on  Tanega-shima.  From  this  point  their 
cultivation  spread  over  the  whole  lordship  of  Satsuma,  and  then 
further  over  all  the  warm  parts  of  Southern  and  Middle  Japan. 
Thus  it  has  come  to  pass  that  the  batata  is  called  Riukiu-im'o  in 
Satsuma,  and  Satsuma-imo  in  all  the  rest  of  the  kingdom  of 
Nippon.  Only  a hundred  years  ago,  however,  the  cultivation  of 
this  vegetable,  even  in  southern  parts  of  the  country,  was  so 
limited  that  its  bulbs  seemed  rare  dainties  to  children.  Their 
sweetish  flavour  reminds  one  of  edible  chestnuts.  They  contain 
only  16  percent,  of  starch.  The  credit  for  its  propagation  belongs 
chiefly  to  a certain  Aoki  Kongd,  to  whom  the  batata-dealers  of 
Tokio,  about  fifteen  years  ago,  erected  a monument  in  the  neigh- 
bouring Meguro. 

The  smaller  bulbs  of  the  Satsuma-imo,  which  are  used  in  Japan 
for  propagation,  are  planted,  in  spring,  in  loose,  well-manured  ground. 
They  are  arranged  in  rows  and  at  intervals  of  from  50  to  60  cm. 
During  the  first  two  months,  their  young  sprouts  are  watered  several 

1 I am  chiefly  indebted  for  the  remarks  here  following  to  my  old  friend,  Ito 
Keiske,  of  Tokio. 

II. 


F 


66 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


times  with  fluid  cesspool  manure.  In  some  neighbourhoods,  in 
June,  the  trailing  tendrils,  now  from  2 to  2J  m.  long,  are  trimmed,  and 
the  cuttings  are  transplanted  for  further  increase  into  a freshly- 
prepared  field  from  which  wheat  has  just  been  reaped.  Each 
plant  produces  five  or  six  bulbs,  differing  greatly  in  size  and  shape. 

The  commonest  and  most  popular  sub-species  is  a red-skinned 
variety  (Aka-imo)  in  the  form  of  an  ellipsoid.  There  is  one  variety 
of  this  again  which  is  more  in  the  shape  of  a club,  and  so  on  to 
spherical.  This  sort  grows  to  the  size  of  Kohl-rabi  root. 

Like  most  climbers,  the  batata  prefers  a light,  warm  soil.  Its 
shoots  sprawl  out  in  all  directions  to  a length  of  two  to  four  meters, 
with  many  long-stemmed  leaves.  The  latter  somewhat  resemble 
those  of  the  ivy,  though  larger  and  with  greater  variety  of  form, 
being  found  sometimes  heart-shaped,  and  again  indented,  but 
generally  with  three  or  five  lobes. 

One  of  the  peculiarities  of  batata  bulbs,  is  the  fact  that  they  are 
fleshy  swellings  of  side-roots,  and  not  underground  tubers  in  the 
ordinary  sense,  like  potatoes  proper  and  Taro,  nor  yet  rhizomes, 
like  the  well-known  purgative  products  of  other  convolvulacece} 
Where  the  ground  is  not  sufficiently  heated  through,  as  in  Ger- 
many, the  batata  does  not  develop  these  root-swellings  at  all,  or 
at  most  deposits  only  a little  starch  in  them.  This  was  proved, 
also,  in  attempts  at  cultivation  which  I made  with  several  West 
Indian  sub-species,  eighteen  years  ago  in  the  Botanical  Garden  at 
Frankfort-on-the-Main.  The  parts  above  the  surface  developed 
splendidly,  and  covered  the  ground  with  a thick  carpet  of  creepers 
and  leaves.  But  in  autumn,  when  we  sought  for  bulbs,  we  dis- 
covered that  the  greatest  root-swellings  had  only  reached  the 
thickness  of  one’s  thumb. 

7.  The  common  or  Irish  potato,  Jap.  Jagatara-imo  (Solatium 
tuberosum , L.).  The  Japanese  name,  Jagatara,  is  a somewhat  un- 
couth form  for  Jacatra,  the  earlier  designation  for  Batavia,  and 
points  to  the  introduction  of  the  potato  through  the  Dutch  Com- 
pany. I could  learn  no  particulars  as  to  when  this  happened.  In 
the  plains  and  valleys  of  Japan,  where  batata  or  Taro  can  be  raised, 
we  very  seldom  meet  our  potato,  though  we  find  it  in  the  mountain- 
districts  of  Kiushiu  as  far  as  Yezo,  and  pretty  frequently  too  ; but 
even  here  not  in  large  fields.  They  do  not  understand  howto  manage 
the  plant,  not  giving  it  proper  manure,  nor  digging  ridges  about  it, 
and  consequently  get  but  scanty  crops — about  five-fold.  In  fact, 
the  Japanese  has  acquired  neither  the  knowledge  of  how  to  cultivate 
it,  nor  a taste  for  it.  And,  indeed,  it  is  a favourite  with  very  few 
nations  as  with  us.  The  potato  fills  nowhere  so  prominent  a place 
as  in  the  domestic  economj'  of  Teutonic  and  Slavic  peoples.  After 
crossing  the  northern  boundary  of  the  Mediterranean  region,  we 

1 See  also  Turpin  : “ Memoires  du  Musdum,”  vol.  xix.,  pp.  1,  fif.,  and  A.  de 
Candolle:  “Archives  des  Sciences  phys.  et  nat.,  Troisieme  Periode.”  vol.  vii., 
No.  6,  1882. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


67 


perceive  a rapid  diminution  in  its  cultivation,  and  one  that  is  caused 
much  less  by  difference  of  climate  than  by  a change  of  taste  and 
the  prevalence  of  substitutes,  such  as  chestnuts  and  sweet-potatoes. 
Thus,  in  Northern  Italy  it  occupies  0‘33  per  cent,  of  the  area  ; in 
Central  Italy,  0^24  per  cent,  but  in  Southern  Italy,  only  0^03  per  cent. 
A similar  diminution  is  seen  on  the  Iberian  Peninsula.  This,  too, 
explains  why  the  potato  was  not  long  ago  carried  to  Japan  by  the 
Portuguese.  They  found  it  desirable  to  introduce  tobacco,  grape- 
vines, and  quinces  (from  which  a favourite  sweetmeat  is  made  in 
Spain  and  Portugal),  but  not  Solanum  tuberosum. 

Aracece , so  much  cultivated  on  account  of  their  bulbs,  do  not 
bloom  in  the  fields  any  more  in  Japan  than  elsewhere,  since  they 
can  only  go  through  one  period  of  vegetation  there,  and  that  does 
not  suffice  for  them  to  put  forth  stalks.  So  they  remain  in  the  low 
herbal  or  monopodal  form.  This  renders  it  rather  hard  to  dis- 
tinguish them.  The  most  prized  and  most  widespread  kind  not 
merely  in  Japan,  indeed,  but  throughout  the  whole  monsoon- 
region  and  Polynesia,  is  — 

8.  Colocasia  antiquorum , Schott  ( Arum  esculcntum , L.),  which 
the  Japanese  call  usually  simply  Imo,  or  Sato-imo  (village-potato). 
But  the  South-Sea  Islander  calls  it  Taro.  Other  Japanese 
names  distinguish  different  sub-species.  At  the  ends  of  short 
sprouts  (stoles),  the  axillary  buds  develop  in  several  directions 
from  the  mother-bulb  (Oya-imo),  which  resembles  a rhizome. 
These  buds  become  fleshy  white  tubers  (Ko-imo),  in  the  shape  of 
an  ellipsoid  or  ovate,  about  the  size  of  a hen’s  egg  and  weighing 
from  60  to  80  grs.  Of  carbon-hydrates,  they  show  more  glucose 
and  dextrine  than  starch, — hence  their  peculiar  sweetish  flavour. 
Propagation  takes  place  by  means  of  bulbs,  as  in  our  potatoes. 
The  petioles  of  the  Sato-imo  are  green  and  longer  than  in  most 
other  kinds  of  the  imo  belonging  to  this  division;  the  shield  or  heart- 
shaped  leaves  themselves  larger.  On  the  upper  side  they  are  a 
polished  green,  on  the  under  side,  a greyish  white. 

9.  Leucocasia  gigantea,  Schott  ( Caladium  esculentum , Sieb.),  Jap. 
Hasu-imo,  resembles  the  foregoing  closely,  but  is  nevertheless  not 
so  much  prized  and  planted. 

10.  Alocasia  macrorrhiza,  Schott  ( Arum  macrorrhizum , L. ; 
Colocasia  esculentum , var.  C.  and  Z.),  Jap.  Manshiu-imo.  This 
kind,  likewise  widely  grown  in  the  South  Sea  under  the  name  of 
Taro,  and  elsewhere  too,  forms  only  one  large  bulbous  rhizome. 

11.  Conopluxllus  konjak,  Schott  ( Arum  Dracunculus,  Th.),  Jap. 
Konniyaku  (pronounced  Konjak),  produces  a single  bulb,  like  the 
foregoing  kind,  only  much  smaller.  It  serves  in  the  preparation 
of  a gelatinous,  tough  food,  which  bears  the  name  Konniyaku. 

Of  yams,  or  dioscorece,  the  Japanese  use  the  following  : — 

12.  Dioscorea  japonica,  Thunb.  (D.  oppositifolia,  Thunb.),  Jap. 
Yama-imo,  that  is,  wild  potato,  or  Jinen-jo.  It  is  wide-spread  in  hill 
and  mountain-forests,  up  to  a height  of  about  600  m.  It  twines 


68 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


about  through  the  bushes  here,  two  or  three  meters  high,  and 
around  tree-trunks,  putting  forth  in  June  numberless  delicate  green-, 
ish  yellow  blossom  clusters  from  the  bases  of  its  leaves.  Because’ 
of  its  long  cylindrical  root,  it  is  also  called  Naga-imo  (long  potato, 
a name  which,  however,  is  applied  chiefly  to  the  cultivated  form). 
Jinen-j6  is  the  favourite  of  all  the  varieties  of  Imo.  It  roots  come 
to  market  from  25  to  50  cm.  long  and  weighing  150  to  200  grammes. 
They  bring  the  highest  prices.  Under  these  circumstances,  it  is 
remarkable  that,  like  all  yams  in  Japan,  it  is  relatively  so  little 
grown.  This  is  the  case,  too,  in  China,  where  it  is  called  Ta-shu 
(big  root).  The  little  plantations  found  here  and  there  are  easily 
recognised  by  the  short  sticks  about  which  the  tendrils  twine.  One 
variety  of  Naga-imo,  namely  Dioscorea  japonica , var.  bulbifera,  bears 
the  name  Kashiu-imo,  and  also  Tsuku-imo,  It  has  round  roots 
resembling  potatoes. 

13.  With  regard  to  this  second  kind  ( D . sativa,  L.),  Jap.  Tokoro 
or  Naga-dokoro,  it  seems  to  me  that  Savatier  is  mistaken  when 
he  says,  “ Hab.  in  Japonia  saepissime  culta  for  it  is  grown  but 
sparsely,  as  far  as  I could  observe  it  in  various  parts  of  the  country. 

14.  D.  quinqueloba,  Thunb.  ; Jap.,  Kikubaba-dokoro,  is  men- 
tioned by  Savatier  as  growing  wild.  I know  neither  this  variety 
nor  its  use.  In  the  Kew  collection  there  is  some  starch  made 
from  it. 

The  bulbs  of  lilies  (Yuri),  many  species  of  which  grow  on  the 
Hara  (forest-glades)  and  in  wooded  districts,  are  also  much  sought 
after  for  food,  like  the  roots  of  the  wild  yams,  and  particularly  by 
the  poorer  people  and  the  Ainos  of  Yezo.  The  three  following 
are,  I think,  especially  worthy  of  notice  in  this  connection. 

15.  Lilium  auratum , Lindl.  ; Jap.,  Horaiji-yuri,  which  is  found  in 
vast  numbers  on  grassy  mountain-sides. 

16.  L.  Thunb ergianum,  Roem.  and  Schult.  {L.  nodosum , Thunb.), 
Jap.  Hirata-yuri  and  Natsu-sukushi-yuri.  Thunberg  expressly 
mentions  its  edible  bulbs.  For  their  sake,  this  variety  is  also  much 
grown,  according  to  L.  Boehmer,  in  the  vicinity  of  Hako-date.1 

17.  Lilium  cordifolium,  Thunb.  ; Jap.  Uba-yure  and  Kawa-yuri.  • 
According  to  Steube,  the  Ainos  make  a sort  of  starch  from  its 
bulbs,  which  is  boiled  with  millet  or  other  grain.2 

18.  Common  brake  ( Pteris  aquilina,  L.),  Jap.  Warabi.  This 
plant,  perhaps  the  most  widespread  in  the  world,  is  also  found  in  the 
Japanese  islands  throughout  their  whole  extent,  from  Formosa  to 
Kamtschatka.  But  it  is  not  so  little'  esteemed  there,  and  so  useless 
to  man  and  beast,  as  it  is  with  us.3  People  begin  to  gather  its 
young  and  not  yet  unrolled  tips  in  April  and  May,  and  eat  them 

1 “ Report  to  the  Kaitakushi,”  1875,  p.  202. 

2 “ Mittheilungen  der  deutschen  Gesellschaft  Ostasiens.”  III.  Bd.  Yokohama, 
1880-84,  p.  223. 

3 In  Shikoku  I saw  in  1875  whole  stretches  of  mountain  forests  burned  up  in 
order  that  Warabi  might  grow  better.  (See  Rein,  “Japan,”  i.  p.  81.) 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


69 


fresh,  in  soup  or  as  vegetables,  or  preserve  them  dried  for  the  same 
uses.  But  in  autumn,  when  the  parts  above  ground  die  off,  the 
horizontally  branching  rhizomes  are  dug  up  and  used  for  .making 
fern-starch,  Warabi-no-ko,  i.e.  brake-fern  meal.  The  mode  of  pro- 
cedure is  simple,  being  like  that  employed  in  obtaining  other  sorts 
of  starch.  The  rhizome  or  root-stalk  is  dried,  broken,  and  pulverized, 
mixed  with  water,  squeezed  through  coarse  hemp-linen  bags,  to 
separate  the  starch  from  the  fibres,  and  then  clarified  further,  till 
the  meal  has  reached  the  requisite  purity.  In  this  state  it  is  light- 
grey  in  colour,  and  can  be  bought  anywhere.  Mixed  with  millet, 
wheat-flour,  or  rice-flour,  it  is  extensively  used  in  cooking,  especially 
by  the  poor,  in  Northern  Honshiu,  for  example,  and  in  Yezo,  where 
millet  and  brake-fern  are  the  principal  food-plants.  Warabi-no-ko 
serves  yet  another  purpose.  A glue  is  made  from  it,  which,  mixed 
with  Shibu,  the  sour  juice  of  unripe  Kaki-fruit,  withstands  rain,  and 
is  used  for  pasting  paper  together,  which  is  oiled  and  then  used  for 
making  waterproof-cloaks  and  umbrellas,  and  for  defence  against 
rain  in  other  ways. 

The  brake  serves  for  food,  not  only  in  Japan,  but  also  in  Corea 
and  other  parts  of  the  continent  of  Asia.  And  A.  von  Humboldt 
asserts  of  the  Canary  Islands  Palma  and  Gomera,  that  their  in- 
habitants pulverize  its  root-stalks,  mixing  them  with  barley-meal, 
and  use  it  thus  for  food.  It  is  well  known  that  Australia,  at 
the  time  of  its  discovery,  possessed  only  one  edible  root,  the  Pteris 
esculenta , a near  relative  of  our  common  brake. 


(d)  Vegetables  and  Condiments. 

In  this  group  we  meet  with  a great  number  of  most  dissimilar 
plants,  partly  truly  cosmopolitan  in  household  economy,  partly 
peculiarities  which  have  been  developed  by  the  land  and  the 
special  tastes  of  its  inhabitants.  This  division  does  not  furnish 
such  important  articles  of  food  as  the  farinaceous  “ cereals,  pulse 
and  root  crops  ; ” yet  not  a few  of  its  members  play  an  important 
part  as  a daily  spice  of  material  life,  in  so  far  as  it  is  affected  by 
the  enjoyment  of  a well-flavoured  soup,  or  of  rice  and  its  substi- 
tutes. One  acquainted  with  Japanese  cooking  will  recall  first  in 
this  connection  the  Daikon  (giant  radish),  Nasu  (fruits  of  the  egg- 
plant), Negi-rui  (onion  family),  Uri-rui,  (cucumber  tribe),  Take 
(mushrooms),  and  other  kitchen-plants,  which  in  this  respect  seem 
quite  indispensable.  Table  vegetables  among  the  Japanese  are 
eaten  generally  in  much  smaller  quantities  than  with  us,  and  a 
large  number  of  those  most  widely  scattered  and  most  popular 
among  us  are  missing  altogether,  eg.,  most  of  the  cabbage-varieties, 
rape-cole,  scorzonera,  asparagus,  and  many  salad-plants. 

The  Japanese  distinguish  between  Yasai-mono  or  Yasai,  vege- 
tables, Tsuke-mono,  fruits  preserved  in  salt  water  or  vinegar. 


70 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


so-called  pickles,  and  Yakumi,  or  relishes  proper, — a division 
which  can  hardly  be  sharply  carried  out,  since  the  same  product, 
according  to  its  preparation  and  application,  appears  as  a vege- 
table dish  or  a relish,  as,  for  example,  the  onion.  I shall  not, 
therefore,  enumerate  and  descant  upon  these  plants  in  any  such 
grouping,  but  rather  recommend  their  introduction  in  a systematic 
order,  as  follows. 

1.  Brasenia  peltata , Pursch.  ( Menyanthes  nymphoides , Thunb.), 
Jap.  Junsai,  and 

2.  Nuphar  japonicum , D.  C.  ( Nymphcea  lutea , Thunb.),  Jap. 
Kawa-hone  and  Ko-hone.  The  rhizomes  and  young  leaves  of 
these  two  N ymphceacece  are  eaten,  and  for  this  purpose  are  culti- 
vated here  and  there  in  small  ponds.  The  leaf-buds  of  Nymphcea 
tetragona,  Georgi,  Jap.  Hitsuji-gusa,  eaten  with  vinegar,  are  a 
favourite  dish,  especially  in  Yezo. 

3.  Papaver  somniferum , L.,  Jap.  Keshi.  Poppy  is  grown  in 
Japan  only  to  a very  limited  extent.  Its  seeds  are  used  as  a spice, 
but  not  for  producing  oil. 

4.  Eutrema  Wasabi,  Maxim.  (KCochlearia  Wasabi,  Sieb),  Jap. 
Wasabi,  the  Jap.  horse-radish,  which  grows  wild  on  the  coast,  and 
is  grown  in  small  quantities,  rasped  up  and  eaten  with  fish. 

5.  Brassica  chinensis , L.  (B.  orient alis,  Thunb.),  rape,  Jap.  Na. 
The  young  leaves  are  either  eaten  as  a vegetable  or  a salad. 

6.  B.  oleracea,  L.,  Jap.  Botan-na,  Kappa-na.  Most  plants  of  the 
cabbage-order  have  been  only  lately  introduced,  and  are  not  yet 
widely  spread.  Longer  known  and  more  generally  cultivated  is 
a green  variety  of  cabbage,  not  so  sour  as  the  corresponding  kind 
in  Europe,  and  very  pleasant  to  the  taste. 

7.  B.  rapa,  L.,  turnip,  Jap.  Kabura  and  Kabu,  are  raised  in  many 
sub-species,  and  sometimes  used  as  a vegetable,  boiled,  sometimes 
as  salad.  Both  roots  and  leaves  are  turned  to  account.  The 
ordinary,  flat  variety  predominates  ; but  there  are  also  long  conical 
sorts^  eg.  the  Akanaga-kabura,  i.e.  red  long-turnips.  Omikabura 
and  O-kabura  are  among  the  thickest  kinds. 

8.  Sinapis  integrifolia,  Wild.,  Jap.  O -garashi,  Taka-na. 

9.  S'.  cernua , Thunb.,  Jap.  Karashi-na. 

10.  .S',  chinensis , L.  (S.  japonica,  Thunb.),  Jap.  Midzu-na,  Ise-na. 

The  leaves  of  these  three  mustards,  like  those  of  rape,  are  eaten 

either  as  salad  or  vegetables.  The  use  of  their  seeds  as  a spice 
was  known  to  the  Dutch,  though  they  were  but  little  propagated. 
(See  Oil-plants.) 

11.  Raphanus  sativus , L.,  Jap.  Daikon.  Raw,  boiled,  dried, 
and,  above  all,  cut  up  and  pickled,  the  Japanese  radish  is  un- 
doubtedly the  most  widely  known  and  favoured  vegetable  with 
rice.  It  is  relished  equally  well  by  the  fisherman  and  hunter  of 
the  more  distant  islands  and  the  polished  inhabitants  of  the  capital. 
Hence  special  attention  is  paid  to  its  culture,  which  extends  as  far 
as  the  Japanese  has  permanently  settled.  In  the  central  and 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


7[ 


southern  parts  of  the  country,  it  is  raised  in  all  seasons  of  the  year, 
especially  in  winter,  and  sometimes  yields  enormously  long,  thick 
roots  from  2 to  3 kg.  in  weight.  The  Daikon  near  the  bay  of  Kago- 
shima are  especially  noted  for  their  size  and  quality. 

Culture  has  in  the  course  of  time  produced  sub-species,  chiefly 
with  long,  cylindrical  roots,  as  Sakura-jima  Daikon,  Miyashige  D., 
Karahashi  D.,  Murasaki  D.,  Natsu  D.,  Sangatsu  D.,  Hadano  D. 
Some,  however,  are  more  like  rape-cole  or  rape,  short  and  thick- 
set, as  Kudzu-hata  D.  and  Karami  D.,  and  are  even  found  with 
bundles  of  roots,  like  the  bamboo-cane  and  the  palm  : the  Tako 
( Poulpe ) or  Octopus  D.  Most  sorts  are  white  and  resemble  long 
turnips.  The  violet,  red,  and  grey-black  are  known  as  Murasaki-, 
Aka-,  and  Kuro-Daikon.  The  European  is  at  first  agreeably 
astonished  when  he  sees  the  big  radishes,  washed  and  tempting- 
looking,  as  they  are  brought  to  market,  especially  about  spring- 
time ; but,  as  a rule,  he  finds  their  taste  and  smell  when  prepared 
for  the  table  equally  disagreeable. 

12.  Portulacca  oleracea , L.,  Jap.  Suberi-hiyu,  planted  in  some 
places,  but  mostly  wild,  and  little  used. 

13.  Zanthoxylon  piperitum , D.C.  ( Fagaria  piperita,  Thunb.),  Jap. 
Sansho.  The  young  leaves,  and  still  more  the  peppery  seeds, 
of  this  widely  extended  shrub,  serve  as  a condiment.  For  this 
purpose,  it  is  often  cultivated  near  peasants’  houses.  The  other 
kinds  of  Zanthoxylon,  which  are  wild,  are  used  somewhat  in  a 
similar  way,  but  less  often. 

Passing  over  the  Aurantiaceae  and  Pomaceae,  which  will  be  con- 
sidered under  fruits,  we  come  to  the  Cucurbitaceae,  which  are 
represented  in  many  varieties  and  forms.  These  are  planted  : — 

(a.)  On  account  of  their  edible  products  : — 

14.  Cucurbita  pepo,  L.,  the  pumpkin,  in  its  typical  flat,  radiat- 
ing, ribbed  forms.  Its  Japanese  names  are  Tonasu,  Bobura  and 
Kabocha  (i.e.  Cambodia).  The  last  indicates  the  source  of  one 
favourite  species.  Another  Japanese  sub-species  has  lately  been  ex- 
tensively tried  in  France,  under  the  name  of  Cucurbita  melonceformis. 
They  praise  its  productiveness,  the  thick,  light-yellow  flesh  and 
the  agreeable  taste  of  its  fruit  when  boiled.  Its  flavour  is  some- 
thing midway  between  that  of  the  potato  and  maize.  These 
pumpkins  are  deeply  and  regularly  furrowed  and  attain  a circum- 
ference of  55  cm.  and  a height  of  13  to  16  cm.  Their  colour  varies 
from  copper-red  to  deep  green. 

15.  Benincasia  certifera,  Savi  ( Cucu rbitacerifera,  Fischer),  the 
white  gourd,  Jap.  Togan  and  Kamo-uri. 

16.  Citrullus  edulis,  Spach  {Cucurbita  citrullus , L.  and  Th.),  Jap. 
Suikuwa-  (pronounced  Suika),  the  water-melon.  This  fine  fruit 
develops  but  little  aroma  in  Japan,  so  that  its  taste  is  far  inferior 
to  that  which  it  possesses  in  the  Mediterranean  region  and  other 
districts  with  hot,  dry  summers.  I have  no  knowledge  as  to  the 
antiquity  of  its  culture  in  Eastern  Asia.  In  Egypt,  as  is  well  known, 


72 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


the  water-melon  was  grown  more  than  3,500  years  ago,  as  was 
proved  by  the  tomb-discoveries  of  Brugsch  and  Maspero  in  1881. 

17.  Cucumis  conomon,  Thunb.,  Jap.  Shiro-uri,  white  melon.  One 
frequently  meets  with  the  rather  large  oval  fruit  of  this  species, 
greenish  white  in  colour.  It  is  commonly  pickled  and  eaten  as  a 
vegetable  with  rice,  instead  of  Daikon. 

18.  C.  flexuosus,  L.,  Jap.  Awo-uri,  green  melon. 

19.  C.  melo , L.,  the  melon,  Jap.  Makuwa-uri  ( Cucumis  melo,  L.). 
A large,  strong-branched  variety,  some  seeds  of  which  were  taken 
.to  France  in  1877,  where  it  has  been  grown  since.  Its  large, 
cylindrical,  thin-rinded  fruit  attains  a length  of  15  cm.  and  a thick- 
ness of  7'9  cm.  Its  greyish-green  flesh  is  thick,  fine,  and  of  a swreet, 
agreeable  flavour,  though  with  little  aroma. 

20.  Cucumis  sativus,  L.,  the  cucumber,  Jap.  Ki-uri,  was,  at  some 
time  or  other,  introduced  from  China. 

Besides  these,  the  fruits  of  the  wild-growing  Momordica  char- 
antia,  L.  are  used,  under  the  name  of  Tsuru-reishi  and  Niza-uri. 

( b .)  The  following  species  are  grown  for  the  sake  of  the  rind  or 
the  tissue  of  their  fruits. 

21.  Luffa  petolci,  Ser.,  Jap.  Hechima,  To-guwa.  The  long 
cylindric  fruit  resembles  a long  straight  cucumber.  When  ripe, 
it  is  yellowish.  In  the  green  state  it  is  eaten  ; but  when  ripe  the 
pulp  disappears  and  is  replaced  by  a web  of  fibres,  furnishing  the 
so-called  Luffa-sponge. 

22.  Lagenaria  vulgaris,  Ser.  {Cucurbit a largenaria , L.),  Jap. 
Fukube  and  Higotan,  furnishes  in  its  many-shaped  shells  cheap, 
popular  vessels  for  daily  use,  not  only  in  Japan,  but  in  the  whole 
monsoon-region  and  in  Africa.  In  other  lands  these  are  often  called 
calabashes  by  Europeans,  a name  which  is  also  applied  to  the  fruit 
of  the  melon-tree  ( Crescentia  cujete ),  whose  hard  shells  are  converted 
into  many  sorts  of  vessels,  such  as  buckets,  bowls,  spoons,  etc.,  by 
the  aborigines  of  tropical  America.  The  pear-shaped  outline  of 
the  flask-melon  has  served  in  Japan  and  China  as  a model,  often 
used  for  Sake-bottles.  So  have  those  which  appear  to  be  made 
of  two  large  balls  set  one  on  top  of  the  other.  Lagenaria 
dasystemon,  Miq.,  Jap.  Kamo-uri,  is  similarly  utilized. 

( c .)  For  making  starch,  the  Japanese  use,  to  a modest  extent, 
the  seeds  of  several  wild-growing  varieties  of  the  species  Trichos- 
anthes, — Karasu-uri  (T.  cucumeroides , Ser.)  and  Ki-karasu-uri  (T. 
japonica,  Regel). 

23.  Apium  graveolens,  L.,  celery.  Its  Jap.  name  Oranda-mitsuba, 
Dutch  trefoil,  indicates  perhaps  that  it  was  first  introduced  into 
De-shima  by  the  Dutch. 

24.  Petroselium  sativum,  Hofifm.  {Apium  petroselium,  L.),  parsley, 
seems  also  to  have  been  first  introduced  by  the  Dutch. 

25.  Pimpinella  anisum,  L.,  Jap.  Uikiyo,  anise. 

26.  Fceniculum  vulgare,  Gaertn.,  Jap.  Kurenomo  and  Uikiyo, 
fennel. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


73 


27.  Pastinaca  sativa,  L.,  Jap.  Amerika  bofu,  parsnip. 

28.  Coriandrum  sativum,  L.,  Jap.  Koyendoro,  coriander.  All  the 
above-mentioned  umbelliferous  plants  are  cultivated  also  as  drugs, 
Their  extent  and  significance  for  the  Japanese  kitchen  are  slight. 

29.  Daucus  carota,  L.,  Jap.  Ninjin  (not  to  be  confounded  with 
the  like-sounding  word  for  ginseng).  The  carrot,  too,  is  one  of 
the  commonest  vegetables  in  Japan.  But  its  cultivation  and  use 
are  by  no  means  as  extensive  as  with  us. 

30.  Aralia  cordata,  Thunb.  (A.  edulis,  S.  and  Z.),  Jap.  Udo,  a 
bush,  about  one  meter  high,  which  is  found  scattered  over  moun- 
tains, and  particularly  on  grassy  slopes  (Hara),  blossoming  in  July. 
It  is  also  occasionally  planted  in  the  vicinity  of  dwellings.  Its 
roots,  and  its  young  stalks  too,  are  eaten  as  a vegetable  dish  and 
in  soup,  and  people  are  very  fond  of  them. 

31.  Petasites  japonicus,  Miq.  (Tussilago  Petasites,  Thunb.),  Jap. 
Fuki,  grows  wild  under  hedges,  along  roads  and  forest  borders, 
but  is  also  cultivated.  It  blossoms  in  February  and  March.  The 
stalks  of  its  leaves  are  eaten  with  vegetables. 

32.  Lappa  major , Gaertn.  (. Arctium  lappa , Thunb.),  Jap.  Gobo. 
The  common  burdock  exists  in  Japan  just  as  with  us,  but  has  a 
use  of  which  we  know  nothing.  Its  long,  fleshy  tap-roots,  as  thick 
as  one’s  thumb,  and  with  an  average  weight  of  350  grs.  are  eaten 
by  the  common  people.  Like  the  roots  and  bulbs  of  some  other 
composites,  they  contain  inuline. 

33.  Cichorium  endivia , L.,  Jap.  Kiku-jisa  and  Oranda-jisa. 

34.  Lactuca  sativa , L.,  Jap.  Chisa,  lettuce.  Both  of  these  are 
cultivated  and  made  into  salad  and  other  articles  of  food,  but  to  a 
much  smaller  extent  than  with  us.  Especially  to  the  country 
population  they  are  almost  altogether  unknown.  It  is  evident, 
too,  that  they  were  first  introduced  by  the  Dutch. 

35.  Solanum  melongena , L.  (S.  escidentum,  Dunal),  Jap.  Nasu 
or  Nasubi,  the  egg-plant,  l’Aubergine  in  French.  From  June  or 
July,  when  its  large  violet  blossoms  appear,  followed  generally 
by  a wealth  of  beautiful  similarly  coloured  fruit,  this  plant  is 
a real  ornament  of  the  dry  Japanese  fields.  It  is  grown  all 
over  the  country  and  extends  from  there  over  the  warmer  lands  of 
Asia,  quite  to  the  Mediterranean-region.1  But  the  egg-plant  is 
raised  in  several  countries  of  Africa  and  also  in  America.  The 
Japanese  cut  up  the  oval,  club-shaped  or  pear-shaped  fruit,  boil 
the  pieces  in  soup  or  put  them  in  brine  and  eat  them  as  a salad 
with  rice,  instead  of  radishes.  In  other  countries,  eg.  India,  France, 
North  America,  the  fruit  is  cut  through  lengthwise,  fried  in  butter, 
and  eaten,  all  but  the  outer  rind,  as  a vegetable.  An  attenuated 
form  appears  in  the  markets  of  Paris  under  the  name  l’aubergine 

1 In  “ Frau  Baron  von  GerstorPs  Reise  in  Syrien  von  Aleppo  nach  el  Deir  am 
Euphrat.”  Peterm.  Mitth.,  1865,  p.  53,  we  read,  for  instance:  “Wirkauften 
noch  einige  Wassermelonen  und  Patlitdscban  ( Solanum  melongena , L.),  denn 
hier  waren  ganze  Felder  damit  bebaut.” 


74 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


violette,  which  in  shape  resembles  our  kidney-potato.  This  sub- 
species is  met  with  in  Japan,  too,  but  another,  with  large  violet  fruit, 
pear  or  club-shaped,  is  probably  the  most  widespread.  They  are 
all  on  the  same  level  as  to  percentage  of  water  contained  and  value 
as  food,  resmbling  watery  pumpkins,  but  requiring  great  summer- 
heat,  which  the  German  climate  cannot  supply. 

3 6.  Lycopersicum  esculentum,  Mill.,  Jap.  Aka-nasu,  To-nasu,  the 
tomato  or  love-apple,  is  also  found  in  Japan,  but  has,  compared  with 
the  egg-plant,  only  a slight  importance  in  domestic  economy  there. 

37.  Physalis  Alkekengi,  L.,  Jap.  Hodzuki,  “bladder-cherry.” 

• 38.  P.  angulata,  L.  ( P.ciliata , S.  and  Z.),  Jap.  Sennari-hodzuki. 
This  sort,  as  compared  with  the  common  winter-cherry,  is  of  in- 
frequent occurrence.  Siebold  says  of  the  latter:  “ Fructus  edulis 
ac  pro  nugis  habetur  venalis.”  The  skin  of  the  berry  is  a favourite 
and  unique  toy  of  Japanese  girls,  especially  when  carrying  their 
younger  brothers  and  sisters  on  their  backs.  They  separate  the 
red  fruit,  which  is  of  the  size  of  a small  cherry,  from  the  orange- 
coloured  skin  enclosing  it,  and  preserve  the  berry  in  salt-water. 
By  rolling  and  pressing,  they  free  the  skin  from  the  flesh  and  seeds 
within,  squeezing  them  out  through  a little  hole  opposite  the  stem- 
end.  The  skin  of  the  berry  has  now  two  openings,  like  a lamp- 
globe.  This  they  put  in  their  mouths,  blow  it  full  of  air,  and 
then  compress  it  between  their  gums,  making  a peculiar  noise. 
Herein  consists  all  the  fun. 

39.  Capsicum  annuum , L.,  Jap.  Tdgarashi,  Chilies,  Spanish  or 
Cayenne  pepper,  Span,  pimiento,  Fr.  piment.  It  is  cultivated  in 
many  sub-species,  which  are  distinguished  principally  in  colour, 
form,  and  size  of  their  fruit.  Thus  in  Japan  the  Naga-togarashi  is 
especially  frequent, — long,  pointed  peppers  [C.  longum , D.C.)  with 
glittering  red  or  black  berries ; also  the  MaruAogarashi,  with  heart- 
shaped  berries  ( C \ cordifolium , Mill.).  The  black  varieties  are 
called  Murasaki-togarashi ; the  red,  Aka-t6garashi. 

40.  C.  frutescens,  Willd.,  likewise  called  Togarashi,  occurs  much 
seldomer  in  Japan  than  the  above-mentioned  herb-shaped  kind. 

According  to  De  Candolle,1  the  Spanish  pepper  originated  pro- 
bably in  tropical  America,  whence,  at  any  rate,  it  rapidly  spread, 
soon  after  Columbus’s  discovery,  for  it  was  known  in  England  as 
early  as  1548.  A warm  climate  is  necessary  to  its  proper  develop- 
ment. In  many  lands  it  is  the  favourite  spice,  either  fresh,  pickled, 
or  pulverized.  Captain  Hall  remarks,3  “ Chilies  [i.e.  Spanish 
pepper)  form  the  chief  condiment  of  Corean  cooking,”  and  notices 
further  that  they  are  missing  in  scarcely  any  dish,  and  are  much 
grown  in  the  vicinity  of  villages. 

The  word  Togarashi,  pepper,  is  also  used  in  Japan  as  a generic 
name  for  several  different  spices.  Thus,  every  morning  during 
my  first  stay  of  five  months  in  the  German  legation  at  T6kio,  I 

1 “ L’origine  des  plantes  cultivees.”  Paris,  1883. 

3 Captain  Hall:  “A  visit  to  Korea.”  Proc.  R.  G.  S.,  1881. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


75 


heard  a woman,  in  passing  my  windows,  cry  : “ Nana  iro  togarashi !” 
i.e.  literally,  “seven  sorts  of  Cayenne  pepper.”  She  sold  a pul- 
verized mixture  of  seven  spices,  Togarashi  being  the  chief  com- 
ponent. The  other  ingredients  were  : 2.  Chimpi,  dried  orange  peel, 
3.  Goma,  sesame-seed  ; 4.  Kosho,  black  pepper ; 5.  Sansho,  Zan- 
thoxylum  piperitum , D.  C.  ; 6.  Keshi,  poppy-seed ; 7.  Asa-no-mi, 
hempseed. 

41.  Perilla  arguta , Benth.  ( Ocymwn  crispum , Thunb.),  Jap.  Shisd. 
There  is  a distinction  between  Aka-shis6,  with  purple-red  leaves,, 
and  Ao-shis6,  with  green.  Shiso  is  a very  general  kitchen-plant. 
Its  young  leaves  are  eaten  as  a vegetable  and  in  soup.  By  soak- 
ing the  leaves  of  the  red  variety  in  plum-vinegar,  their  colouring 
matter  is  extracted,  and  the  resulting  red  fluid  is  used  in  preserving 
and  colouring  lumps  of  ginger  and  various  other  roots  and  fruits. 

42.  Beta  vulgaris , L.,  Jap.  Tensei,  beet.  Not  general. 

43.  Spinacea  inermis,  Moench.  (S.  oleracea  /3,  L.),  Jap.  Horenso. 
Spinach  is  eaten  as  a vegetable  as  with  us,  though  not  to  so  great 
an  extent. 

44.  Polygonum  orientale , L.,  Jap.  O-tade,  the  oriental  knot- 
grass. This  variety,  which  probably  is  traceable  to  India,  and  is 
known  over  a considerable  part  of  the  Old  World,  was,  according 
to  Thunberg,  first  introduced  into  Japan  by  the  Portuguese.  It  is 
found  planted  here  and  there,  as  with  us,  though  not  as  an  orna- 
ment, but  on  account  of  its  leaves.  The  same  purpose  is  served 
by  P.  japonicum , Meissn.  {P.  barbatum , L.),  the  Tade  or  Bontoku- 
tade. 

45.  Rheum  palmatum , L.,  and  Rh.  undulatum , L.,  Jap.  Daid. 
Rhubarb  is  grown  for  medicinal  purposes  mostly ; but  its  stalks 
are  now  and  then  utilized  in  the  kitchen,  as  with  us. 

46.  Cinnafnomum  zeylanicum , Breyn.,  and  C.  Loureirii,  Nees, 
Nikkei,  cinnamon  or  cassia-trees  of  Japan.  The  former  is  culti- 
vated only  here  and  there  ; the  latter  more  frequently.  The  rind, 
of  little  value,  obtained  from  the  latter  is  exported  via  Nagaski, 
to  a modest  extent. 

47.  Cannabis  sativa , L.,  Jap.  Asa,  hemp.  The  utilization  of  its 
grated  seeds  as  a condiment  was  mentioned  above  under  Spanish 
pepper.  In  regard  to  the  much  more  important  question,  as  to 
its  bast,  particulars  are  given  under  textile-plants. 

48.  Zingiber  officinale , L.,  Jap.  Shoga.  Ginger  has  been  culti- 
vated on  account  of  the  “ claws  ” of  its  rhizomes,  for  home  con- 
sumption, from  time  immemorial,  and  always  on  small  damp  bits  of 
ground,  near  dwelling  houses,  as  in  China.  One  may,  however,  go 
through  many  a village  without  seeing  any  of  it.  Ginger  was  taken 
to  Kew  by  Sir  Joseph  Banks,  in  1796.  Its  rhizomes  are  usually 
preserved  in  reddened  plum-vinegar,  and  make  a much  relished 
though  not  common  flavouring  with  rice,  instead  of  Daikon.  The 
young  shoots  or  roots  of  ginger  often  appear  as  a condiment  with  a 
certain  dish  of  fish,  called  Ni-zakana  (boiled  fish). 


76 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


49.  Z.  Mioga,  Roscoe  ( Amomium  Mioga , Thunb.),  Jap.  Mioga. 
Less  cultivated  than  the  common  ginger.  Yields  a condiment  in 
its  young  shoots. 

47.  Curcuma  longa  L.,  Jap.  Ukon,  is  to  a limited  extent  like- 
wise cultivated  as  a condiment,  while  the  well-known  yellow  dye- 
stuff is  imported  from  China  and  India. 

Condiments  of  the  leek  order,  “ Shin,”  i.e.  stinking  herbs,  as  the 
Buddhist  priest  of  East  Asia  calls  them,  have  hitherto  existed 
among  all  civilized  nations,  though  they  have  not  acquired  the 
same  importance  everywhere.  While,  for  example,  the  Spaniard 
scarcely  eats  meat  of  any  kind  without  its  being  seasoned  with 
garlic,  and  the  Russian  regards  an  onion  together  with  its  green 
top  as  a tit-bit,  such  a decided  liking  is  only  occasionally  found 
among  the  Germanic  peoples.  The  fondness  of  the  Israelites  for 
onions  and  garlic  is  well  known,  and  is  as  old  as  their  history. 
The  onion  is  with  many  races  not  a mere  relish  only,  but  a real 
food.  To  comprehend  this,  one  must  remember  that  besides  our 
common  sorts — sharp  and  tear-compelling — there  are  others,  like 
the  red  Portuguese,  which  often  weigh  a kilogramme,  especially 
in  warm,  light  soil,  and  have  an  agreeable  sweetish  taste,  so  that 
when  cooked  they  can  take  the  place  of  other  vegetables. 

The  Japanese  call  the  cultivated  varieties  of  leek  after  the  onion 
— Negi-rui,  i.e.  onion  group.  Five  of  them.,  the  Go-shin,  i.e.,  five 
pungent,  stinking  herbs,  seem  to  have  been  especially  popular 
within  the  range  of  Buddhism.  The  enjoyment  of  them  was,  and 
is,  strictly  forbidden  to  priests,  with  the  exception  of  one  sect.  An 
inscription  at  the  entrance  to  many  of  their  temples  and  cloisters, 
usually  carved  on  an  obelisk  of  stone,  reads,  translated  : “ It  is 
forbidden  to  carry  stinking  herbs  and  intoxicating  drinks  through 
this  holy  gate.” 

Among  the  chief  accusations  brought  by  Nobunaga,  against  the 
monks  of  the  Hiyei-san,1  is,  that  they  ate  fish  and  stinking  herbs, 
therein  despising  the  law. 

The  following  comprise  the  Go-shin  : 

51.  Allrnm  sativum,  L.,  Jap.  Ninniku,  garlic,  a plant  long  used 
by  man,  well  known  to  the  old  Egyptians  and  Greeks,  and  grown 
in  Japan  since  the  beginning  of  its  history.  According  to  Regel, 
garlic  is  indigenous  on  the  Kirgis  steppes  and  Tsungarei. 

52.  Allium  cepa,  L.,  Jap.  Negi,  the  onion.  It  is  found  wild  in 
the  outlying  spurs  of  the  Iranian  plateau,  and  also  southward  from 
Kuldscha  (Regel).  In  Japan  its  planting  occurs  usually  in  Feb- 
ruary or  March,  its  harvest  in  autumn. 

53.  The  winter-onion,  Jap.  Negi  (. Allium  fistulosum , L.),  which 
originated  in  the  Altai  Mountains,  like  the  foregoing,  is  raised  in 
several  varieties.  The  Japanese  eat  onions  either  boiled  or  fresh, 
cut  into  pieces,  as  a condiment. 


See  Rein,  “Japan,”  vol.  i. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


77 


54.  Allium  ascalonicum , L.,  Jap.  Wakegi,  the  shalot.  This  is 
not  known  in  a wild  state,  and  is  considered  by  de  Candolle 
merely  a sub-species  of  the  onion. 

55.  Allium  schccnoprasum,  L.,  Jap.  Azatuki,  the  chives,  also 
much  grown  endemically,  though  not  in  Japan. 

56.  Allium  porrum , L.,  Jap.  Nira,  leek  or  porret,  is,  according 
to  Gay,1  a cultivated  form  of  A.  ampeloprasum,  L.  According  to 
Kinch,  A.  senescens,  L.,  is  designated  Nira.  The  onion  and  stalk 
of  this  especially  pungent  variety  are  eaten  mostly  boiled.2 

Besides  the  above-mentioned  kinds  of  leek,  the  following  also 
are  used  in  Japan  : 

57.  Allium  splendens , Willd.  (A.  arenarium,  Thunb.),  Jap.  Rak’- 
kiyo  and 

58.  A.  japonicum , Regel,  Jap.  Yama-Rak’kiyo,  two  species,  of 
which  I do  not  know  the  cultivated  forms. 

59.  Bambusa  puberula,  Miq.,  and  several  other  kinds  of  Take  or 
bamboo-cane  furnish  the  kitchen  with  Take-no-ko,  young  bamboo- 
sprouts,  which  break  forth  from  the  ground  in  spring  like  giant 
asparagus,  and  yield  at  this  season  a much  relished,  but  insipid  dish. 

60.  Pteris  aquilina , L.,  Jap.  Warabi,  brake-fern.  The  rhizome 
of  this  plant,  as  a yielder  of  starch,  was  noticed  in  a former  section. 
But  its  young  tops,  too,  as  long  as  they  are  yet  undeveloped  and 
rolled  together,  are  highly  esteemed  throughout  the  Japanese 
Empire,  and  much  eaten  in  soup. 


In  addition  to  the  vascular  plants  mentioned  in  the  foregoing 
list,  and  a large  number  of  other,  mostly  endemic  varieties,  which 
are  now  and  then  utilized  in  Japanese  kitchens  as  vegetables  or 
relishes,  we  must  here  consider  the  fungi  and  marine  algae.  Num- 
bers of  people  are  employed  in  gathering,  preparing  and  disposing 
of  these  plants,  which  are  useful  not  only  for  home  consumption 
but  also  in  commerce.  Unfortunately  the  fungi,  as  well  as  the 
lichens  of  the  land,  have  been  hitherto  very  hardly  treated  by  the 
botanists.  Von  Siebold  certainly  offers  us  a list  of  32  Japanese 
names,  “ quae  vero  fungorum  species,  aut  sponte  crescentes,  aut 
arte  imo  provocatae,  crudae,  salsae,  siccataeque  vix  in  ulla  desunt 
coena”;  but  there  is  no  closer  description  or  discrimination  of 
them.  This  gap  exists  still,  nor  will  it  be  filled  up  by  the  following 
remarks.  They  may  serve,  however,  at  least  to  dispose  of  some 

1 “Ann.  des  sc.  nat.”  3e  sdrie.  Vol.  8. 

3 With  the  above  mentioned  chief  Japanese  varieties  of  leek,  I was  able  to 
reconcile,  only  in  part,  an  older  list  of  the  Go-shin,  for  which  I am  indebted 
to  my  learned  friend,  the  priest  Nanjio  Bunyiu.  It  follows  here  with  its 
Chinese- J apanese  and  Japanese  names,  the  latter  in  parenthesis  : Dai-san, 
(Chobiru),  Shio-san  (Ninniku),  Kokyo  (Aratsuki),  Ji-so  (Hitomoji  or  Negi), 
Kaku-so  (Nobiru).  The  least  is  All.  nipponicum  F.  and  Sav.,  a variety  which, 
so  far  as  I know,  is  not  cultivated  at  all. 


73 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


errors,  and  to  establish  scientifically  several  varieties  with  which 
I became  more  intimately  acquainted. 

The  Japanese  designate  by  Kinoko  and  Kusabira,  the  larger  fungi 
in  general,  and  by  Take,  as  affix  to  the  proper  name,  in  particular 
cases.  Several  varieties  of  Agaricus  stand  first  in  their  estima- 
tion, namely  Shii-take  and  Matzu-take. 

57.  Agaricus  Sp.,  Jap.  Shii-take.  This  is  an  agaric,  without  ring 
and  anil,  the  hood  eccentrically  placed  and  irregular,  having  a 
brown  outer  skin  and  white  lamellae.  The  stalk  likewise  is  white, 
rather  high  and  moderately  thick.  Shii-take  has  therefore  only 
a slight  resemblance  to  our  common  champignon  (A.  campestris , 
Pers.),  being  closer  in  appearance  to  A.  fusipes,  Fr.,  A.  contortus , 
Berk,  and  A.  attenuatus,  D.  C.  It  is  the  more  incomprehensible 
how  often  they  have  been  confused  with  it,  from  Kaempfer’s  and 
Thunberg’s  time  down  to  the  present  day.  Thus  Kinch  in  his 
list  adduces  Shii-take  as  Agaricus  campestris,  and  we  find  in  the 
catalogue  of  the  Japanese  section  of  the  International  Health 
Exhibition,  London,  1884,1  an  analysis  of  it  under  this  name. 
According  to  it,  the  mushroom  when  dried,  contains  ii'847  per 
cent,  of  albumen,  r685  per  cent  of  fat,  67’5o8  per  cent  of  cellulous, 
and  other  nitrogenous  components,  4'370  per  cent.  \ of  ashes,  and 
1 1 4.90  per  cent,  of  water. 

The  Shii-take  is  easily  dried  and  preserved.  In  this  process 
there  is  developed  and  retained  an  excellent  aroma,  which  makes 
it  the  most  precious  and  valuable  of  all  Japanese  fungi.  It  derives 
its  name  from  the  Shii-tree,  an  evergreen  oak  ( Quercus  cuspidata , 
Thunb.)  of  Central  and  Southern  Japan.  But  the  quantity  of  it 
found  on  rotting  roots  and  stumps  is  by  no  means  equal  to  the 
demand.  This  is  mostly  met  by  artificial  propagation,  as  in  the 
case  of  truffles  and  champignons  in  Europe,  which  in  my  opinion 
it  far  excels  in  flavour.  Truffles  and  champignons  are  used  for 
sauce  chiefly,  and  so  Shii-take  serves  principally  in  making  savoury 
soups.  If  the  quantity  used  at  home  and  exported  (to  China)  does 
not  represent  such  great  sums  as  those,  the  plant  is,  neverthe- 
less a factor  worth  mentioning. 

Its  artificial  production,  which  is  described  more  thoroughly  in 
the  English  consular  report  from  Kanagawa  (Yokohama)  for  1875,2 
is  subserved  not  only  by  Shii-noki  ( Quercus  cuspidata , Thunb.), 
but  also  by  other  oaks,  as  Kashi  ( Quercus  acuta , Thunb.),  Kashiwa 
( Q.dentata , Thunb.).  This  takes  place  chiefly  in  the  bark  of  felled 
trees,  and  is  carried  on  in  many  provinces,  namely  in  Yamato, 
Ise,  Mikawa,  Totomi,  Suruga,  Kai,  Idzu,  Mutzu,  Dewa  and  else- 
where. 

58.  Agaricus  Sp.,  Matsu-dahi,  i.e.,  pine-fungus,  because  growing 
mostly  in  pine-woods.  When  fresh,  it  tastes  very  good,  and  is 

1 “Japan.  Internat.  Health  Exhib.,  London,  1884.  A Descriptive  Catalogue 
of  the  Exhibits,  etc.,  by  K.  Nagai  and  J.  Murai.” 

2 The  Revue  Horticole , of  the  year  1 879,  also  gives  a description  of  it. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


79 


a great  favourite.  It  is  eaten  in  great  quantities,  either  boiled  or 
roasted,  and  also  pickled  and  dried  ; but  soon  loses  its  savour  and 
becomes  insipid. 

59.  Cantharellus  cibarius , Fries.,  Jap.  Shiba-take.  Under  that 
name  persons  were  offering  for  sale  by  the  basketful  our  well-known 
egg-mushroom,  in  September,  1874,  in  the  villages  at  the  foot  of 
Fuji-san.  I saw  it  in  other  places,  too,  but  cannot  find  it  anywhere 
mentioned  as  growing  in  Japan. 

60.  Clavaria  Jlava , Pers.,  and  Cl.  Botrytis,  Pers.,  Jap.  Nedzumi- 
take,  occurs,  like  the  preceding,  in  the  forests  of  Fuji-san,  and  is 
sold  in  the  neighbouring  villages. 

6 1.  Lycoperdon  Tuber , L.  (Thunb.,  “Flor.  jap.”  349).  Under  the 
name  Sho-ro  (Sho  for  Matsu,  pine ; and  ro-tsuyu,  dew),  there 
comes  in  spring  a little  mushroom  similar  to  the  bovisia,  growing 
chiefly  in  pine-woods.  It  is  much  eaten  in  soup  and  also  as  a 
vegetable  dish,  and  although  very  tender,  is  almost  flavourless. 
This  also  is  preserved. 

The  following  edible  fungi  are  also  frequently  mentioned : 
Shimeshi,  Kikurage,  Tsuga-take,  Hatsu-take,  Hira-take,  and  several 
others,  with  which,  however,  I am  still  unacquainted. 

In  connection  with  the  preceding,  let  me  here  mention  two 
other  dry  fungi,  which,  though  of  no  account  as  food,  should  not 
pass  unnoticed,  being  widely  spread  and  utilized  in  a remarkable 
manner. 

In  Thunberg’s  “Flora  japonica,”  p.  347,  a tree-fungus  is  spoken 
of  under  the  name  of  Boletus  versicolor ; which  we  must  add  to  the 
dry  Polyporus  varieties.  It  bears,  as  Thunberg  too  remarks,  the 
name  Saru-no-koshi-kake,  i.e.  ape-stool,  and  seems  to  be  distributed 
all  over  the  land.  It  clings  to  the  trunks  of  old  foliaceous  trees  in 
mountain-forests,  often  attaining  great  dimensions.  I have  in  my 
possession  one  40  cm.  broad  and  about  20  cm.  long.  In  Nikko 
people  make  plates  out  of  them,  the  borders  of  which  show  two  or 
three  growth-rings  of  the  mushroom  with  all  the  natural  irregu- 
larities. Below  they  are  sawed  off  and  varnished  in  black ; their 
upper  part  is  hollowed  out  and  varnished  red,  and  they  thus  make 
unique  and  very  pretty  vessels. 

The  second  kind  of  fungus,  still  more  widely  known,  bears  the 
name  Reishi,  and  is  a dry,  hard,  and  really  worthless  sort  of  hood- 
mushroom,  in  appearance  related  to  the  Polyporus  lucidus,  Fries, 
or  P.  amboinensis  of  Farther  India  and  the  Malay  Archipelago. 
Reishi  is  the  size  of  our  champignon  (A.  campestris ),  and  has  a 
stalk  which  grows  occasionally  15  cm.  long,  and  is  dark  brown  like 
the  hood.  If  it  perchance  grows  to  be  a curiosity  on  the  stem  of 
an  old  dwarf-tree  in  a gardener’s  pot  or  tub,  the  tree  is  straightway 
taxed  from  one  to  two  yen  (4  to  8 shillings)  higher,  and  looked 
upon  as  a sign  of  luck,  Medetai,  and  an  occasion  for  congratula- 
tion. Reishi  counts,  too,  as  a good  omen  in  general,  and  is  used  to 
decorate  the  Tokonoma  or  slightly  raised  projection  of  a room. 


8o 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


The  sea-weeds  1 are  of  far  greater  importance  than  the  mush- 
rooms for  Japan.  Nowhere  else  do  they  form  a part  of  the 
people’s  diet  to  such  an  extent  as  with  the  nations  on  the  Pacific 
side  of  Asia.  Not  only  the  giants  of  the  marine  flora  are  taken 
up  by  the  Chinese  and  Japanese  and  utilized  in  various  ways 
as  food,  but  also  the  more  delicate  red  and  green  sorts,  the  use 
of  which  has  been  adopted  by  the  Malays  also.  In  Europe  the 
consumption  of  a few  varieties,  as  Alaria  esculenta,  Grev.,  Sphcero- 
coccus  palmatus , K.,  Porphyra  laciniata,  Gracilaria  lichenoides , A., 
and  some  others,  is  limited  to  the  poor  sea-coast  population  of  the 
north,  especially  of  Ireland,  Scotland,  Iceland,  and  Norway ; while 
the  Frenchman,  for  example,  generally  not  at  all  particular  in  the 
choice  of  marine  animals  for  food,  and  able  with  his  culinary  art 
to  make  every  sort  appetizing,  despises  the  algae. 

The  marine  flora  is  influenced  most  by  light  and  temperature,  and 
hence  bythe  depth,  situation  and  form  of  bays,  and  by  ocean  currents. 
Sea-water  does  not  change  its  temperature  as  readily  or  as  often 
as  the  air.  It  is  the  medium  of  distributing  its  own  inhabitants, 
and  touches  all  parts  of  the  world.  Moreover,  the  fish  and  turtles 
which  feed  on  algae  swim  with  its  streams  over  vast  areas,  and 
carry  seeds  to  distant  shores.  From  all  these  causes,  it  is  inevitable 
that  many  algae  should  be  widely  distributed,  and  that  we  should 
find  many  a variety  in  the  waters  of  Japan  which  are  known  in 
other  parts  of  the  ocean,  too.  The  circumpolar  tangle  [Laminarice) 
and  seawracks  [Fucus  species)  prefer  cold  sea-water  and  a heavy 
surf,  both  of  which  are  to  be  had  in  the  vicinity  of  the  island 
of  Yezo  and  the  Kuriles.  Two  other  groups  of  the  Melanosperms, 
the  Cystosirice  (bladder-string  seaweed)  and  Sargassacice  (berry- 
seaweed)  join  them  in  the  south.  The  last-named  family  is  repre- 
sented in  especial  profusion  in  several  groups  (Sargassum,  Spongo- 
carpus , Halochloa , Myagropsis,  Coccophora ).  I never  saw  them 
used  in  housekeeping,  but  only  as  manure,  except  Halochloa 
macrantha>  Kg.,  Jap.  Houdawara,  which  is  eaten  with  vinegar,  and 
pickled.  A considerable  amount  of  light  is  the  chief  condition 
of  life  for  the  more  delicate  green  sea-algae.  Many  of  them  do  not 
require  very  salt  water,  and  are  found  at  the  mouths  of  rivers 
and  in  pools  where  there  is  little  salt,  and  also  on  the  coast  above 
the  mean  tide  level. 

1 An  exhaustive  work  on  this  subject  does  not  yet  exist.  Thus  far  the  following 
have  noticed  Japanese  varieties  : — 

1.  Kiitzing,  in  his  well-known  work,  “Species  Algarum,  1849,  collected  by 
Tilesius,  chiefly  in  Nagasaki.” 

2.  Harvey:  “Characters  of  New  Algae,  chiefly  of  Japan,  collected  by  Ch. 

Wright.  Proc.  Am.  Ac.  of  Arts  and  Sc.”  Boston,  1857.  Vol.  iv.  p.  327.  54 

varieties. 

3. '  G.  von  Martens:  “Die  Preuss.  Exped.  nach  Ost-Asien.  Botan.  Theil.  Die 

Tange.,”  1866.  111  varieties,  collected  by  E.  von  Martens. 

4.  Suringar : “Algae  Japonicae  Musei  Botanici  Lugdano-Batavi.”  Haarlem, 
1874.  34  species,  collected  chiefly  by  Siebold  in  Nagasaki. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


The  red  algae  (Floridae  or  Rhodosperms),  on  the  contrary,  attain 
the  maximum  of  their  growth  in  deeper  water  and  in  places  where 
they  are  not  much  influenced  by  direct  sunlight.  Those  of  their 
varieties  which  do  not  follow  this  rule,  but  grow  near  the  rim  of 
the  sea’s  great  mirror,  or,  it  may  be,  lie  at  times  partly  dry,  lose 
much  of  their  wealth  of  colour,  and  incline  toward  violet,  orange, 
or  green. 

On  the  island  of  Yezo,  sea-algae,  particularly  the  big  seaweeds, 
form,  next  to  fish,  the  principal  article  of  export,  especially  to 
China.  The  chief  elements  of  this  trade  in  algae  are : — 

1.  Kombu,  the  tangle  or  sea-girdle,  Laminaria  sacharina , La- 
mour  {L.  japonica,  Arech. ; Fucus  saccharinus , Thunb.). 

2.  Arame,  Capea  elongata , Ag. 

3.  Katsumi,  Capea  flabeliiformis,  Rich. 

4.  Wakame,  Badderlocks,  Alaria  esculenta , Grev. ; (3.  pinnatifida, 
Harv. 

5.  Haba-nori,  Phylittis  debilis  Kg.,  varieties  which  in  part  are 
still  gathered  on  the  shores  of  Honshiu. 

Most  of  the  edible  green  and  red  algae  bear  the  generic  name  Nori, 
while  the  words  Umi-kusa  or  Kai-s6  are  used  for  algae  in  general, 
these  words  being  simply  translations  of  the  English  “ sea-weed.” 

Of  green  algae  several  varieties  of  Ulvacece , or  green  laver,  are 
gathered  and  used  on  the  Japanese  coasts,  sometimes  fresh,  in  soup, 
sometimes  dried  or  with  vinegar  or  pickled  in  salt.  These  are  not 
merely  the  cosmopolitan  sea-lettuce,  or  lettuce  laver,  as  U.  Lactua> 
L.,  Ao-nori,  and  others,  but  also  Phycoseris  australis , Kg.  ( Ulva 
latissima,  Ag.),  called  Nori ; likewise  Enteromorpha  compressa , Grev. 
{U.  compressa , L.).  Tne  Japanese  call  them  Ao-nori  and  eat  them 
either  fresh  in  soup,  or  dried,  with  vinegar  and  starch.  They 
usually  appear  in  commerce  in  the  form  of  little  packages  with  the 
thalli  running  parallel. 

Modzuku  is  the  name  of  the  Mesogloia  decipiens , Sur.,  which 
comes  especially  from  the  peninsula  Kadzusa-Awa,  and  is  used 
like  the  above.  The  same  is  true  of  Somen-nori,  i.e.  the  vermicelli- 
algae  {Nemalion  vermiculare ).  Several  varieties  of  Codium , Jap.  Miru, 
distributed  through  nearly  all  the  seas,  are  not  lacking  either;  for 
instance,  Codium  tomentosum , Ag.,  and  C.  elongatum , Ag. 

The  cartilaginous  Florideae,  particularly  species  and  varieties  of  the 
Gigartineae,  Caulacantheae,  Gelide,  Sphaerococceae,  and  Tylocarpeae, 
are  distinguished  for  their  high  proportion  of  pararabin,  and  furnish, 
with  boiling  water,  algae-jelly.  They  are  gathered  in  great  quan- 
tities on  all  the  coasts  of  the  Malay  Archipelago  and  the  waters 
of  China  and  Japan,  and  are  utilized  in  part  direct  as  food,  partly 
in  the  preparation  of  algae-glue,  Jap.  Fu-nori,  or  algae-jelly,  Jap. 
Kanten.  In  trade,  these  articles,  both  when  raw  and  dried  and 
when  further  prepared,  are  designated  by  the  Malay  word  Agar- 
Agar,  i.e.  vegetable.  This  name  was  originally  applied  to  Gigartina 
(. Eucheuma ) isiformis,  G.  spinosa,  and  G.  tenax,  which  is  collected 

II. 


82 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


near  Singapore,  for  example,  in  great  masses,  and  shipped  to  China. 
The  Chinese  use  them  not  only  for  food,  but  make  of  them  Hai- 
Thao,  a transparent  glue,  with  which  they  stiffen  silk  and  other 
stuffs,  and  also  fill  up  the  interstices  of  coarse  cloths  for  the  manu- 
facture of  lanterns.  Of  the  Japanese  algse  in  this  group,  the 
following  deserve  special  mention  : — 

1.  Chondrus  punctatus,  Sur. 

2.  Gigartinia  tenella , Harvey,  Jap.  Ogo. 

3.  G.  intermedia , Sur. 

4.  Gleopeltis  tenax , Kg.  ( Sphcerococcus  tenax , A g.). 

5.  Gl.  capillaris , Sur.,  Jap.  Shiraga-nori. 

6.  Gl.  coliformis , Harv.,  Jap.  Kek’kai. 

7.  Gl.  intricata , Sur.,  Jap.  Fu-nori. 

8.  Gelidium  corneum , Lamouroux,  Jap.  Tokoroten-gusa. 

9.  G.  Amansii,  Lamour. 

10.  G.  cartilagineuin , Gail. 

11.  G.  rigens,  Grev.,  Jap.  Tosaka-nori,  i.e.  cock’s-comb  algae. 

1 2.  Sphcerococcus  confervoides , Ag.,  J ap.  Shiramo. 

13.  Gyimiogongrous flabelliformis , Harv.,  Jap.  Home-nori. 

14.  G.japonicus,  Sur.,  Jap.  Tsuno-mata. 

15.  Kallymenia  dentata , Jap.  Tosaka-nori. 

16.  Porphyra  vidgaris , Ag.,  Jap.  Asakusa-nori. 


(e)  Fruits,  Berries , and  Nuts. 

Japan,  like  China,  possesses  many  kinds  of  fruit  and  other  edible 
plants,  not  only  peculiar  sorts,  but  also  those  which  have  long 
been  distributed  over  a great  part  of  the  temperate  zone.  But 
most  of  them  lack  flavour,  being  insipid  and  in  our  judgment 
not  to  be  recommended.  Almost  all  our  favourite  fruits,  such  as 
apples,  pears,  cherries,  plums,  apricots,  peaches,  soon  lose  their 
aroma,  and  degenerate  somewhat  in  form  and  size  too,  when  trans- 
planted to  Japan  or  China.  Hence  Californian  apples,  for  example, 
win  great  favour  and  have  a large  sale  among  foreigners,  during 
the  winter  months,  in  all  the  larger  ports  of  Eastern  Asia,  from 
Yokohama  to  Singapore.  The  cause  of  this  degeneracy  of  fruit  in 
Japan  and  China,  especially  the  loss  of  aroma,  may  possibly  be  the 
climate,  particularly  in  the  damp,  rainy  summers,  but  this  has  not 
yet  been  definitely  ascertained  And  the  land  is  ill  provided  with 
berries,  too.  Our  black  mulberries,  currants, gooseberries,  raspberries, 
bilberries,  and  other  kinds  do  not  exist  there  at  all,  and  strawberries 
and  grapes  only  scantily  and  in  poor  quality.  The  wild  berries 
that  are  eaten  are  mostly  unpleasant  to  our  taste.  Tropical  berry- 
fruits  do  not  enter  into  the  question,  as  the  most  important  and 
hardiest  of  them,  the  banana,  does  not  come  to  maturity,  even  in 
Satsuma. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


83 


It  is  worthy  of  note  that  dwarf  training,  so  popular  in 
Japan  with  decorative  plants,  is  seldom  applied  to  fruit-trees. 
The  same  is  true  of  pyramidal,  cordon,  and  wall-fruit  training 
which  are  so  much  esteemed  and  so  widely  known  in  Europe. 
A few  kinds  of  fruit  do  receive  special  attention,  however,  such 
as  grapes,  oranges,  peaches,  and  pears,  but  even  with  these 
such  care  is  not  universal.  It  may  be  that  this  results  from  a 
national  peculiarity  of  taste,  for  that  of  many  races  differs  from 
ours  even  in  respect  to  mere  material  things.  For  instance,  a 
number  of  fruits,  such  as  apples  and  pears,  are  eaten  in  Japan,  as 
well  as  in  Morocco  and  China,  while  still  hard  and  green,  or  at  least 
gathered  thus  and  put  away  to  ripen,  as  the  Biwa  ( Eriobotrya 
japonica ).  Quite  in  accordance  with  this  liking,  the  Japanese  value 
their  handsome  and  juicy  though  hard  and  unaromatic  pears, 
which  De  Candolle 1 rightly  calls  “ plus  beau  que  bon ,”  and  which 
most  foreigners  cannot  endure. 

Among  the  few  well-flavoured  fruits  of  Japan  come  first  of  all 
mandarin  oranges,  persimons  and  chestnuts,  to  which  Eastern  Asia 
is  an  ancient  home.  Mandarin  oranges  were  long  ago  transplanted 
to  Southern  Europe  and  elsewhere  from  their  oldest  home  in  China, 
but  Kaki  has  been  only  lately  introduced.  The  chestnut  is  so 
widely  distributed  and  so  easily  becomes  wild,  that  it  is  very 
difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  determine  its  original  starting-point. 
A fourth  kind  of  fruit,  however,  from  Eastern  Asia,  the  Eriobotrya 
japonica,  has  attained  with  astonishing  rapidity  to  successful  culti- 
vation in  almost  all  tropical  and  sub-tropical  climates  inhabited  by 
Europeans.  The  explanation  of  this  is  easily  to  be  found  in  the 
character  of  the  plant. 

The  following  enumeration  and  description  of  edible  Japanese 
fruits  is  based  upon  W.  Lauche’s  practical  classification  in  his 
“ Handbuch  des  Obstbaues.”  Omitting  the  plants  of  agriculture 
proper,  the  Cucurbitaceae,  for  instance,  which  have  been  already 
considered,  we  divide  them  into  kernel  and  stone  fruit,  berries,  and 
nuts. 

( a ) Kernel-fruit. 

1.  Pyrus  sinensis , Lindl.  (P.  usuriensis,  Maxim.),  the  pears,  Jap. 
Nashi.  This  tree  originated  in  Mantchooria  and  Mongolia.  It  was 
evidently  distributed  early  over  China,  Corea,  and  Japan,  where, 
next  to  Kaki,  it  yields  the  commonest  fruit.2  This  variety  is  dis- 
tinguished from  our  common  pear-tree  chiefly  by  its  leaves  and 
fruit.  The  former  are  large  and  always  sharply  dentated.  The 
Japanese  pears,  like  our  cherries  and  many  apples,  are  spherical 
and  somewhat  flattened  at  both  ends.  They  are  all  large,  with 
thick,  bronze-yellow  skins,  which  are  covered  with  little  light-grey 

1 “ L’origine  des  plantes  cultivees.”  Paris,  1883,  p.  136. 

2 Decaisne  in  his  “ Jardin  fruitier  du  Musdum  Poitiers,”  pi.  5,  gives  a good 
illustration  of  it ; and  the  Revue  Horticole , a few  years  ago,  furnished  another 
equally  good. 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


spots.  They  do  not  differ  so  much  among  themselves  as  our  pears 
in  regard  to  season,  size,  shape,  colour,  or  flavour.  The  early 
pears,  which  ripen  in  August,  are,  I think,  smaller  than  those  of  the 
general  crop,  which  follow  one  or  two  months  later,  but  in  other 
respects  they  do  not  differ  essentially  from  them.  The  flesh  is 
coarse,  full  of  lumps,  of  a yellow  colour,  very  juicy  and  tolerably 
sweet,  but  lacks  the  mellowness  and  aroma  of  our  pears.  The 
taste  resembles  that  of  ours  when  green.  In  addition  to  the 
judgment  of  De  Candolle,  cited  above,  there  is  another  in  the 
Revue  Horticole , which  deliberately  says  that  Japanese  pears  are 
poor  fruit. 

The  plant  is  as  a rule  propagated  through  shoots,  though  some- 
times through  seeds  and  subsequent  grafting.  Between  the  middle 
and  the  end  of  March,  stout,  healthy  yearling  shoots,  42  to  45 
cm.  long,  are  whittled  to  a point,  and  the  ends  are  then  charred 
over  a slow  fire.  The  shoots  thus  prepared  are  set  out  one  after 
another  in  furrows,  in  good  soil,  manured  with  compost,  and  then 
packed  around  with  earth.  Transplanting  takes  place  a few  years 
later. 

Pear-trees  are  most  frequently  met  singly  in  Japan,  as  with  us, 
growing  high  with  natural  development,  and  evidently  without 
special  attention.  In  northern  Honshiu  the  mistletoe  ( Viscutn 
album , L.)  often  finds  lodgment  upon  them,  though  more  frequently 
still  on  Castanea  vulgaris  Lamk.,  and  also  on  deciduous  oaks. 
This  mistletoe  differs  from  ours  in  its  wine-coloured  berries. 

Quite  another  method  of  treatment  and  much  greater  care  is 
employed  with  pear-trees  here  and  there  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
large  cities,  e.g.,  at  Kawasaki,  between  T6kio  and  Yokohama.  The 
trees  here  are  planted  in  rows  at  equal  intervals  of  twelve  Shaku 
(3 '64  metres)  in  all  directions.  They  are  manured  twice  a year. 
For  this  purpose  circular  rings  are  dug  about  the  trunks.  These  are 
closed  again  after  being  filled  with  manure.  Then,  too,  the  ground 
is  kept  clear  of  weeds  and  loosened  from  time  to  time.  At  a height 
of  five  or  six  Shaku  (150  to  180  cm.),  the  tree-tops  are  bent  hori- 
zontally, after  the  manner  of  our  arbours.  Rows  of  posts,  as  well  as 
cross-bars  of  bamboo  cane,  serve  as  supports  to  the  branches. 

When  I inspected  these  plantations  more  closely,  about  the  end 
ef  April,  blossoming-time  was  over,  and  I found  the  owners  busy 
cutting  away  the  new  shoots,  20  to  25  cm.  long,  lest  they  should 
withdraw  nourishment  from  the  abundant  young  fruit.  I learned 
on  this  occasion  that  such  an  orchard  has  to  be  renewed  every  fifty 
or  sixty  years.  The  pears  ripen  here  at  the  end  of  August,  becom- 
ing very  large  and  a beautiful  yellow-brown,  running  into  grey- 
brown.  They  appear  to  keep  for  a very  long  time,  but  are  just  as 
watery  in  flavour  and  deficient  in  aroma  as  the  others. 

2.  Pyrus  malus,  L.,  the  apple-tree.  This  tree  and  its  insignificant 
fruit,  Jap.  Ringd,  are  so  infrequent  that  many  a foreigner  dwells  in 
the  country  for  years  without  seeing  them. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


85 


3.  Pyrus  Cydonia,  L.  ( Cydonia  vulgaris , Pers.).  The  quince, 
Jap.  Marumero,  was  introduced  by  the  Portuguese,  and  is  found 
scattered  all  over  Japan,  planted  about  houses,  though  not  fre- 
quent. 

4.  Cydonia  sinensis , Thouin  {Pyrus  ckinensis,  Poir.).  The  Chinese 
quince,  Jap.  Kuwarin,  is  likewise  grown  here  and  there.  Its  fruit 
is  smaller  than  that  of  the  former  variety,  and  is  made  into  pre- 
serve. The  product  of  P.japonica , Thunb.,  a nearly  related  native 
sort,  is  scarcely  used  at  all  and  cannot  be  looked  upon  as  fruit. 

5.  Eriobotrya  japonica , Lindl.  ( Mespilus  japonica , Thunb.,  Pho- 
tinia  japonica , Fr.  and  Sav.).  The  Japanese  name  for  the  plant 
and  its  product  is  Biwa,  Chin.  Lu-kuh,  Engl.  Loquat,  French 
Bibasier,  Nefles  du  Japon,  Span.  Nispero  de  Japon.  In  Japan, 
China,  and  Corea,  this  peculiar,  beautiful  variety  of  fruit  is  esteemed 
as  the  first  crop  of  the  new  year  and  has  been  cultivated  from 
early  times,  though  not  extensively.  I have,  for  example,  only  seen 
scattered  trees  near  peasants’  dwellings  in  Japan,  and  never  large 
orchards.1  In  the  more  central  parts  of  Japan  the  fruit  does  not 
mature  before  June;  as  a rule,  however,  it  is  plucked  by  the 
bushelful  before  that  time  and  put  away  (with  some  of  the  leaves, 
to  the  detriment  of  its  flavour),  to  get  ripe  afterwards. 

The  fact  that  Kaempfer  in  his  day  mentions  the  presence  of  the 
Loquat  in  Java  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  long  ago  it  was  spread 
all  over  Eastern  Asia.  In  1787  Sir  Joseph  Banks  brought  it  to 
England.  Since  then  it  has  been  introduced  into  almost  all  warm 
countries,  eg.,  most  of  the  English  colonies,  the  whole  Mediter- 
ranean region,  and  the  West  Indies,  for  it  recommends  itself, 
equally  for  ornament  and  fruit,  and  also  for  its  easy  cultivation  and 
quick  growth. 

It  is  a tall  bush  or  small  tree,  making  a pleasing  and  stately 
appearance  with  its  large  leaved  evergreen  foliage  and  still  more  so 
when  covered  with  white  bunches  of  blossoms  or  a wealth  of  yellow 
fruit.  It  begins  to  bear  in  the  third  year,  producing  abundantly 
between  the  sixth  and  tenth  ; flourishes  in  a light  soil,  and  has 
withstood  — 90  C.  of  cold  on  the  Riviera  and  by  the  lakes  of 
Northern  Italy,  when  many  native  fruit-trees  perished.  It  is  easily 
propagated,  by  means  of  cuttings  or  seeds.  In  the  Bermudas, 
whither  the  Biwa  was  brought  from  Malta  forty-five  years  ago, 
I found  ripe  fruit  on  March  3rd,  in  Malaga  on  April  7th,  in 
Gibraltar  on  April  14th.  But  May  and  the  beginning  of  June  are 
the  proper  season  of  maturity  in  most  Mediterranean  countries,  as 
for  example,  in  Seville,  where  long  rows  of  large  fine  bushes  can 
be  seen  in  the  garden  of  the  Duke  of  Montpensier.  Not  only  in 

1 It  also  seems  to  me  very  doubtful  whether  Eriobotrya  was  derived  from 
Japan  and  not  rather  transplanted  thither  from  China  in  very  early  times,  and 
then  allowed  to  go  wild  in  different  localities,  although  the  authors  of  works  on 
Japanese  flora,  from  Kaempfer  and  Thunberg  on,  call  it  indigenous.  I myself 
have  never  found  it  except  under  cultivation. 


86 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


the  Mediterranean  region,  but  in  the  West  Indies  too,  I have  found 
that  the  Biwa  becomes  larger,  handsomer,  and  better  flavoured 
than  in  their  Japanese  home.  The  shape,  too,  has  changed.  In 
Japan  the  fruit  is  usually  more  or  less  spherical  and  as  large  as 
big  heart-cherries,  in  the  adopted  countries  mentioned  it  is  often 
found  in  the  form  of  a club  or  pear.  The  flesh,  which  is  furnished 
with  a yellow  epidermis,  lies  loosely  about  I to  6 large  kernels ; it 
is  very  juicy  and  of  a tart,  refreshing  flavour,  but  without  much 
aroma,  When  not  fully  ripe,  however,  it  tastes  sour,  and  when 
kept  too  long,  insipid.  The  Biwa  forms  a transition  to  the  group — 

( b ) Stone-fruit. 

6.  A mygdalus  persica , L.,  Jap.  Momo  or  T6.  Peaches  are  by  far 
the  most  popular  and  widely-distributed  stone-fruit  of  Japan. 
They  are  of  Chinese  origin,  and  indeed  de  Candolle  considers 
China  to  have  been  in  general  the  home  of  this  plant.  Several 
varieties  are  found.  They  are  smaller  than  the  Chinese  peaches 
and  most  of  ours,  being,  moreover,  much  inferior  to  the  latter  in 
taste.  Many  large  orchards  exist,  where  they  are  carefully  culti- 
vated. Light  sandy  soil  is  chosen,  as  in  the  Mediterranean  region 
and  the  United  States.  The  trees  are  planted  in  rows  and  are 
trimmed  to  medium  height.  The  ground  is  kept  free  from 
weeds. 

7.  Prunns  armeniaca , L.,  Jap.  Andzu,  apricots  of  the  small- 
fruit  kind  found  in  Southern  Europe,  and  seen  often  in  Germany 
also,  and  called  by  Duhamel  “ abricot  de  Portugal.”  They  are  here 
and  there  offered  for  sale  in  July,  but  in  general  are  rare.  I found 
them  to  be  not  materially  different  from  ours  in  appearance  and 
taste. 

8.  Prunus  insititia,  L.,  and  P.  domestica,  L.  Real  damsons,  as 
well  as  cherries,  are  not  found  in  Japan.  Of  the  many  sub- 
species of  plums  one  meets  now  and  then  a few  the  fruit  of  which 
looks  good  enough,  but  it  tastes  insipid  and  watery.  They  have 
evidently,  like  the  apricots,  found  no  great  favour,  and  were  pro- 
bably introduced  some  time  ago  by  the  Portuguese  or  Dutch.  The 
name  Hadankio  is  applied  to  a big  yellow  egg-plum,  which  recalls 
Dame-Aubert  (Duhamel).  Botankio  is  a red  variety,  possibly 
identical  with  Prunns  oxycarpa,  (Bechstein).  There  is  also  a kind 
resembling  the  Victoria  plum. 

9.  But  the  common  red  plum  of  Japan,  called  Su-momo,  is  Prunus 
japonicus , Thunb. 

10.  Prunus  Mume,  S.  and  Z.  ( Amygdalus  na?ia,  Thunb.),  Jap. 
Mume,  Bai,  Japanese  apricot-tree  (Lauche).  This  species,  a 
favourite  plant  of  the  Japanese,  and  as  such  largely  grown  in 
gardens  and  temple-groves,  is  cultivated  chiefly  on  account  of  its 
blossoms.  Its  round,  pubescent  fruit  resembles  apricots  in  form,  or 
rather  small,  hard  peaches.  It  is  hard  and  sour,  and  as  a rule  is 
eaten  salted  or  dried,  under  the  name  Ume  (Mume)-boshi  or  Haku- 
bai.  It  is  also  made  into  vinegar. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


87 


11.  Primus  tomentosa,  Thunb.,  Jap.  Isora  mume,  The  felt-leaf 
apricot-tree,  as  Lauche  calls  it,1  is  only  a shrub  with  red  fruit,  look- 
ing and  tasting  like  cherries.  I saw  the  fruit  for  sale  in  Waka- 
yama, and  often  observed  the  shrub  which  it  adorns  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  dwellings  in  Kishiu.  That  the  fruit  of  the  Yama- 
sakura  (Pr.  pseudo-cerasus,  Lindl.),  too,  is  eaten,  as  Siebold  affirms, 
and  of  the  Man’-zaku  (A  incisa , Thunb.),  as  Kinch  says,  is  un- 
known to  me. 

12.  Zizyphus  vulgaris , Lam.,  var.  inennis , Bunge,  Jap.  Natsume 
and  Sanebuto-natsume.  In  the  Kew  collection,  under  the  title  Z. 
iujuba,  Lamk.,  there  are  specimens  from  China,  Japan,  India,  etc., 
and  seeds  of  this  plant  are  said  to  have  been  found  in  an  old 
Roman  amphora,  in  London,  in  1864.  In  ancient  times  it  was 
widely  grown  in  the  civilized  states  of  Asia.  It  is  cultivated  here 
and  there  in  Japan,  though  not  to  the  same  extent  as  in  Corea. 
Its  trees  grow  unprotected  to  a height  of  6 to  8 meters,  blossoming 
in  June,  and  bearing  in  autumn.  Its  oval  or  elliptical  fruit  is  the 
size  of  olives,  and  has  a yellow  or  reddish  epidermis,  which 
encloses  a tart-tasting  flesh,  that  is  either  eaten  raw,  or  put  to  a 
medicinal  use.  In  the  northern  provinces  of  China,  where  “jujubes  ” 
are  extensively  cultivated,  they  are  preserved  in  honey,  in  which 
state  they  resemble  dried  dates  in  shape,  colour,  and  taste,  at  least, 
if  not  in  size.  Hence  one  finds  them  often  spoken  of  as  “ dates,” 
or  “ Chinese  dates,”  names  which  might  easily  occasion  a mis- 
apprehension. 

13.  Hovenia  didcis,  Thunb.,  Jap.  Kempon-nashi.  Kaempfer,  who 
gives  a picture  of  a branch  with  leaves  and  fruit,  compares  this 
tree,  in  passing,  with  a medium-sized  pear-tree  (“Am.  Exot.,” 
p.  808).  It  belongs  to  the  same  family  as  the  preceding,  but  bears 
a totally  different  fruit,  in  so  far  as  its  singularly  fleshy,  thickened 
stems  are  concerned,  though  not  the  fruit  itself.  The  sweet  taste 
of  these  stems  reminds  one  somewhat  of  our  pears,  and  is  much 
liked,  especially  by  children.  The  tree  flourishes  quite  well  in  the 
warmer  parts  of  Europe.2 

14.  Cornus  officinalis , S.  and  Z.  {C.  sanguinea , Thunb.,  C.  ignorata , 
K.  Koch.),  Jap.  Sanshib-nayu,  is  cultivated  here  and  there  for  the 
sake  of  its  fruit.  The  big  bushes,  or  little  trees,  which  I found  in 
the  summer  of  1875  growing  near  mandarin  oranges  in  Yamato, 
reminded  me  forcibly  of  our  common  cornelian-cherry  ( C.  mas,  L.), 
which  is  closely  allied  to  the  scarlet,  egg-shaped  stone-fruit. 

15.  Elcsagnus  umbellata,  Thunb.  (E.  parvifolia , Royle),  Jap. 
Gumi.  The  umbelliferous  olive,  which  is  frequently  found  growing 
wild  in  Japan,  though  also  cultivated  for  decorative  purposes,  bears 
a small,  round,  pink  fruit,  with  a stone.  Children  especially  are 
very  fond  of  its  flesh.  The  same  holds  true,  though  perhaps  not 

1 Lauche  : “ Dendrologie.”  Berlin,  1880,  p.  643. 

2 See  Philippe  : “ Sur  1’Eucalyptus  globulus  et  l’Hovenia  dulcis.  Bull.  Soc. 
Accl.,”  ser.  2,  i.  p.  196  (1864). 


88 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


to  the  same  extent,  of  the  remaining  species  of  Elaeagnus,  for 
which  Gumi  is  the  generic  term. 

(c)  Berries. 

1 6.  Diospyros  Kaki,  L.  fil.,  Jap.  Kaki,  Chinese  Shi-tse,  Fr. 
plaqueminier,  Eng.  persimon — the  date-plum  or  lotus-plum  tree. 
This  Ebenacea,  remarkable  also  on  account  of  its  wood,  is  un- 
deniably the  most  widely  distributed,  most  important,  and  most 
beautiful  fruit-tree  in  Japan,  Corea,  and  Northern  China.1  In  Japan 
it  endures  night  frosts,  at  a temperature  of  from  — 12°  C.  to  — 16°  C. 
It  can  be  cultivated  high  up  in  the  valleys  and  far  beyond  the  limit 
of  the  bamboo-cane.  It  is  a stately  tree,  after  the  fashion  of  a 
pear-tree,  with  beautiful  deciduous  leaves,  almost  as  large  as  those 
of  some  magnolias,  but  of  bright-green  colour  and  resembling  those 
of  the  pear  in  shape  only.  The  new  leaves  come  in  May,  blossoms  in 
June,  the  season  of  ripe  fruit  is  late  in  autumn,  from  the  middle  of 
September  to  the  end  of  November.  Thunberg  (“  Flor.  jap.,” 
p.  158)  strikingly  describes  this  handsome  berry  (from  the  size  of 
an  egg  to  that  of  a man’s  fist),  as  follows  : — 

“ Fomum  subglobosum,  obsolete  tetragonum,  glabrum,  imma- 
turum  viride,  maturum  flavum,  basi  truncatum,  calyce  persistente 
ornatum,  obtusum  stigmate  persistente,  octovalve,  octoloculare, 
magnitudine  pomi  mediocris,  sapore  fere  pruni  albi  dulcis, 
carnosum.” 

There  are  many  kinds  of  Kaki,  ranging  in  size  from  a small 
hen’s  egg  to  a big  apple.  Some  are  nearly  spherical,  others 
oblong,  others  heart-shaped.  In  colour  of  the  outer  skin  they 
run  from  light  orange-yellow  to  deep  orange-red.  They  are  dis- 
tinguished also  by  their  taste,  which  is  pleasant  in  its  way  and 
reminds  one  of  tomatoes,  as  does  the  colour  also.  They  are  eaten 
not  only  in  a soft,  doughy  condition,  in  which  those  of  the 
Migako-no-djo,  in  the  province  Hiuga,  are  prized  most  highly,  but 
the  fruit  is  gathered  while  still  hard,  to  ripen  afterwards.  The  best 
in  Japanese  estimation  are  Tarugaki , i.e.,  “tub  persimons,”  which 
have  been  converted  from  astringent  into  sweet  fruit  by  being  kept 
in  an  old  sake  tub.  The  bitter,  astringent  taste  of  all  green  Kaki 
remains,  even  in  the  ripe  fruit,  in  the  case  of  most  varieties,  and  it 
is  from  these  that,  during  the  summer,  an  astringent  fluid,  rich  in 
tannin,  is  prepared  (called  Shibu),  an  acid  of  considerable  importance 
in  several  industries.  (See  paragraph  in  the  next  section.)  When 
over-ripe  and  dried  in  the  sun,  pressed  somewhat  flat,  and  then 
put  away  in  boxes,  the  sweet  Kaki  get  to  look  and  taste  in  a few 
months,  when  skinned,  like  dried  figs,  and  are  used  like  them. 
The  white  powder  which  covers  these  dried  persimons  in  boxes  is 
natural  sugar  that  has  exuded  from  the  fruit. 

In  September,  the  Kaki-tree,  laden  with  large,  orange-coloured 

1 Thus,  for  example,  Markham,  in  his  “ Travels  through  the  Province  of 
Shantung,”  in  the  Journ.  Roy.  Geogr.  Soc.  (1870),  says,  “Persimmon-trees 
abound.” 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


89 


fruit,  is  a great  ornament  to  the  landscape.  This  beauty  it  pre- 
serves till  it  loses  its  leaves  in  October.1 

The  summer  of  Germany  is  not  long  enough  or  warm  enough  for 
Diospyros  Kaki ; its  winter,  as  a rule,  too  cold.  The  tree  and  its 
fruit,  however,  do  well  about  the  lakes  of  Northern  Italy — -at  Intra, 
for  example,  and  on  the  Riviera,  and  in  the  sub-tropical  parts 
of  the  Iberian  peninsula.  In  Southern  California,  too,  at  Santa 
Barbara,  for  instance,  it  has  been  raised  successfully. 

17.  Diospyros  Lotus , L.  (D.  Kaki,  Thunb.  var.  /3.,  D.  japonica,  S. 
and  Z.),  Jap.  Shinano-gaki,  that  is,  Kaki  of  the  province  of  Shinano, 
is  frequently  regarded  as  a wild  form  of  the  foregoing  species.  Its 
small  and  indifferent-tasting  fruit  does  not  get  ripe  before  late 
autumn,  after  the  tree  has  cast  its  leaves.  It  resembles  wild  apples 
and  wild  pears. 

The  representatives  of  the  Aurantiacece  come  next  to  date-plums 
in  importance  as  berries,  although  their  cultivation  is  limited  to 
the  warmer  parts  of  Japan,  and  their  use  is  by  no  means  as  general 
and  multifarious. 

First  of  all  comes — 

18.  Citrus  nobilis , Lour.,  Jap.  Mikan,  the  mandarin  orange.  Its 
home  appears  to  be  China  and  Cochin  China.  As  late  as  the 
beginning  of  this  century,  it  was  a novel  feature  in  gardens  in  the 
countries  along  the  Mediterranean.  It  is  as  easily  distinguishable 
by  the  smallness  of  its  growth  (being  a bush,  rather  than  a tree)  as 
by  its  well-known  fruit.  It  has  been  grown  in  Japan  for  many 
hundreds  of  years.  The  northern  boundary  of  its  successful  culture 
in  Hondo  is  near  Atami,  and  next  to  it  in  the  Peninsula  of  Yamato. 
The  mountains  here,  with  spurs  running  southward,  shelter  the 
valleys  from  rude  winds,  and  the  influence  of  warm  southern 
currents  is  felt.  Mikan,  therefore,  is  produced  chiefly  in  the  valleys 
of  Ise  and  Kishiu,  especially  in  the  district  of  Arita  (Arita-gori) 
north-east  of  Wakayama.  The  blossoming  time  here  is  the  end  of 
May  and  the  early  part  of  June.  (In  Malaga  I have  seen  bushes 
in  full  bloom  as  early  as  April  7.)  This  region  supplies  the  demand 
of  the  three  Fu,  or  capital  cities,  particularly  of  Tokio.  Man- 
darin oranges  come  to  T6kio  for  sale  in  large  quantities  all 
through  winter,  and  are  cheap.  They  grow  in  many  places  in 
Southern  Japan  ; but  I never  saw  any  large  orchards. 

19.  Citrus  aurantium,  L. 

(a)  C.  a.  Bigaradia,  Brandis  and  Hooker  (C.  vulgaris , Risso), 
Jap.  Daidai,  the  bitter  orange,  called  Seville  orange  by  the 
English. 

(/3)  C.  a.  sinense,  Galisco  (C.  aurantium,  Risso),  Jap.  Kunembo,  the 
orange,  thick-skinned  and  not  highly  prized. 

1 In  the  spring  of  1884  I was  strikingly  reminded  of  its  appearance  when  leaf- 
less by  seeing  some  orange-trees  near  Cordoba,  which  had  lost  their  leaves  in 
consequence  of  an  unusual  degree  of  cold  at  the  beginning  of  the  preceding 
winter,  but  were  still  laden  with  frozen  fruit. 


go 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


20.  Citrus  decumana , L.,  Jap.  Zabon,  the  shaddock.  I found 
specimens  of  it  from  various  parts  of  Bungo,  in  an  exhibition  at 
Funai.  They  differ  considerably  from  those  of  Southern  Europe 
in  shape  and  size,  and  are  especially  inferior  to  the  splendid  shad- 
docks of  the  West  Indian  islands,  where  the  family  of  the  Auranti- 
aceae  undoubtedly  attain  their  highest  point  of  productiveness. 
More  frequent  still  are  the  smallest  of  this  family  in  Japan — the 
Kinkan,  or  fruits  of 

21.  Citrus  japonica,  Thunb.,  which  maybe  regarded  as  a transi- 
tion to  lemons  and  citrons.  They  become  ripe  in  December  and 
January,  and  are  sent  to  market  at  Tokio  in  great  quantities. 
From  12  to  15  are  sold  for  five  farthings.  That  they  are  “valde 
dulces,  grati  et  edules,”  as  Thunberg  affirms,  is  more  than  I can 
admit.  They  are  rich  in  citric  acid  and  always  reminded  me  of 
Citrus  lima , Risso  (Eng.  lime).  Two  varieties  are  distinguished, 
as  Siebold  also  states. 

(a.)  Kin-kan,  with  spherical  fruit  about  the  size  of  a large  cherry. 

(b.)  To-kinkan,  i.e.,  Chinese  Kin-kan,  similar  in  size,  but  oval 
in  shape.  Kaempfer  compares  the  Kinkan,  in  form  and  size,  not 
inappropriately,  with  nutmegs.  They  present  a handsome  appear- 
ance. Their  smooth,  light  orange-coloured  skin  is  dotted  with 
green  dimples,  and  is  very  aromatic.  The  flesh,  however,  is  used 
like  that  of  lemons,  on  account  of  its  acidity. 

C.  aurantium  microcarpum  and  C.  a.  minimum , Dierbach  1 seem 
to  be  identical  with  Kinkan  (C.  japonica,  Thunb.).  A note  on  the 
“ Limonier  du  Bresil  ” in  the  old  botanical  garden,  under  an  article 
in  the  Revue  Horticole  of  1880,  treating  of  remarkable  orna- 
mental plants  in  Lisbon,  probably  refers  to  the  same  variety,  for  it 
says  that  the  old  tree  bears  small  round  lemons  every  year,  as  big 
as  medium-sized  plums. 

22.  Citrus  media , Risso,  Jap.  Tebushiu-kan,  the  citron,  var. 
cliirocarpus,  L.,  Jap.  Bushiu-kan,  oval,  with  a thick,  lumpy  and  very 
aromatic  skin.  It  is  not  frequent. 

23.  Citrus  medica  Limonum , Brandis  and  Hooker,  Jap.  Yudzu, 
the  lemon  of  the  English. 

24.  Punica  granatum , L.,  Jap.  Zakuro.  This  low  tree  is  found, 
though  but  singly,  much  farther  north  than  the  Aurantiaceae.  I 
saw  it  as  far  north  as  Kaga  and  Aidzu  in  gardens  ; and  in 
Yonezawa  and  Sendai  I noticed  the  ripe  fruit  for  sale,  which 
was  evidently  grown  in  the  vicinity.  It  was  of  medium  size 
and  did  not  taste  as  good  as  that  raised  in  the  Mediterranean 
region. 

25.  Ficus  carica,  L.,  Jap.  Ichijiku  and  To-kaki,  i.e.,  Chinese 
Kaki.  According  to  Thunberg,  the  common  fig-tree  was  introduced 
by  the  Portuguese.  Its  cultivation,  however,  remained  only  limited. 
In  China,  too  (according  to  Williams),  the  Portuguese  tried  to 

1 Dierbach  : “ Grundiss  der  allgemeinen  okon.  techn.  Botanik.”  Heidelberg, 
1836. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


9i 


popularize  fig-culture,  but  without  success,  as  the  fruit  did  not 
have  a pleasant  taste. 

26.  Morus  alba,  L.,  Jap.  Kuwa.  The  fruit  of  the  different  sub- 
species of  this  plant,  the  silk-worm  mulberry,  is  seldom  eaten.  It 
is  not  always  white.  There  are  some  varieties  with  black  berries, 
as  was  noted  by  Kaempfer.  Thunberg  surely  misunderstands  him 
when  he  adduces  Morus  nigra,  L.,  and  refers  it  to  Kaempfer.  The 
edible  black  mulberry  is  not  found  in  Japan. 

27.  Vitis  vinifera,  L.,  Jap.  Budo.  Grapes  are  offered  for  sale, 
late  in  autumn,  in  almost  all  Japanese  towns.  There  are  two  sorts, 
one  white,  and  a red  one  resembling  Muscatel.  These  grapes  are 
thick-skinned,  not  so  sweet  as  ours,  and  have  a bitter,  strange 
after- taste.  Kaempfer  was  not  unjust  when  he  declared  them  un- 
fit to  make  wine  of.1  There  is  a good  deal  of  probability  in  favour  of 
Thunberg’s  assumption  that  they  were  first  introduced  by  Europeans 
(probably  Portuguese).  Like  other  fruit,  they  have  degenerated, 
and  this  fact  almost  excludes  any  hope  that  Japan,  or  East  Asia 
in  general,  will  ever  become  a wine-growing  country. 

The  Koshiubudo,  i.e.,  Koshiu-grapes,  so  highly  prized  in  Tokio, 
come  mostly  from  Katsunuma  and  several  other  places  near  Kofu. 
They  are  here  grown  on  arbours,  like  the  pears  of  Kawasaki,  and  do 
not  get  ripe  till  September,  as  I noted  in  the  autumn  of  1874. 

28.  Vitis  Labrusca,  L.,  Jap.  Yama-budo,  i.e.,  wild  grapes  growing 
on  the  mountains.  This  species,  with  its  little  blue  berries  and  its 
peculiar  flavour,  resembles  the  small  early  Burgundy,  and  is  fre- 
quently on  sale  in  the  towns.  Vitis  Labrusca,  L.  is  distributed  in 
Eastern  Asia  very  much  as  it  is  in  the  Atlantic  forest-lands  of 
North  America. 

After  this  berry  comes  a long  list  of  others,  which  take  the  place 
of  fruit  with  the  Ainos,  for  example,  and  are  also  eaten  in  J apan 
Proper,  and  sometimes  exhibited  for  sale.  The  following  are  those 
most  worthy  of  notice  : 

29.  Akebia  quinata,  Decaisne  ( Rajania  quinata,  Thunb.),  Jap. 
Akebi,  and 

30.  A.  lobata,  Decaisne,  Jap.  Mitsuba-akebi,  i.e.,  trefoliate  Akebi. 

The  fruit  of  the  Akebie  resembles  small  cucumbers,  and  usually 

are  set  in  pairs  facing  each  other  on  a long  stem,  thus  recalling 
forcibly  the  product  of  Holbcellia  latifolia,  Wall.,  of  Sikkim.  It 
ripens  in  September,  when  it  averages  iocm.in  length,  and  12  to  15  cm. 
in  girth  ; is  white,  grey  or  brown,  and  elliptical  in  shape.  It  springs 
up  lengthwise.  Its  exterior  fleshy  coating,  under  the  husk,  is  not 
good  to  eat.  A white,  transparent,  mucilaginous  mass  with  a sweet 
pleasant  taste  surrounds  the  countless  little  seeds,  and  is  all  that 
is  edible.  It  is  common  in  autumn  to  see  the  husks  of  Akebie 
lying  along  the  path,  and  to  meet  women  and  children  busy  gather- 
ing this  peculiar  fruit. 


1 “ Adeoque  ad  oenopasiam  haud  idonea.” — Am.  exot.  p.  786. 


92 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


31.  Actinidia  arguta , Planchon  ( T rocho stigma  arguta , S.  and  Z.), 
Jap.  Kokuwa,  Shira-kuchi-katsura,  and  Saru-nashi  (monkey  pear), 
is  like  all  Actinidiae  a deciduous  climbing  shrub,  which  is  fond  of 
insinuating  itself  into  the  crowns  of  low  trees,  whence  it  hangs  down 
with  its  numerous  branches  and  plentiful  fruit.  Its  white  blossoms 
resemble  in  shape  those  of  the  tea-plant,  and  appear  in  June. 
The  berries  ripen  in  autumn,  and  are  like  gooseberries  in  appear- 
ance and  size.  When  over-ripe,  they  smell  like  pears.  Bohmer 
found  their  taste  pleasing,  a combination  of  the  flavour  of  figs  and 
grapes.  I have  eaten  them  several  times,  even  when  over-ripe, 
finding  them  in  this  condition  not  so  agreeable. 

32.  Actinidia  polygama,  Planchon,  Jap.  Matatabi,  is  a climbing 
shrub  of  frequent  occurrence  in  thickets.  Its  soft,  ripe  berries,  with 
five-fold  green  calyxes,  are  of  elliptical  form  ; in  this,  as  in  size 
and  the  manner  in  which  they  taper  off.  bearing  a resemblance  to 
acorns.  Its  flesh  is  yellow  and  filled  with  small  seeds,  and  is  not 
eaten,  as  far  as  I know,  although  Kinch  says  this  fruit  is  edible. 
The  whole  plant,  however,  has  a remarkable  property — like  Valer- 
iana officinalis — it  attracts  cats ! This  is  referred  to  in  a well- 
known  Japanese  saying: 

“Neko  ni  matatabi,”  which  means  as  much  as:  “ He  can’t  let 
it  alone,  any  more  than  a cat  (neko)  can  matatabi.”  Both  of  these 
Actinidiae  exist  now  among  us  as  ornamental  climbing  shrubs. 

33.  Rubus,  Jap.  Ichigo.  Among  the  twenty-two  species  repre- 
sented in  Japan,  belonging  nearly  all  to  the  raspberry-group,  there 
are  only  a few  with  edible  fruit.  Siebald  enumerates  six,  Kinch 
eleven  ; but  several  should  certainly  be  struck  out  of  their  lists. 
The  raspberry  proper,  Rubus  Idceus,  L.,  var.  strigosa,  seems  to  be 
restricted  to  a few  localities  in  the  island  of  Yezo,  and  so,  too, 
with  the  whortleberry  or  moss-berry  R.  chamcemorus,  L.,  which  is 
so  general  on  the  moors  of  Northern  Europe.  In  addition  to  them, 
Kinch  mentions,  R.  triflorus,  Richards,  R.  Buergeri , Miq.,  R.  cor- 
chorifolius,  L.  fil.,  R.  incisus , Thunb.,  R.  cratcegifolius,  Bunge,  R. 
trifidus , Thunb.,  R.  Thunbergii , S.  and  Z.  R.  parvifolius , L.,  R. 
tokkura , S.  and  Z.  I have  tasted  the  products  of  most  of  these 
varieties  and  found  them  insipid. 

34.  Fragaria  vesca,  L.,  also  called  Ichigo  in  Japanese.  I have 
only  once  found  ripe,  well-flavoured  strawberries  in  Japan,  and  then 
it  was  on  Fujisan.  I have  never  seen  either  wild  strawberries  or 
those  raised  in  gardens  offered  for  sale,  which  is  proof  enough  of 
their  rarity.  The  name  Oranda-ichigo  for  Fragaria  chileusis , Ehrh., 
and  F.  grandiflora , Ehrh.,  the  pine-apple  strawberry,  points  to  the 
introduction  of  these  species  by  the  Dutch. 

35.  Rosa  rugosa , Thunb.,  Jap.  Hama-nashi,  i.e.,  coast-pear.  The 
large  onion-shaped  heps  or  false  fruit  of  this  beautiful  dune-plant 
are  eaten,  not  only  by  Ainos,  but  also  by  Japanese. 

36.  Vaccinium,  L.  From  this  division  the  blackberry  and  the  blue- 
berry ( V.  Myrtillis , L.,  and  V uliginosum , L.)  are  absent  altogether, 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


93 


while  among  the  sour  red-berry  species  of  any  account,  the  cran- 
berry (V.  Vitis  ldcea,  L.),  Jap.  Koke-momo  and  Iwa-momo,  and 
the  moss-berry  ( V.  oxycoccos , L.),  Jap.  Aka-momo  and  Iwa-haze 
appear  only  sporadically,  and  seem  confined  chiefly  to  Yezo,  so 
that  they  do  not  attain  to  any  great  importance. 

37.  Epigace  asiatica,  Maxim.  ( Parapyrola  trichocarpa , Miq.), 
Jap.  Iwa-nashi,  i.e.,  rock-pear.  To  what  extent  its  berry,  which 
reaches  the  thickness  of  a small  cherry,  is  capable  of  being  used 
for  food,  I cannot  judge.  The  plant,  however,  which  till  now  has 
been  very  little  known,  deserves  closer  attention,  on  account  of  its 
beautiful  evergreen  leaves  and  its  blossoms,  which  come  out  in 
March  and  April.  It  is  a small,  evergreen,  creeping  shrub.  I 
found  it  in  the  woods  about  Kioto,  and  according  to  Keiske  it  oc- 
curs also  in  Owari,  and  has  been  discovered,  besides,  in  the  north. 

(d)  Nuts. 

38.  Castanea  vulgaris , Lamk.  ( Fagus  castanea,  Thunb.),  Jap.  Kuri. 
When  one  considers  how  quickly  the  chestnut  becomes  wild,  even 
in  Germany,  eg.,  in  the  Black  Forest  and  along  the  Hardt  in  the 
Palatinate,  it  is  possible  to  grasp  the  difficulties  attending  any 
attempt  to  determine  the  border-line  between  its  range  as  a culti- 
vated tree  and  as  a spontaneous  growth.  Is  it,  for  example,  native 
or  gone  wild  in  England,  the  Caucasus,  Japan,  and  North  America? 
Various  reasons  are  in  favour  of  the  former  supposition.  Basing 
his  argument  on  them,  de  Candolle  says  in  his  book  on  “ L’origine 
des  plantes  cultives,”  already  so  often  cited  : “ Le  Chataignier,  de 
la  famille  des  Cupuliferes,  a une  habitation  naturelle  assez  etendue 
mais  disjointe,”  and  very  properly  regards  the  differences  between 
the  chestnut  of  the  North  American  Atlantic  forests,  that  native  to 
Japan,  and  that  found  in  the  western  part  of  the  Old  World,  as  too 
slight  to  justify  a specific  distinction.  We  therefore  regard  C.  vesca , 
L.  as  only  the  cultivated  form  of  C.  vulgaris,  Lamk.,  which  has 
differentiated  from  it  not  only  in  Europe  and  Western  Asia,  but 
also  in  Japan,  independently. 

What  Radde  says  about  the  occurrence  of  the  chestnut  in  the 
Caucasus,  is  of  force  also  with  regard  to  Japan.  The  tree  seeks  light 
and  shuns  hot  plains.  It  seldom  exists  in  solid,  homogeneous 
masses,  but  appears  in  scattered  groups,  in  sapling  thickets  and 
brushwood.  In  Japan  it  forms  thin  groves,  especially  on  mountain 
slopes  surrounding  valleys,  and  adjacent  to  the  higher-lying  forest 
of  various  kinds  of  trees.  It  attains  there  an  altitude  of  more  than 
800  m.  above  sea-level.  In  June,  when  its  whitish  yellow  catkins 
are  developed,  these  thin  chestnut  groves  stand  out  everywhere 
sharply  from  the  surrounding  woods,  as  one  may  see  at  Heidelberg 
Castle.  Chestnuts  are  not  used  as  food  to  such  an  extent  in  Japan 
as  elsewhere,  and  are  devoured  mostly  by  wild  swine.  I found  them 
cultivated  here  and  there  in  northern  Hondo  (once  even  in  a village 
as  an  umbrageous  tree),  but  most  frequently  in  Yonezawa,  where,  too, 
that  variety  has  been  evolved  which  we  call  Marrons.  This,  as  is 


94 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


well  known,  is  distinguished  by  the  fact  that  each  burr,  instead  of 
holding  two  or  three  nuts,  contains  only  one,  which  is  proportion- 
ally large. 

39-  Juglans  regia,  L.  ( Pterocarpa  japonica)  and 

40.  Juglans  Sieboldiana,  Maxim.  (/.  nigra,  T\mnb., J.mandschurica, 
Miq.).  Both  kinds  of  walnut  are  called  Kurumi  in  Japan  and 
are,  perhaps,  only  found  cultivated.  They  grow  over  a wide  area, 
though  nowhere  plentifully. 

41.  Corylus  heterophylla,  Fisch.  (C.  Avellana,  Thunb.),  Jap.  Hashi- 
bami,  mostly  growing  wild,  but  also  cultivated.  C.  rostrata,  Ait,  is 
more  rare. 

42.  Quercus  cuspidata , Thunb.,  Jap.  Shii.  The  small  acorns  of 
this  very  frequent,  evergreen  species  are  sold  under  the  name  of 
Shii-no-mi  (Shii-seeds)  and  eaten  roasted. 

43.  Pinus  koraiensis,  S.  and  Z.  (P.  Strobus,  Thunb.),  Jap.  Goyo- 
no-matsu.  The  seeds  of  this  pine  (probably  only  found  cultivated) 
are  eaten,  like  those  of  the  sweet-pine.  For  this  purpose  the  crop 
of  cones  is  publicly  sold  by  auction  at  the  castle  of  Morioka  in 
Nambu. 

44.  Torreya  nucifera , S.  and  Z.,  Jap.  Kaya.  The  edible  nuts 
are  used  chiefly  to  make  oil.  (See  Kaya-no-abura.) 

45.  Ginkgo  biloba,  L.  ( Salisburia  adiantifolia,  Smith),  Jap.  Icho 
or  Ginkiyo.  Its  fruit  is  called  Ginnan  (in  China  Pa-Kwa).  It  is 
really  stone-fruit,  of  the  same  size,  shape,  and  colour  as  large  mira- 
belles,  with  thin,  disagreeable  flesh,  and  seed-kernels  of  which  the 
taste  is  not  unlike  that  of  almonds.  According  to  Fortune,  Ginnan 
are  bought  and  sold  in  all  the  markets  in  China,  and  they  are  no 
less  highly  esteemed  in  Japan,  though  in  the  latter  country  the  tree 
is  not  grown  for  their  sake  as  in  China,  but  for  ornamental  pur- 
poses. (See  ornamental  plants.) 

46.  Trapa  bispinosa,  Roxb.,  Jap.  Hishi.  The  double-thorned 
water-nut  or  water-chestnut  is  found  in  stagnant  water  in  Eastern 
Asia,  from  Cashmere  to  Japan,  sometimes  growing  wild,  sometimes 
cultivated  for  its  fruit,  especially  in  China.  In  Japan  I often  saw 
it  in  weirs,  particularly  those  which  are  used  in  watering  rice-fields. 
The  variety  Trapa  incisa,  S.  and  Z.  (T.  natans,  Thunb.),  Jap.  Hime- 
bishi,  is  also  of  frequent  occurrence. 

47.  Nelumbium  speciosum,  Willd.  ( Neluinbo  nucifera,  Gaertn.), 
Jap.  Hasu.  The  elliptical  nuts,  Hasu-no-mi,  as  large  as  a small 
acorn,  of  a greyish  brown  externally  but  white  within,  and  having 
an  agreeable  nut-like  taste,  have  already  been  mentioned. 

(f)  Articles  of  Food  and  Luxury  as  Chemical  Products  of  the  Raw 
Materials  mentioned  wider  2 (a) — (e). 

Under  the  heading  “Alimenta  composita,”  Siebold,  in  his  cata- 
logue of  useful  Japanese  plants,  which  we  cited  above  (p.  36), 
names  a number  of  preparations  which  are  in  part  peculiar  to  that 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


95 


country,  and  are  of  great  interest  from  the  way  in  which  they  are 
obtained  and  utilized.  In  the  domestic  economy  of  the  Japanese 
— and  of  the  Chinese,  too,  to  some  extent— several  of  these  have 
played  for  centuries  the  indispensable  role  of  condiment  to  their  food, 
making  even  the  most  insipid  agreeable  to  the  taste.  In  this  way 
they  have  excited  attention  and  imitation,  more  or  less,  in  Europe, 
and  especially  in  England.  Others  find  a place  as  valuable  articles 
of  diet,  being  qualified,  by  their  large  proportion  of  nitrogen,  to  take 
the  place  of  meat.  Others  again  contain  sufficient  alcohol  and 
admixtures  of  it  to  produce  exaltation  and  make  the  head  heavy 
— a gratification  which,  it  seems,  many  people  even  in  Eastern 
Asia  cannot  deny  themselves.  And  for  these  intoxicating  drinks 
the  Government  shows  an  interest  scarcely  second  to  that  taken  by 
Christian  States  themselves,  in  that  it  has  for  a long  period  been 
drawing  revenue  from  them.  Thus  there  is  no  lack  of  the  necessary 
statistics  in  regard  to  production  and  consumption.  In  this  respect, 
at  least,  intoxicating  drinks  take  precedence  of  all  other  of  these 
products,  so  I set  them  at  the  head  of  the  following  list  and  now 
proceed  to  them. 

i.  Sake  or  Seishu  is  the  intoxicating  beverage  par  excellence  of 
Japan  and  both  its  western  neighbours.  It  is  prepared  from  rice, 
as  is  well  known,  but  has  little  resemblance  to  the  Indian  arrack. 
And  the  terms  “ rice-beer  ” and  “ rice-brandy  ” so  often  applied  to 
it  do  not  properly  characterize  it,  for  Sake  differs  widely  from  beer 
and  brandy,  especially  in  the  quantity  of  alcohol  contained  ; like 
wine,  occupying  in  this  respect  a place  mid-way  between  them. 
Foreigners  seldom  relish  the  peculiar  taste  of  Sake.  The  Japanese, 
however,  like  it  so  very  much  that  they  in  their  temple-feasts  do 
not  fail  to  set  some  of  it  before  the  gods,  with  their  favourite 
food,  in  ancient  fashion.  This  dedicated  Sake  is  called  Miki1  or 
6 Miki.  The  inhabitants  of  Japan  are  universally  fond  of  hot 
drinks,  be  it  even  warm  water,  in  default  of  tea  or  Sake,  and  so 
they  prefer  this  liquor  heated,  and  drink  it  from  their  small  cups 
of  porcelain  or  lacquered  wood. 

In  1874  Chief  Staff-surgeon  Hoffmann  gave  the  first  short  account 
of  Sak^  manufacture,  from  personal  observation.2  Four  years  later 
there  followed  a more  comprehensive,  scientific  work  on  the  subject 
by  Korschelt,3  and  at  last,  in  1 88 r , a second,  by  Atkinson,  a 
treatise  of  great  merit,4  which  supplements  that  of  Korschelt  in 
many  places,  and  has  been  made  use  of,  with  it,  for  what  follows 
here. 

1 Mi  is  a prefix  of  honour,  as  in  Mikado,  Midera,  and  Ke  or  Ki  is  the  oldest 
name  for  Sake. 

2 “ Sakd-  und  Myrin-Bereitung,”  von  Hoffmann.  “ Mitth.  der  deutsch. 
Gesellschaft  Ostasiens.”  6.  Heft,  1874. 

3 “ Ueber  Sake,”  von  O.  Korschelt.  16.  Heft.  1878,  von  den  “Mitth.  der 
deutsch.  Ges.  Ostasiens.” 

4 “The  Chemistry  of  Sakd-brewing ,”  by  R.  W.  Atkinson.  “ Memoirs  of  the 
Science  Department,  Tokio.”  Daigaku,  1881. 


96 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


It  seems  that  the  Japanese  became  closely  acquainted  with 
Sakd  at  the  beginning  of  the  third  century,  during  their  first  ex- 
pedition to  Corea.  At  least,  the  introduction  of  its  manufacture  is 
assigned  to  that  date.  It  was  a Chinese  process,  and  was,  too,  fur- 
ther perfected  by  the  Chinese.  For  many  centuries  great  difficulty 
was  experienced  from  the  summer  heat,  which  quickly  spoiled  the 
liquor.  Then,  about  300  years  ago,  a means  of  preserving  it  was 
discovered  in  the  very  heating.  In  those  days  the  Sake-distilleries 
at  Itami  and  Nishinomiya  on  the  road  (now  railway)  from  Hiogo 
to  Ozaka,  and  from  Ikeda,  had  already  attained  a great  reputation, 
which  they  have  kept  up  to  the  present  time,  despite  all  competition. 

However  much  the  process  may  differ  in  a few  secondary  respects, 
it  is  still  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  the  same  in  all  distilleries. 
Common  rice  (Uruchi)  is  everywhere  employed,  and  always  in  its 
hulled  shape,  never  the  glutinous  rice,  though  perhaps  that  is  simply 
because  it  is  considerably  dearer. 

After  the  Japanese  example,  Korschelt  notes  four  stages  in  the 
manufacture  of  Sakd,  namely  I,  the  production  of  Koji ; 2,  of  Moto  ; 
3,  the  main  process  ; and  4,  pressing  and  clarifying.  Atkinson  en- 
tirely separates  the  preparation  of  K6ji  from  the  three  other  sub- 
jects, treating  them  together  under  the  head  of  Sake-brewing 
proper. 

a.  Preparation  of  Koji  or  rice- ferment.  The  means  by  which  in 
making  Sake  the  farinaceous  meal  of  the  rice-grains  is  transformed 
and  got  ready  for  alcoholic  fermentation  is  called  K6ji,  being  thus 
similar  to  diastase  in  the  case  of  malt.  It  is,  moreover,  applied 
also  in  the  manufacture  of  Shoyu,  and  in  other  cases  likewise  where 
we  should  use  lees,  and  hence  its  production  is  a thing  by  itself, 
and  not  merely  a part  of  Sakd-distilling. 

K6ji  still  has  essentially  the  look  of  the  hulled  rice-grains  from 
which  it  was  made,  except  that  most  of  these  grains  are  now  loosely 
united  in  lumps  of  greater  or  less  size.  This  lumping  takes  place 
through  the  Mycelium  fibres  of  a mould-fungus  ( Eurotium  Oryzce, 
Ahlburg),  which  pierce  into  the  loosened  cellular  layer,  while  the 
walls  in  the  thicker  cells  about  the  centre  of  the  mass  have  acquired 
a horny  character,  so  that  the  single  starch-grains  are  no  longer 
distinguishable.  By  prolonged  contact  with  water  a considerable 
number  of  these  K6ji-grains  are  dissolved,  colouring  the  fluid 
yellow.  This  change  is  effected  still  more  quickly  and  completely 
in  warm  water,  so  that  often  only  the  cell-walls  and  Mycelium  fila- 
ments remain  undissolved.  In  this  way  between  30  and  60  per  cent,  of 
the  Koji  passes  into  solution.  As  Atkinson  has  shown,  this  soluble 
part  of  the  Koji  consists  principally  of  starch-sugar  and  dextrine, 
the  mutual  relation  of  which  is,  of  course,  subject  to  many  varia- 
tions, depending  upon  the  temperature  and  the  duration  of  the 
influence  of  the  fungus.  By  Tane-koji,  i.e.,  K6ji-seeds,  is  meant  a 
fine  yellow  powder,  the  spores  of  the  fungus,  as  revealed  by  the 
microscope. 


A GRICUL  RURAL  IND  US  TRIES. 


97 


Sake  is  manufactured  only  in  the  coldest  months,  from  Novem- 
ber to  February,  and  Koji  in  the  same  season.  But  preparations 
are  often  made  as  early  as  October.  The  hulled  rice  is  first  of  all 
washed  with  fresh  water,  the  latter  being  renewed  so  long  as  it 
gets  a milky  colour  from  the  rice.  Then  it  lies  one  night  in 
the  last  bath  of  water,  thus  becoming  soft.  Steam  does  the  rest. 
This  is  made  in  an  iron  boiler  and  then  let  loose  amid  the  rice,  so 
that  there  is  no  possibility  of  sprouting  and  developing  diastase,  as 
in  the  preparation  of  malt  with  us. 

When  the  steamed  rice  has  become  so  soft  that  it  is  easily 
kneaded  into  dough  between  the  fingers,  it  is  spread  out  on  straw 
mats  to  cool.  There,  when  reduced  to  blood-heat,  it  is  treated 
with  Fane-kdji,  a teaspoonful  of  the  latter  to  4 To  (73  liter)  of  rice. 
In  making  the  mixture,  the  fungus-spores  are  first  thoroughly 
mingled  with  a small  portion  of  the  rice-mass,  after  which  the 
compounding  of  the  whole  body  is  undertaken. 

The  rice  thus  spread  out  is  now  left  for  about  three  days  on 
mats  in  warm  rooms,  for  the  development  of  the  mould  fungus. 
In  factories  built  expressly  for  the  manufacture  of  Koji,  these 
apartments  are  subterranean  chambers  8 to  10  m.  long,  2\  m. 
broad,  and  i|  m.  high,  made  in  a clay  soil  3 to  4 m.  under  ground. 
They  communicate  with  the  entrance  to  a square  shaft  3 to  4 m. 
deep,  and  2 m.  wide,  by  means  of  low,  narrow  passages,  whose 
openings  are  hung  with  straw  mats.  The  purpose  of  this  whole 
arrangement  is  evidently  to  preserve  the  high  temperature  in  the 
chambers  unchanged  as  long  as  possible. 

Along  both  of  the  side  walls  of  every  chamber  a bank  of  earth 
is  left,  \ m.  high,  and  near  the  entrance  to  the  chamber  there 
is  a depression,  in  which  the  mats  are  laid  with  the  rice  wrapped 
up  in  them,  and  kept  all  night  at  a temperature  of  25-26°  C. 
Next  morning  the  rice  is  manipulated  to  prevent  its  balling 
together.  Towards  afternoon  it  is  found  covered  with  the  Myce- 
lium of  the  fungus  as  with  a white  blanket.  It  is  now  shaken  out 
into  baskets  frequently  sprinkled  with  cold  water,  while  being 
tossed  about.  It  is  next  laid  out  on  boards  and  partitioned  off 
with  racks,  the  boards  being  put  side  by  side  on  the  banks  in  the 
chambers.  During  the  day  and  a half  in  which  the  rice  remains 
here,  it  is  thoroughly  mixed  by  hand  several  times,  to  separate 
the  grains  which  have  stuck  together.  Finally,  on  the  morn- 
ing of  the  fifth  day  (counting  from  when  the  rice  was  washed), 
the  boards  with  the  finished  Koji  are  taken  out  of  the  chambers 
and  put  away,  one  above  the  other,  in  a cool,  airy  place,  to  await 
sale  or  use.  The  Kdji  last  in  this  way  several  months  without 
being  spoiled  by  the  formation  of  spores,  which  announce  their 
presence  by  yellow  spots.  When  the  chambers  have  a temperature 
of  20°  C,  that  of  the  rice  rises  to  25-28°  C.  because  of  the  de- 
velopment of  fungus,  and  in  the  morning  even  higher,  for  then  the 
fungus  grows  faster  than  in  the  afternoon. 

II. 


H 


98 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


In  Sakd  distilleries  Koji  is  prepared  in  precisely  the  same  way, 
only  that  the  chambers  are  smaller  and  not  sunk  so  deep  in  the 
ground.  Tane-k6ji  is  made  only  in  spring.  The  spreading  of 
fungus  is  allowed  to  go  on  one  or  two  days  longer  than  in  the 
preparation  of  K6ji,  but  it  is  finally  covered  over.  The  spores 
thus  obtained  are  kept  all  the  summer  in  a sealed,  air-tight  pot,  in  a 
dry,  cool  place,  until  needed  in  autumn.  In  winter  the  Koji  itself 
is  used  instead  of  it. 

b.  Preparation  of  the  Moto,  or  mash.  This  is  a turbid  fluid, 
which  Hoffmann  has  called  Mutterwiirze,  although  neither  this 
word  nor  “ mash  ” is  a proper  translation  of  “ Moto.”  It  is  a pro- 
duct of  the  fermentation  caused  in  K6ji  by  heat, — a fermentation 
whereby  a considerable  part  of  the  rice-starch  is  converted  into 
dextrine,  starch-sugar,  and  finally  alcohol.  Its  production  takes 
about  fourteen  days  and  is  accomplished  when  the  development  of 
carbonic  acid  in  the  ferment  has  grown  considerably  less  and  the 
liquid  has  lost  its  former  sweet  taste  and  become  sour  and  bitter, 
with  a pronounced  flavour  of  alcohol. 

In  Sakd  distilleries  a fresh  supply  of  rice  is  steamed  on  the  third 
or  fourth  day,  the  preparation  of  Koji  having  begun  at  the  com- 
mencement of  November,  and  is  spread  out  on  mats  till  the  follow- 
ing morning.  Then  it  is  made  into  a thick  porridge,  with  Koji  and 
water.  The  proportion  of  these  ingredients,  which  does  not  vary 
much,  is  quantitatively:  rice  io,  K6ji  3 6,  water  11*1  ; and,  accord- 
ing to  weight,  rice  10,  K6ji  4,  water  12.  The  rice  thus  steamed, 
as  well  as  that  used  for  making  Koji,  is  dried  and  hulled.  In  the 
celebrated  distilleries  at  Itami  and  Nishinomiya,  0’5  Koku  of 
steamed  rice  are  mixed  with  02  Koku  of  K6ji  and  06  Koku  of 
water,  and  this  compound  is  called  a Moto.  This  Moto  is  divided 
into  six  equal  parts,  and  put  into  six  flat,  cylindrical  wooden  tubs, 
called  Han-kiri,  each  holding  100  liters.  The  tubs  are  filled  to  only 
about  one-fifth  of  their  capacity.  The  mass  is  now  kneaded  and 
mixed  by  hand  into  a stiff,  thick  paste  for  two  hours,  after  which 
it  is  left  to  itself  twenty-four  hours,  in  which  time  it  completely 
loses  its  stiffness,  becoming  thinner  and  more  easily  worked.  Now 
a sort  of  oar  or  ladle  called  Kai  (oar),  is  dipped  in  and  for  several 
days  the  mixture  is  frequently  stirred  thoroughly  with  it.  The 
milky  liquor  which  is  increasingly  produced  indicates  starch-sugar 
by  its  sweetness,  for  a large  proportion  of  starch  has  been  mean- 
while thus  converted.  But  near  the  end  of  this  process  carbonic 
acid  becomes  more  and  more  perceptible,  indicating  that  alcoholic 
fermentation  has  already  set  in,  despite  the  low  temperature.  For 
all  this  time  the  temperature  has  been  that  of  the  outer  air,  vary- 
ing from  0°  to  io°C.  Korschelt  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  this 
coolness  of  the  atmosphere  is  probably  necessary  and  that,  under 
the  given  conditions.  Sake-making  is  for  this  reason  confined  to 
the  coldest  four  months,  since  spores  of  the  fungus  ( Eurotium 
Oryzce  Ahlb.)  would  otherwise  appear  in  the  Koji. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


99 


At  the  latest  in  six  days,  this  process  is  completed.  The  con- 
tents of  the  Han-kiri,  three  at  a time,  are  poured  into  a fermenting 
vat  (Moto-yoshi-oke),  holding  about  6 hi,  and  here  the  stuff  is  left 
quiet  for  one  day.  Then  comes  the  warming  of  the  mash,  to 
hasten  alcoholic  fermentation.  Wooden  vessels  of  a conical  form, 
closely  stopped,  are  filled  with  boiling  water,  dipped  into  the  mass 
of  grain,  and  moved  about  hither  and  thither.  They  measure 
30  cm.  at  the  bottom,  23  cm.  at  the  top,  and  are  50  cm.  high,  and 
every  Daki  has  a handle  fastened  to  two  ears  that  project  over  its 
upper  edge. 

After  about  twelve  hours  the  vessel,  having  cooled,  is  replaced 
by  another  full  of  boiling  water,  and  thus  it  goes  on,  at  longer 
or  shorter  intervals,  according  to  the  heat  required,  till  the 
fourteenth  day,  the  last  of  the  Moto-preparing.  During  this  time 
the  fermentation  vats  have  been  wrapped  in  straw  mats,  to  diminish 
cooling  from  outside  as  much  as  possible.  Within,  the  temperature 
gradually  rises  to  about  25°  C.,  for  the  most  part  through  increasing 
fermentation — in  other  distilleries  even  to  30°  C.  When  the  pro- 
cess of  fermentation  is  nearly  finished,  the  contents  of  the  vats  are 
put  back  into  the  Han-kiri,  and  there  left  to  cool  off  gradually. 

The  composition  of  prepared  Moto  is,  of  course,  very  varied. 
The  proportion  of  alcohol  for  example,  ranges  from  3 to  14  per 
cent.  Atkinson  found  in  Moto  from  Nishinomiya  io-5  per  cent, 
of  alcohol,  0 2 per  cent,  of  starch-sugar,  0'56  per  cent,  of  acid,  i6-58 
per  cent,  of  starch  and  cellulose,  and  72' 16  per  cent,  of  water. 

c.  The  main  process.  For  this  the  plant  and  method  are 
nearly  the  same  everywhere.  In  practice  three  kinds  of  bucket- 
shaped vats  are  employed,  one  after  the  other.  They  widen  out 
somewhat  at  the  top,  and  their  height  is  15  to  25  cm.  less  than 
their  diameter  at  the  middle.  According  to  their  depth  they  are 
distinguished  as  San-shaku-oke,  Shi-shaku-oke,  and  Roku-shaku- 
oke,  i.e.,  three,  four,  and  six-foot  tubs.  They  hold  about  five,  ten, 
and  thirty-three  Koku  respectively,  or  twice  that  number  of  hecto- 
liters. When  in  use,  however,  they  are  never  more  than  half  filled, 
so  as  to  leave  room  for  fermentation.  They  are  as  a rule  made 
of  soft  Sugi-wood  (Cryptomeria). 

The  process  of  fermentation  is  divided  in  the  larger  distilleries 
into  three  stages,  called  Soye,  Naka,  and  Shimai  (joining,  middle, 
and  end).  Again  steamed  rice  (Mushi-han),  Koji,  water,  and 
this  time  Moto  besides  are  used  in  So  ye,  in  the  following  pre- 
paration : — 


at  Itami. 


at  Nishinomiya. 
I '05  Koku 


Mushi-han 
Moto  . . 


Koji  ! ’. 

Water . . 


1 ‘30  Koku 
I'SO  „ 
0’35  „ 
i‘30  I 


4'25  Koku 


3-88  Koku 


IOO 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


The  mixture  is  transferred  to  a San-shaku-oke  in  the  above 
proportion,  and  there  for  two  or  three  days  thoroughly  stirred  once 
every  two  hours.  During  this  time  of  increasing  fermentation,  at 
a temperature  of  about  20°  C.  (when  the  air  outside  is  at  io°  C.), 
there  arises  a pleasant,  .aromatic,  pungent  odour.  The  Soye  is 
now  completed.  The  mass  is  divided  equally  and  put  into  two 
other  three-foot  tubs,  where  a fresh  lot  of  steamed  rice,  Koji  and 
water  is  added,  according  to  the  following  proportions  : — 


at  Itami. 

at  Nishinomiya. 

Soye  . . . 

. 4-25  Koku 

3-88  Koku 

Mushi-han  . 

. 2 '00  „ 

i'8o  „ 

Koji  . . . 

. 0-65  „ 

o-6o  „ 

Water . . . 

. 2-90  „ 

2-40  „ 

9 80  Koku 

8-68  Koku 

Thus  in  Itami  4/90  Koku,  and  in  Nishinomiya  4-34  Koku,  are  put 
into  each  of  the  two  tubs.  This  mixture  also  is  vigorously  stirred 
every  other  hour,  though  for  one  day  only,  and  then  the  Naka  is 
finished.  Once  again  the  fermented  stuff  contained  in  each  tub 
is  divided  and  put  into  two  others  and  mixed  anew  with  steamed 
rice,  K6ji  and  water.  The  proportions  of  the  new  mixture,  for 
Shimai,  the  last  stage  of  fermentation,  is  as  follows  : — 


at  Itami. 

Naka  ....  9-90  Koku 
Mushi-han  . . 3-30  „ 

Koji  . ...  100  „ 

Water  ....  4-20  „ 


at  Nishinomiya. 
8 68  Koku 
3 60  „ 

I '20  „ 

620  „ 


1 8 '40  Koku 


19-68  Koku 


Half  of  this  mass  is  therefore  contained  in  each  tub,  and  is 
there  treated  as  in  the  former  two  cases.  Three  days  afterwards 
the  entire  four  tubfuls  are  put  one  by  one  into  a big  Roku-shaku- 
oke,  where  a much  brisker  fermentation  sets  in,  gradually  decreasing 
however  in  two  or  three  days.  The  scum  settles,  the  liquor  is 
strongly  alcoholic,  and  ready  now  for  the  last  operation. 

d.  Pressing  and  Clarifying.  In  squeezing  the  fluid  body  of 
mash,  which  still  keeps  on  slowly  fermenting,  a machine  is  used 
similar  to  the  lever  press  employed  for  the  Shoyft  (See  No.  6 
of  this  section).  It  is  poured  into  close  woven  bags  of  hemp-linen, 
strengthened  with  Shibu, 1 which  are  then  laid  side  by  side,  and 


Shibu  is  the  juice  of  unripe  Diospyros  Kaki  fruit,  rich  in  tannic  acid. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


IOI 


crosswise  one  above  another  in  a strong  square  box,  and  covered 
with  a plate,  smaller  than  the  bottom  of  the  box,  or  with  several 
one  over  another,  decreasing  successively  in  size.  Upon  this  lid 
there  presses  a one-armed  lever,  in  the  shape  of  a long  beam,  one 
end  of  which  is  hinged  in  a stout  post,  while  the  other  is  weighted 
with  a load  of  600-900  kg.  On  the  front  side  of  the  box,  near  the 
ground,  is  the  spout  arrangement,  through  which  the  turbid  Sak£  is 
conducted  into  a vessel  that  stands  below.  For  clarification  it 
is  put  into  a standing  cask,  having  two  bungholes  close  together 
and  one  above  the  other,  near  its  lower  head.  The  Sake  stands 
here  quiet  for  two  weeks,  in  which  time  all  solid  impurities  sink 
to  the  bottom.  Then,  when  the  upper  stop-cock  is  opened,  the 
Sake  flows  off  clear  from  the  underlying  sediment.  It  is  poured 
into  barrels  or  closed  tubs,  and  now  only  needs  to  be  heated  on  the 
approach  of  warm  weather,  to  become  cured,  as  pointed  out  at 
beginning. 

2.  Shochu  (Shochiu).  Sak6  contains,  as  the  following 
Table  of  analyses  shows,  11-14  per  cent,  of  alcohol.  By  a simple 
arrangement,  a liquor  is  distilled  from  the  dregs  in  the  press,  con- 
sisting principally  of  starch  and  cellulose,  and  containing  6 per 
cent  of  alcohol.  It  bears  the  name  of  Shochu,  and  presents  20- 
50  per  cent  of  alcohol,  corresponding,  therefore,  more  to  gin  than 
to  spirits  of  wine,  although  the  word  is  usually  translated  into 
“alcohol.”  Shdchu  is  principally  made  into  Mirin.  One  kind  of 
Shochu,  made  in  Kiushiu,  and  particularly  in  Satsuma,  bears  the 
name  of  Awamori. 

3.  Shiro-Sakd,  white  Sake,  is  a white,  sweet  drink,  with  the 
appearance  of  milk,  which  is  manufactured  by  converting  glutinous 
rice  ( Oryza  glutinosa ) into  meal,  mixing  this  with  water,  and 
adding  a little  Sake.  On  Hina-matsuri  or  Sangatsu-no-sekku, 
the  festival  of  dolls,1  it  is  placed  before  the  dolls  and  their 
friends. 

4.  Mirin  is  a sweet  liqueur,  ranging  from  yellow  to  brown  in 
colour,  and  of  the  consistency  of  oil.  It  contains  as  much  or  more 
alcohol  than  Sake,  and  has  an  aroma  peculiar  to  itself,  though 
produced  by  the  addition  of  foreign  substances.  It  lasts  for 
many  years.  When  old  it  is  called  Komirin,  old  Mirin,  and  is 
then  darker,  sweet,  and  more  highly  prized. 

Great  quantities  of  Mirin,  under  the  name  of  Toso-shu,  or  Toso, 
are  drunk  in  every  house  after  the  first  congratulations  at  New 
Year,  not  only  by  every  member  of  the  family,  from  youngest 
to  oldest,  but  also  when  the  mutual  New  Year’s  calls  are  made. 

Its  manufacture  is  usually  connected  with  that  of  Sake.  One 
large  distillery,  celebrated  for  its  Mirin,  is  that  at  Nagare-yama, 
on  the  Yedo-gawa,  about  twenty-three  English  miles  north  of 
Tdkio.  Steamed  Mochi-gome  or  glutinous  rice,  Koji,  and  Shochu 


1 See  Rein,  “Japan,”  i.  p.  439. 


102 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


are  used  in  producing  it,  though  never  in  the  same  proportion. 
At  Itami,  for  example,  9 Koku  of  Mochi-gomi  are  mixed  with 
3-3  of  Koji  and  14  of  Shochu  ; at  Nagare-yama,  on  the  other  hand, 
13  parts  of  Mochi-gome  with  4J  parts  of  K6ji  and  10  of  Shochft. 
The  mixture  is  stirred  once  every  two  days  in  great  vats,  the  rest 
of  the  time  kept  covered.  It  contains  too  much  alcohol  to  reach 
fermentation,  but  merely  converts  a part  of  its  starch  into  dextrine 
and  sugar. 

In  20  to  40  days  the  process  is  brought  to  an  end,  and  the  stuff 
pressed.  The  Mirin  is  then  clarified  after  the  manner  of  Sakd, 
and  put  away  for  any  desired  length  of  time,  in  closed  vessels. 


SUPPLEMENTARY. 

(a)  Chemical  Composition  of  Sake,  Mirin,  and  Shochit  according  to 
Analyses  by  Atkinson. 


SAKE. 

III. 

Mirin. 

IV. 

Shochfi. 

I. 

At  Itami. 

II. 

At  Nishinomya 

Specific  gravity . . . 

0-992 

0-990 

I.085 

0-94 

Alcohol 

1 2 '42 

12-45 

12.98 

39’63 

Starch-sugar .... 

0-48 

0-56 

21'04 

— 

Dextrine 

0-23 

0*22 

4.16 

— 

Glycerine,  gum,  ashes 

175 

I-69 

■ 

Free  acid  .... 

o‘i8 

0"I9 

traces 

— 

Volatile  acid  . . . 

0*02 

0.0 1 

traces 

— 

Water 

84-92 

84-88 

61-82 

60-37 

100*00 

1 00-00 

100-00 

IOO'OO 

I.  is  the  average  of  four  analyses  of  Sake  from  Itami. 

II.  is  the  average  of  five  analyses  of  Sake  from  Nishinomiya. 

III.  is  the  average  of  eight  analyses  of  Mirin  from  various 

sources.  Its  proportion  of  alcohol  varies  from  10  per 
cent,  to  i8|  per  cent.,  and  of  sugar  from  iy8  per  cent, 
to  30' 1 per  cent. 

IV.  is  the  average  of  five  analyses  of  Shbchfi,  in  which  the 

proportion  of  spirit  ranges  between  26  per  cent,  and  50-2 
per  cent. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


103 


b.  Statistical  Information  in  regard  to  these  Alcoholic  Drinks. 

In  the  year  ending,  September  30th,  1880,  exclusive  of  foreign 
importations,1  5,207,970  Koku  (9,389,970  hectolitres)  of  alcoholic 
liquors  were  taxed  in  Japan.  The  state’s  total  revenue  from  this 
source  amounted  to  6,459,570  yen  (about  ^1,291,014).  Counting 
the  population  as  34,000,000,  there  were  to  each  person  27-6 
liters  of  spirituous  liquors,  and  a tax  of  about  ninepence.  Since 
then  the  tax  has  been  doubled,  without  decreasing  the  production 
and  consumption.  The  foregoing  quantity  and  taxation  is  divided 
as  follows : 


Tax  per 
Koku 

Number  of 
Koku. 

Government 
revenue  in 
yen =4  shillings. 

Common  Sakd  (Seishu)  . . . 

1 yen 

5015084 

5015084 

Turbid  Sake  (Nigori-Sake)  . . 

°'3  „ 

65494 

19648 

White  Sake  (Shiro-Sake) . . . 

2'°  „ 

1500 

3000 

Sweet  Sake  for  drinking  and 

cooking  (Mirin) 

2-0  „ 

38569 

77138 

Meishu  liqueur  (a  kind  of  Mirin) 

3'°  „ 

3615 

10845 

Brandy (Shochu) 

1 ’5  „ 

83708 

125562 

5207970 

5251277 

From  licences  to  breweries  and 

retail  shops 

1208293 

Total 

6459570  yen 

5.  Ame  is  an  impure  starch-sugar,  mixed  with  dextrine  and 
water,  which  comes  to  market  in  two  forms,  namely:  first  under 
the  name  of  Midzu-ame  (water-  or  fluid-Ame),  with  a large  pro- 
portion of  water,  as  a very  thick,  yellow  syrup,  and  second,  Ame 
proper,  a doughy  substance,  very  elastic.  This  latter,  drawn 
out  into  round  or  prismatic  sticks,  making  a favourite  dainty,  has 
a great  attraction  for  children,  especially  when  the  man  who 
sells  it  in  the  streets  is  at  the  same  time  an  artist,  and  forms  all 
sorts  of  figures  from  the  white  or  coloured  stuff  heated  till  it  is 
plastic.  No  sooner  is  heard  the  sound  of  the  little  bell,  or 
the  triangle  which  he  holds  in  his  hand,  and  the  cry  “ Amai ! 
Amai ! ” (Sweets  ! Sweets  !),  or  “Amai  to  karai  ” (Sweet  and  biting), 
or  some  other  well-known  shout,  than  he  is  sure  of  a respectable 
following. 

In  house-keeping  Midzu-ame  often  takes  the  place  of  sugar,  and 


These  go  mostly  to  the  account  of  Europeans  and  Americans. 


io4 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


has  various  applications.  It  is  of  service  in  dyeing  also,  and  in 
the  manufacture  of  Mirin.  The  best  sort  is  of  a clear  yellow 
colour.  It  is  usually  made  from  Italian  millet,  and  therefore  called 
Awa-no-midzu-ame. 

Ame  and  Midzu-ame  are  manufactured  from  Italian  millet 
(Awa),  glutinous  or  cooking-rice  (Mochi-gome),  or  common  rice 
(Uruchi).  Its  production  has  been  minutely  described  by  R.  W. 
Atkinson,1  so  that  simply  referring  to  his  work,  I here  give  only 
its  essential  features. 

First  the  grain  is  put  into  cold  water,  until  it  swells  ; then  it  is 
cooked  soft  with  steam,  which  is  produced  in  an  iron  boiler  ; then 
poured  into  flat  wooden  tubs  and  covered  with  mats,  till  a con- 
siderable quantity  has  been  spread  out  in  this  way.  Barley-malt, 
Jap.  Moyashi,  which  is  prepared  similarly  as  with  us,  except  that 
it  is  given  more  time  to  sprout  and  is  soaked  in  water  before  use, 
is  now  mixed  with  soft  grain  and  warm  water,  and  the  compound, 
at  a temperature  of  about  6o°  C.,  is  put  into  a wooden  vat  and 
left  there  at  least  six  hours.  The  hulls  and  other  insoluble  sub- 
stances settle  to  the  bottom,  the  clear  fluid,  Midzu-ame,  collect- 
ing on  top  of  it.  It  is  carefully  drawn  off,  but  from  the  dregs  a 
second,  inferior  quality  is  obtained,  by  squeezing  them  in  hemp- 
linen  bags. 

The  proportion  in  which  the  component  parts  of  this  mixture 
are  taken  depends  upon  the  nature  of  the  farinaceous  substances, 
and  other  considerations.  But  on  an  average,  5 To  of  steamed 
grain,  5 Shd  (J  To)  of  malt,  and  8 To  of  warm  water  go  together. 
If  the  rice  has  been  previously  bruised,  or  if  the  malt  is  composed 
of  the  fallings-off  in  husking,  the  quantity  of  malt  required  will  be 
less.  On  the  other  hand,  however,  it  is  apparent  that  a freer  use 
of  malt  will  effect  the  conversion  of  a larger  amount  of  starch  into 
dextrine  and  sugar,  and  thus  produce  a sweeter  Ame. 

The  fluid  obtained  by  decanting  is  Midzu-ame,  very  much 
thinned.  To  concentrate  it,  it  is  quickly  steamed  to  the  required 
consistency.  This  is  done  in  iron  pans,  and  lasts  three  to  six 
hours,  though  a somewhat  longer  period  is  necessary  to  obtain  the 
firm,  white  Ame,  which  is  always  prepared  from  rice,  especially 
glutinous  rice.  The  stiffened  mass  is  at  first  transparent.  It  is 
rolled  on  boards  into  stiff  ropes,  which  are  drawn  out  and  worked 
until  there  appears  an  opaque  white  colour,  and  it  no  longer  sticks 
to  the  fingers.  By  this  method  of  manipulation  its  volume  is  so 
increased  that  finished  Ame  swims  on  water,  while  Midzu-ame 
sinks  immediately. 

The  following  table  has  been  calculated  and  constructed  from 
Atkinson’s  analyses  of  the  various  sorts  of  Ame.  I.  is  the  average 
of  six  of  them;  II.,  III.,  and  IV.  of  two  each.  The  rest  will 
explain  itself  at  a glance. 


1 “Transactions  As.  Soc.  Japan,”  vol.  vii.,  pp.  313-322. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


105 


Per  Cent. 

Per  Cent. 

(a)  In  the  Natural  State. 

(6)  Dried  at  ioo°  C. 

Water. 

Dextrine. 

Malt-stuff. 

Dextrine. 

Malt-stuff. 

I.  Awa-no  Midzu-ame 

i6-5I 

2I‘I9 

16-51 

26-50 

73'5° 

II.  Mochi-no  „ „ 

19-16 

7 ’34 

73'5° 

9-07 

20-93 

III.  Uruchi-no  „ „ 

1972 

6-19 

74-08 

772 

92-28 

IV.  Solid  Ame  .... 

975 

I5'54 

7471 

I7’i4 

82-86 

6.  Shoyu,  the  Japanese  bean-sauce,  also  called  Soja,  English 
Soy,  both  being  corruptions  of  the  Japanese  name,  is  a dark-brown 
fluid  with  a pleasant  aromatic  odour  and  a peculiar  salty  taste.  It 
foams  up  yellow  when  shaken,  and  leaves  behind  on  the  side  of  the 
glass  a clear  shining  line  of  a fatty  appearance,  so  that  the  Japanese 
designation  “soy-oil”  (Sho  = soy,  yu  = oil)  is  quite  appropriate.  Its 
specific  gravity,  which  Kinch  gives  as  I'i99,  may  vary  not  incon- 
siderably, according  to  the  method  of  its  production.  The  same 
author  found  in  1 liter,  as  the  total  weight  of  the  solid  remnant 
35988  grammes,  ashes  (chiefly  chlornatrium)  195-16  gr.,  sugar 
3 1 03  gr.,  nitrogenous  matter  41  ’OO  gr.,  free  acid  (acetic  acid  ?) 
6 20  gr. 

For  the  manufacture  of  Shoyu,  as  I became  acquainted  with  it 
in  Kioto,  they  use  wheat  (Ko-mugi),  light-yellow  Soja-beans  (Shiro- 
mame),  common  salt  (Shio  or  Sh6),  and  water  (Midzu)  ; the  first 
two  in  equal  parts,  three  parts  of  water,  and  five  or  six  parts  of 
salt.  In  other  places  they  take  equal  volumes  of  all  four  com- 
ponents. A small  portion  of  the  wheat  is  brought  to  fermentation 
with  Koji  (rice-ferment)  ; the  rest  is  roasted  to  a delicate  light- 
brown  in  iron  pans  over  a fire  of  coals,  and  then  ground  in  little 
hand-mills.  The  Soja-beans  are  boiled  soft  for  about  half  a day 
with  a little  water,  in  iron  kettles,  and  after  that  pounded  to  mush. 
Flour,  bean-mush,  and  the  fermenting  wheat  are  now  thoroughly 
mixed,  poured  into  little  wooden  boxes,  and  exposed  to  fermenta- 
tion for  three  days  in  a suitable  room,  at  as  uniform  a temperature 
as  possible  (25°  C.),  whereby  the  mass  becomes  covered  with 
mould-fungus.1 

It  is  then  immediately  put  into  vessels  open  at  the  top  ; the 
required  amount  of  salt  and  water  is  added  and  thoroughly  mixed 
in,  producing  a paste.  This  is  transferred  to  large'  open  butts, 
like  the  mash-tubs  of  brewers.  According  to  Hoffmann,2  each  of 
these  can  contain  20-30,000  liters.  I found  them  considerably 

1 According  to  Hoffmann,  “ Mittheilungen  der  Ges.  Ostasiens”  6 Heft,  p.  98, 
the  grains  of  wheat  are  only  coarsely  ground,  and  the  beans  are  not  pounded 
down,  so  that  the  formation  of  diastase  takes  place,  as  in  the  production  of 
malt  with  us. 

2 “Mitth.  d.  deutsch.  Gesellschaft  Ostasiens,”  Heft  6. 


io6 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


smaller  in  Kioto,  about  2 m.  deep,  and  from  V2  m.  to  r6  m.  in 
diameter. 

All  through  winter,  for  several  minutes  every  day,  the  paste  or 
porridge  in  these  vats  is  vigorously  and  thoroughly  stirred.  In 
the  warm  season,  when  the  fermentation  takes  place  more  rapidly 
and  the  solid  parts  collect  on  the  surface,  it  is  only  necessary  to 
stir  it  from  twice  to  four  times  daily.  This  is  done  with  a sort  of 
wooden  shovel  with  a long  handle,  to  work  which  the  workman 
stands  on  the  edge  of  the  butt. 

A common  proverb  says,  the  more  rats  have  found  their  death 
in  the  butts,  the  better  the  Shoyu.  This,  though  not  to  be  taken 
literally,  expresses  the  long  time  required  for  making  Shoyu.  This 
period  varies,  in  fact,  from  twenty  months  to  five  years,  beginning 
in  autumn  as  a rule,  after  the  Soja-bean  harvest.  In  this  slow  and 
peculiar  fermentation  process  a considerable  proportion  of  starch 
is  converted  into  dextrine  and  sugar,  besides  which  lactic  acid  and 
acetic  acid  are  formed.  The  paste,  at  first  thick,  becomes  thinner 
and  more  fluid,  while  its  grey  hue  gradually  changes  to  a muddy 
brown,  and  at  last  to  a pure  dark-brown.  This  last  and  the  agree- 
able aroma  accompanying  it,  together  with  a bitter  taste,  are  de- 
veloped generally  between  the  third  and  fifth  year.  The  Shoyu 
which  is  most  prized  for  its  odour  and  taste  is  obtained  only  by 
mingling  equal  quantities  of  three-year  and  five-year  product.  The 
mixture  is  put  into  strong,  coarse,  close-woven  bags  of  wool  or 
hemp-linen,  which  have  been  rendered  closer  still  by  being  dipped 
in  Shibu  (which  see).  These  bags,  60  to  70  cm.  long  and  18  cm. 
wide,  are  filled  loosely,  and  then  laid  lengthwise  and  crosswise  on 
top  of  each  other  in  a large  square  box.  Then  a heavy  wooden 
cover  is  put  on,  and  a simple  lever-press  applied, — one  in  which  the 
long  arm  of  4 or  5 m.  is  weighted  with  stones.  The  expressed 
Shdyu  flows  through  a hole  in  the  bottom  of  the  box  into  a bam- 
boo cane,  and  through  this  to  a cask  sunk  in  the  ground,  and 
is  then  ready  for  use.  As  in  oil  refining,  the  first  stuff  produced 
is  the  most  valuable.  By  continued  pressure  with  increased  weight 
a second  quality  is  obtained,  and  at  last  a third,  clear-flowing  and 
less  aromatic,  as  the  dregs  are  mixed  with  salt-water  and  then 
squeezed  again.  Shoyu  reaches  the  market  in  wooden  barrels  con- 
taining one  To  (20  liters).  According  to  Hoffmann,  the  price  was 
i'5  yen  (six  shillings)  for  a To  of  the  best  sort,  from  three  to  four 
shillings  for  the  second,  and  two  shillings  for  the  last. 

The  delightful  aroma  and  pleasing  taste  of  Shoyu  are  quickly 
lost  in  a long  sea-voyage,  through  the  formation  of  mould.  In  good 
condition,  however,  Shoyu  proves  an  excellent  means  of  sharpening 
the  appetite  and  assisting  digestion.  It  is  on  this  account,  as  Chief 
Staff-surgeon  Hoffmann  justly  remarks,  much  preferable  to  Euro- 
pean preparations  that  are  supposed  to  effect  the  same  result,  being 
perfectly  harmless  to  the  human  system.  In  these  appropriate 
words  he  notes  the  great  part  it  plays  in  Japanese  cooking  : — 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


107 


“ Bean-sauce- — Shoju — is  almost  as  indispensable  to  the  Japanese 
as  rice,  and  its  use  is  as  general  as  that  of  tea  and  tobacco.  The 
rich  man  and  the  beggar  use  it  in  the  same  way,  merely  with  a 
difference  in  quality,  as  the  chief  relish  to  their  meals,  and  it  must 
be  present  in  every  house — indeed,  at  every  meal.” 

7.  Miso  is  a thick  fluid,  white  or  red  sauce,  easily  divisible  in 
water.  Shiro-mame,  or  yellow-white  Soja-beans,  salt,  and  water 
bear  a part  in  its  production,  and  besides  them  Koji,  too,  or 
fermenting  rice.  The  proportions  in  which  these  substances  are 
employed  is  not  always  the  same,  nor  the  means  of  applying  them. 
The  beans  are  usually  left  to  swell  for  half  a day  in  water,  then 
boiled  soft  in  a large  kettle,  and  finally  ground  up  to  a paste. 
This  paste  is  then  mixed  with  common  salt,  Koji,  and  water, 
and  the  resulting  combination  set  aside  in  a cool  place  for  a 
year  or  more.  Miso  does  not  spoil,  and  is  said  to  be  at  its  best 
when  three  years  old.  Its  use  is  universal,  especially  in  soup,  but 
also  in  various  other  articles  of  food,  in  many  respects  resembling 
that  of  Shoyfi.  An  analysis  of  Komaba  gave  50'40  per  cent,  of 
water,  8^25  percent,  of  fibre,  I2‘50  per  cent,  of  ashes  (salt),  061  per 
cent,  of  sugar,  io  8o  per  cent,  of  legumine,  and  i8'i6  per  cent,  of 
soluble  hydro-carbons. 

8.  Tofu,  called  in  English  bean-curd,  in  German  and  French, 
less  appropriately,  Bohnenkase  and  fromage  de  pois } is  a valuable 
article  of  food  made  in  Japan  and  China  from  yellow  Soja-beans. 
It  consists  of  fresh  coagulated  legumine,  so  that  the  English  term 
suits  it  better  than  the  German.  Its  preparation  is  simple. 

The  yellow  Soja-beans  are  put  to  soak,  in  cold  water  for  from 
twelve  to  twenty-four  hours,  or  a shorter  time  in  warm,  and  then 
ground  between  the  stones  of  a hand-mill,  water  being  added  to 
assist  maceration.  It  becomes  thus  a thin  mass,  in  which  the 
quantity  of  water  exceeds  that  of  the  beans  about  ten  times.  This 
is  next  filtered  or  pressed  through  a fine  sieve,  and  the  remnant 
put  through  the  mill  a second  time.  Ten  volumes  of  this  filtered 
stuff  are  now  diluted  with  three  volumes  of  hot  water,  and  heated 
to  boiling-point.  This  is  done  in  a kettle,  which  is  only  about 
half  filled.  When  cool  again,  the  mass  is  filtered  through  a 
woollen  sack,  and  the  process  ends  with  pressing  it  under  the  lever. 

As  in  our  soups  from  leguminous  plants,  the  legumine  is  now 
found  dissolved  in  the  filtrate.  To  coagulate  and  separate  it,  there 
is  added  Shio-no-nigari  (salt-bitter),  i.e.  brine  from  sea-salt,  consist- 
ing principally  of  chloride  of  magnesium.  Care  is  taken  to  have 
the  precipitation  take  place  slowly  and  quietly.  (In  China,  accord- 
ing to  St.  Julien,  burnt  gypsum  is  also  added.)  When  the  liquor 
has  cleared  it  is  dipped  out  carefully,  while  the  stuff  precipitated 
is  placed  in  four-cornered  wooden  forms  with  punctured,  movable 
walls,  which  are  lined  with  a cloth.  This  is  folded  together  over 

1 See  Ritter,  “ Mittheil.  der  deutsch.  Ges.  Ostasiens,”  5 Heft,  p.  4 ; and  St. 
Julien,  “ Industries  de  l’Empire  Chinois,”  Paris,  1869. 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


108 


the  Tofu,  a board  is  laid  on  top,  and  the  Tofu  pressed  out  with 
a moderate  weight  of  stones.  Finally,  the  soft  greyish  mass  is 
cut  into  tablets  with  broad  latten  knives,  and  put  away  under 
water.  In  summer  this  suffices  only  for  a short  time.  To  be  kept 
longer,  it  is  put  up  in  Shoyu,  or  pickled,  etc. 

Kori-tofu,  frozen  or  ice-Tofu,  is  the  spongy,  horn-like  substance 
that  remains  when  common  Tofu  is  allowed  to  freeze  and  then 
thawed  and  dried  in  the  sun,  thus  getting  rid  of  most  of  its  water. 
By  Yuba  is  meant  a third  preparation,  consisting  of  brownish,  tough 
skins,  made  by  boiling  the  dissolved  legumine  of  the  Tofu-process, 
with  the  addition  of  some  wood-ashes,  and  then  taking  away  in 
succession  the  scums  that  rise. 

9.  Undon,  maccaroni,  and  Somen,  vermicelli.  As  with  us,  they 
are  made  of  flour,  but  they  do  not  form  an  important  article  of  the 
people’s  diet. 

10.  Fu  is  a remarkable  product  of  the  baker,  which  can  hardly 
be  called  bread,  being  quite  different  in  preparation  and  use.  It  is 
made  from  flour,  which  is  treated  much  as  in  making  vermicelli, 
though  an  inferior  sort  is  used,  a kind  of  wheat  groats.  Two  parts 
of  this  are  kneaded  thoroughly  with  salt  and  water.  The  dough 
is  then  washed  with  water  to  cleanse  it  from  bran  and  salt,  and 
after  the  addition  of  two  parts  of  Mochi-gome  meal  (cake-rice  or 
glutinous  rice),  again  kneaded  vigorously.  The  result  is  an  extra- 
ordinarily tough,  elastic  dough,  which  is  repeatedly  cut  through  and 
worked,  so  as  to  get  rid  of  the  water  it  contains.  It  is  finally  made 
into  cylindrical  forms  two  feet  long,  baked,  and  sold  as  Fu,  cut  up 
in  small  sheets.  It  is  softened  with  warm  water  and  cooked  with 
other  articles  of  food. 

1 1.  Sembei  (pronounced  Sembe),  an  unleavened  cake  from  the 
meal  of  glutinous  rice  or  wheat,  with  the  addition  of  sugar  and 
other  ingredients,  and  differing  in  taste  accordingly,  often  recalls 
the  unleavened  Passover  bread  of  the  Jews  in  flavour  and  appear- 
ance. It  is  offered  for  sale,  as  a rule,  in  thin  cakes,  baked  to  a 
light-brown,  or  in  the  form  of  small  rings.  Those  who  sell  these — 
mostly  boys — go  through  the  streets  with  the  cry,  “ Sembei 
kawa-naika  ? ” (“  Won’t  you  buy  any  Sembe  ? ”)  or  “ Sembei  iri 
masenka  ? ” (“  Don’t  you  want  any  S£mbe  ? ”) 

12.  Ame-no-mochi.  According  to  an  old  well-known  proverb, 
“ there’s  no  accounting  for  tastes.”  This  is  true  also  of  the  way 
in  which  the  Japanese,  to  some  extent,  use  the  meal  of  wheat, 
buckwheat,  and  rice.  While  never  exactly  taking  to  our  pastry, 
though  given  ample  opportunity  to  become  acquainted  with  it 
through  the  Portuguese  and  Dutch,  they  look  upon  certain  un- 
leavened and  unbaked  preparations  of  dough  quite  as  delicacies, 
especially  when  filled  with  a mixture  of  bean-meal  (Adzuki)  and 
sugar.  At  the  head  of  the  list  stand  cakes  from  the  elastic  dough 
of  the  glutinous  rice  (Mochi-gome),  particularly  those  called  Ame- 
no-mochi.  The  small  dough-cakes  with  this  name,  about  the 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


109 


shape  and  size  of  a fresh  hand-cheese,  merely  from  Mochi-gome 
meal  or  mixed  with  barley-meal  or  flour,  and  covered  with  honey 
(Hachi-midzu)  or  sugar,  are  offered  for  sale  at  different  points  along 
the  old  highways,  the  Tdkaido,  for  example,  and  attention  is 
especially  called  to  them  in  the  Japanese  description  of  the  road. 

13.  Sato,  sugar,  is  obtained  in  the  warmer  provinces  of  Japan 
(Satsuma,  Hizen,  Tosa,  Sanuki,  Awa,  Aki,  Kii,  Ise,  Owai,  Mikawa, 
Tdtomi,  and  Suruga),  but  especially  in  the  Riu-kiu  islands,  from 
sugar-cane,  Japanese  Sat6-kibi,  i.e.  sugar-millet.  It  is  the  so-called 
Chinese  sugar-cane  ( Saccharum  sinense  Roxb.),  a variety  native  to 
China,  small  but  hardy,  and  able  to  resist  low  temperatures.  It 
is  raised  to  a small  extent  in  the  above-named  provinces.  Its 
vitality,  however,  is  not  great  enough  to  enable  it  to  withstand  the 
frosts  which  even  in  Satsuma  are  not  infrequent  all  the  winter. 
Therefore  the  cultivation  of  sugar-cane  is  confined  in  Japan  to  the 
summer  months.  It  is  planted  in  the  third  or  fourth  month,  and 
harvested  in  the  ninth,  having  thus  a period  of  only  six  months. 
It  cannot  blossom  in  so  short  a time,  nor  develop  sugar  as  abun- 
dantly as  canes  of  a greater  age  in  more  suitable  climates.  The 
cane  which  is  used  for  planting  is  buried  all  the  winter  under  earth 
and  sand  in  a dry  place,  secure  against  cold.  In  the  spring  it  is 
cut  into  pieces,  which  are  planted  as  scions  in  the  usual  way.  The 
process  of  sugar-making  offers  nothing  worthy  of  note.  It  is  not 
sufficient  for  the  demand.  Considerable  quantities  of  raw  sugar 
(white,  yellow,  dark-brown)  have  to  be  imported  from  Southern 
China  (Swatau,  Amoi,  and  Canton),  but  principally  from  Formosa. 
There  is  no  refining. 

14.  Su,  vinegar,  is  made  chiefly  from  Sake.  That  from  Mume- 
plums  is  more  highly  prized,  and  that  from  oranges  still  more  so. 

15.  Kanten,  or  Tokoroten,  in  French  colie  du  Japon,  gelatine 
vegetale , in  English  Japanese  isinglass,  is  a preparation  from 
various  algae,  which  we  may  designate  Algce  jellies.  It  is  largely 
exported  from  Japan  to  China,  and  of  late  to  us  also.  It  is  used 
instead  of  gelatine,  isinglass,  and  similar  substances,  both  in  house- 
keeping and  in  the  trades,  eg.  as  a finish  for  woven  goods.  Before 
use,  the  Kanten-so  or  Kanten-gusa  ( i.e . Kanten-plants)  ( Gelidium 
coreum  Lamour.),  and  various  other  floridae)  are  soaked  and 
cleansed  in  fresh  water,  in  which  they  swell  up  quickly  into  a 
gelatinous  mass.  But  previously  they  are  dried  in  the  air,  and  put 
away  dry  until  needed.  Then  they  are  boiled  in  a kettle  with 
water,  in  which  they  easily  and  completely  break  up  and  dissolve. 
The  sticky  fluid  is  now  squeezed  through  a hemp  bag  into  a vessel, 
in  which  it  coagulates  to  jelly  upon  cooling.  This  substance  is 
now  cut  up,  and  the  pieces  are  perfectly  dried  in  the  air  on  plaited 
bamboo  or  mats. 

This  algse-jelly,  which  appears  in  commerce  with  the  unsuitable 
English  name  isinglass,  and  is  generally  sold  with  us  as  Agar-Agar, 
appears  as  a rule  in  the  form  of  irregular  prismatic  sticks,  3 cm. 


no 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


in  square  cross  measurement.  Their  length  is  28  cm.,  their  weight 
only  11  to  1 1 ‘5  grm.  It  is  a wrinkled,  brittle  substance,  like  a 
piece  of  membrane,  without  taste  and  smell,  mostly  of  a light- 
yellow  colour,  in  which  case  it  is  transparent,  especially  at  its  sharp 
edges  ; or  blood-red,  when  it  is  more  flaky  and  brittle.  In  cold 
water  these  sticks  swell  considerably,  becoming  spongy,  four- 
sided prisms  with  concave  sides,  but  not  going  quite  to  pieces. 
But  if,  when  in  this  state,  they  are  heated,  even  for  a short  time, 
they  dissolve  altogether.  The  solution  coagulates  anew  when 
cooled,  like  glue,  even  when  diluted. 

An  analysis  of  Kanten  1 gave  1171  percent,  of  albumen  (?),  62-05 
per  cent,  of  non-nitrogenous  matter  (evidently  glue,  the  pararabin 
of  Reichardt),  3 ‘44  per  cent,  of  ashes,  and  22-8o  per  cent,  of  water. 

The  Agar- Agar  proper  of  the  Malays,  collected  in  large  quantities 
at  Singapore  and  in  the  whole  Malay  archipelago,  and  exported  for 
the  most  part  to  China,  consists  of  dried  floridse,  near  relatives  of 
the  Gelidiurn  corneum,  Lamx.,  and  particularly  of  the  varieties 
Sphcerococcus  spinosus,  Ag.,  and  S.  isiformis. 


3.  Plants  of  Commerce. 

(a)  Non-alcoholic  Stimulants  : Tea  and  Tobacco. 

Tea. 

The  trees  and  bushes  of  the  Ternstroemiacese,  belonging  to  the 
monsoon-region  of  South-Eastern  Asia,  are  represented  by  two 
evergreens,  the  tea-plant  and  the  camellia,  which  have  won  for  this 
family  distinction  and  significance  all  over  the  world.  Both  have 
been  cultivated  in  China  and  Japan  for  many  centuries  on  account 
of  their  leaves  or  blossoms.  Tea-growing  was  till  recently  con- 
fined practically  to  these  countries,  and  furnishes  their  second 
greatest  article  of  commerce,  its  production  keeping  pace  with  a 
vastly  increased  consumption  elsewhere  ; but  the  cultivation  of 
the  camellia  has  extended  over  nearly  all  the  lands  of  Christen- 
dom, though  mostly  as  a hothouse  plant  and  under  the  gardener’s 
care.  This  universal  estimation  and  wide  distribution  of  the 
camellia,  moreover,  are  as  much  things  of  our  century  as  is  tea- 
drinking  itself.  And  although  they  appeal  to  altogether  different 
senses  and  tastes,  the  two  plants  have  in  their  home  a common 
use.  This  is  the  utilization  of  their  close-grained  wood,  and 
especially  of  their  oily  seeds. 

The  relationship  between  these  two  plants,  from  an  economic 
point  of  view,  is  seen  in  a still  greater  degree  by  observing  more 
closely  the  entire  structure  of  both,  especially  with  regard  to  blos- 

1 In  the  Descriptive  Catalogue  of  the  International  Health  Exhibition, 
London,  1884. 


TEA  PLANT,  CAMELLIA  THEIFERA. 


{Page  129. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


in 


soms  and  fruit,  and  is,  in  fact,  so  great,  that  the  tea-plant  has  come 
lately  to  be  looked  upon  by  many  as  only  a particular  species  of 
the  genus  camellia,  since  there  are  no  generic  differences  (eg.  in 
Bentham  and  Hooper’s  “ Genera  Plantarum  ”). 

The  history  of  the  spread  of  tea-culture  points,  like  the  name 
itself  in  various  languages,  all  back  to  China  as  the  starting-point 
of  the  plant.  In  the  greater  part  of  the  Chinese  Empire,  and 
particularly  in  Peking  and  Canton,  the  name  of  the  leaves  as  pre- 
pared for  the  trade,  and  especially  of  the  extract  drawn  from  them 
by  boiling  water,  is  cha  (tscha)  ; and  this  is  the  name,  too,  in 
Japanese,  Portuguese,  and  Russian  (tschai).  The  words  thea, 
Thee,  the,  te,  te,  tea,  etc.,  seem  traceable  to  the  province  of  Fukien, 
for,  according  to  Williams  (“  The  Middle  Kingdom  ”),  the  plant  is 
called  tai  in  Amoy  and  ta  in  Futschau.  But  it  is  still  doubtful 
whether  China,  the  land  where  it  has  been  longest  cultivated,  is 
its  original  home,  and  if  so,  which  part  of  China.  In  1826,  as  is 
well  known,  the  tea-plant  was  found,  growing  wild  apparently, 
in  the  jungle-forests  of  Assam ; but  the  fact  was  not  thoroughly 
understood  till  eight  years  later.  Thea  Assamica,  Masters,  like  the 
camellia  in  Southern  Japan,  here  reaches  the  size  of  real  trees, 
7 to  9 m.  high,  with  light  ash-coloured  bark  and  large  elliptical  leaves, 
being  widely  differentiated  through  the  latter  from  the  bushy  and 
small-leaved  forms  of  the  Chinese  region  of  cultivation. 

According  to  personal  information  furnished  by  Sir  David 
Brandis,  the  Assam  valley  was  thickly  populated  and  in  excellent 
cultivation  even  in  the  last  century.  This  cultivation,  however, 
was  in  great  part  destroyed  by  the  incursions  of  the  Burmese.  At 
the  present  day  the  forests  which  have  grown  up  over  the  ancient 
seats  of  civilization,  contain  the  tea-tree,  and  it  is  probable,  there- 
fore, in  spite  of  many  peculiarities,  that  it  has  there  only  degenerated 
and  become  wild,  and  also  possible  that  the  tea-plant  in  a real  state 
of  nature  is  to  be  found  in  the  primeval  forests,  still  unexplored, 
of  the  neighbouring  Indo-Chinese  border-land. 

According  to  recent  opinions,  however,  the  tea-tree  of  the  Assam 
valley,  like  the  various  forms,  checked  in  their  development,  of  the 
cultivated  shrub  in  China  and  Japan,  belongs  to  the  same  species, 
which  is  called  Camellia  theifera , Griffth.,  or  Thea  chinensis , Sims. 
According  to  this  view,  a Thea  viridis,  L.,  f3  Thea  Bohea , L.,  7 Thea 
assamica , Masters,  are  all  varieties  in  different  degrees  of  transition. 

Its  general  characteristics  (see  Table  I.)  are  as  follows  : Bush  or 
tree  up  to  9 m.  high,  with  hard,  light  wood  and  many  branches. 
Bark  smooth,  light  ash-coloured,  resembling  that  of  beech,  and 
brownish  in  young  branches.  Crown  thick.  Leaves  persistent, 
short-stemmed,  and  from  elliptical  to  narrow  lanceolate  ; sharply 
serrated,  with  a bright,  lasting,  dark-green  polish,  but  much  thinner 
and  less  stiff  and  leathery  than  in  the  case  of  Camellia  japonica ; 
covered,  when  young,  with  a white  down  or  silken  hairs,  which 
drop  off  in  the  course  of  development.  Blossoms  belonging,  ac- 


12 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


cording  to  the  Linnaean  system,  to  Cl.  13,  Order  1,  almost  odour- 
less, regular,  growing  singly  or  in  groups  of  two  or  three  at  the 
base  of  leaves,  short-stemmed.  Calyx  with  five  or  six  leaves, 
corona  regular,  circular,  1 to  i|  cm.  in  diameter,  white  or  pink, 
with  six  petals,  of  which  the  outer  two  are  somewhat  smaller  than 
the  four  others.  Anthers  numerous,  spread  out  in  wh'eel-shape  ; 
style  split  in  three  ; germ  with  three  embryos.  The  fruit  a round, 
three-chambered,  three-seeded  capsule,  looking  as  if  it  consisted  of 
three  balls  partly  pressed  into  one  another,  growing  to  one  side. 
The  oily  seeds,  enclosed  by  a hard  shell,  are  spherical,  as  large  as  a 
cherry-stone  and  the  colour  of  hazel-nuts  (a).  Blossom-time  and 
harvest  are  from  September  to  December,  so  that  the  seeds  require 
nearly  a whole  year  to  develop,  and  frosts,  as  a rule,  destroy  the 
later  blossoms  in  the  colder  tea-districts  of  Japan,  China,  and  the 
regions  of  the  Himalayas. 

Of  the  sub-species,  The  a viridis,  L.,  produces  a quick-growing 
bush,  which  is  hardier  than  Th.  Bohea,  L.  Its  leaves  are  lanceolate, 
and  often  reach  a length  from  8 to  12  cm.,  with  a breadth  one-third 
as  great.  They  have  coarse,  irregularly  indented  edges,  often 
somewhat  undulating,  thin,  and  of  a light-green  colour  in  hot- 
houses. The  blossoms,  which  are  large,  grow  mostly  singly. 

The  a Bohea  remains  much  smaller.  (Though  there  are  very 
large  specimens  of  it,  too,  in  the  hothouses  of  botanical  gardens ; 
thus,  for  example,  that  of  St.  Petersburg,  until  within  a few  years, 
could  show  trees  of  Thea  viridis , and  also  of  The  a Bohea , which 
were  about  sixty  years  old  and  5 m.  high,  with  a stem-diameter  of 
12  to  15  cm.)  It  is  more  sensitive  to  cold.  Its  branches  and  twigs 
are  stiff,  like  its  leaves,  which  are  of  an  elongated  elliptical  shape, 
scarcely  half  as  long  as  those  of  Thea  viridis,  usually  3 to  5 cm. 
long,  and  half  as  broad,  smooth,  and  regularly  serrated.  The 
bushes  bloom  luxuriantly,  often  having  two  or  three  blossoms  at 
the  base  of  each  leaf. 

Thea  assamica  Masters  is,  when  cultivated,  a beautiful  little  tree, 
i|  m.  high.  Compared  with  the  Chinese  varieties  its  leaves  are 
very  large,  elliptically  pointed,  10  to  15  cm.  long  and  half  as  broad, 
smooth,  and  strongly  veined.  A hybrid  between  the  Assam  plant 
and  the  Chinese  tea-plant,  which  is  now  much  grown  in  India, 
combines  the  richness  in  leaf-production  and  the  strength  in  in- 
fusion of  the  Indian  type  with  the  compactness,  hardiness,  and 
pleasant  aroma  of  the  Chinese. 

According  to  Fortune,  Bohea  is  raised  principally  in  the  South 
of  China,  in  the  province  of  Kuang-tung,  to  make  black  tea  ; while 
Thea  viridis,  furnishes  the  green  tea  of  the  country  south  of  the 
Yang-tse-kiang,  and  is  shipped  chiefly  by  way  of  Shanghai  and 
Ningpo.  To  his  amazement  he  found,  however,  that  the  so-called 
“ Bohea  Hills  ” of  the  great  tea  province  Fukien,  which  yields 
black  tea  almost  exclusively,  were  planted  all  over  with  Thea 
viridis , and  soon  became  convinced  that  the  colour  of  the  tea  of 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


13 


commerce  is  only  the  result  of  different  ways  of  preparing  the 
leaves,  so  that  it  depends  merely  on  the  process  whether  tea 
appears  on  the  market  as  black  or  green.  Almost  all  Japanese 
tea  is  green,  though  coming  from  several  varieties  of  low-trimmed 
Bohea  bushes.  I have  scarcely  anywhere  seen  the  form  Thea 
viridis.  Although  Fortune,  in  his  accounts  of  travel  in  China, 
broke  down  the  erroneous  but  widespread  idea  that  green  and 
black  tea  were  products  of  entirely  distinct  plants,  Thea  viridis  and 
Thea  Bohea  respectively,  he  was  by  no  means  the  first  author  to 
state  the  matter  correctly.  This  had  been  done  by  Lettsom  half  a 
century  before,  on  page  7 of  his  excellent  work  on  the  tea-plant,1 
in  plain  words,  as  follows  : 

“ There  is  only  one  species  of  this  plant,  for  the  difference  be- 
tween green  and  Bohea  tea  depends  on  the  nature  of  the  soil,  the 
cultivation,  and  the  method  of  drying  the  leaves.  It  has  even  been 
observed  that  a green  tea-tree,  planted  in  the  Bohea  district,  will 
yield  Bohea  tea,  and  likewise  the  contrary.” 

The  principal  tea-districts  of  India,  China,  and  Japan  begin  at 
the  tropic  of  Cancer  (in  Japan  at  33°  N.)  and  reach  to  the  thirty- 
fifth  parallel.  In  Japan  the  fortieth  degree  is  the  extreme  northern 
limit  of  tea-plantations  ; in  China,  the  thirty-sixth.  In  Java  the 
tea-gardens  have  been  laid  out  in  the  lower  mountain  zone,  1,000- 
1,200  m.  above  sea-level  ; in  India  they  are  in  general  800-1,200  m. 
high,  but  in  Assam  and  Chittagong  only  60-80  m.  In  the  lower 
temperature-belt  for  tea-culture,  not  only  in  Northern  China  and 
Japan,  but  also  in  the  Himalayas,  the  bushes  are  often  exposed 
to  frosts  in  winter,  which  may  be  as  severe  as  — 90  C.,  without  killing 
them.  Climate,  soil,  and  method  of  preparation,  together  with 
differences  of  character  in  the  bushes,  have,  of  course,  the  greatest 
influence  on  the  quality  of  tea  produced.  As  to  soil,  a moist 
sandy  loam,  on  the  lower  slopes  of  hills,  is  the  best  bottom  for 
a tea-plantation.  Atmospheric  water  flows  off  easily  from  gently 
inclined  ground  of  this  sort,  without  carrying  away  good  earth. 
There  are  no  tea-gardens  on  the  sides  of  steep  mountains,  and 
only  exceptionally  do  we  find  terrace-culture  for  gardens  of 
this  sort.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  in  Japan  plantations  on 
level  plains,  e.g.  in  the  celebrated  tea-district  of  Uji,  on  the  Yodo- 
gawa,  between  Osaka  and  the  Biwa  Lake.  In  such  a case,  how- 
ever, the  ground  must  be  well  drained  and  the  underground  water 
kept  away  from  the  roots.  Forest  land,  with  damp,  fei tile  soil  on 
a bottom  of  sandy  loam,  has  proved  particularly  favourable  for 
raising  the  tea-plant  in  India  and  Java.  Such  soil  is  easily  pene- 
trated by  its  tap-roots,  which  find  in  it  support  and  moisture.  In 
China  and  Japan,  where  this  virgin  forest  soil  is  seldom  to  be  found, 
the  ground  is  all  the  more  carefully  and  deeply  worked,  well  kept 
and  manured,  and  these  are  essential  elements  in  planting  and 
tending  a tea-garden. 

1 Lettsom:  “The  Natural  History  of  the  Tea-Tree,”  London,  1799. 

II.  I 


14 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


The  seed  is  sown  either  in  autumn,  immediately  after  harvest, 
or  not  until  spring.  In  the  latter  case  their  reproductive  power, 
which  is  easily  lost,  is  best  preserved  by  keeping  them  in  a cool 
place,  in  a mixture  of  sand  and  other  earth,  as  is  done  with  cherry- 
stones and  other  seeds  of  stone-fruit.  The  garden  is  partly  planted 
by  seeds,  and  part  by  seedlings  from  the  nursery,  as  can  often  be 
observed  in  Japan,  where  the  nursery  serves,  too,  as  a welcome 
reserve  from  which  to  replace  trees  that  have  died,  or  to  substi- 
tute one  individual  for  another. 

In  direct  sowing,  rows  l-i’5  m.  apart  are  dug  in  the  ground, 
which  has  been  well  prepared  and,  in  particular,  manured  and 
deeply  worked.  Through  these  rows,  at  equal  distances,  circles 
are  drawn,  30-50  cm.  in  diameter.  Each  of  these  receives  20- 
30  seeds,  distributed  in  such  manner  that  in  a few  years,  with 
proper  pruning,  there  is  formed  from  the  plants  a fine,  dense  bush, 
40-120  cm.  high,  and  almost  half-spherical  in  shape.  Covered 
with  about  5 cm.  of  earth,  the  seeds  planted  in  spring  sprout  in 
about  fifty  days.  In  the  first  summer  the  young  plants  reach 
a length  of  only  6-10  cm.  In  the  second,  they  show  their  first 
side-shoots,  and  become  about  25  cm.  high.  In  three  years  they 
attain  a height  of  about  50  cm.  The  nursery-raised  sprouts  are 
now  transplanted,  unless  this  was  done  in  the  spring  after  the 
second  period  of  vegetation.  In  this  case,  the  mode  of  procedure 
is  similar  to  that  already  described,  except  that,  as  a rule,  only 
ten  to  twelve  plants  are  united  for  one  bush,  and  the  quincunx 
order  common  with  us  is  maintained,  so  that  single  bushes  in 
neighbouring  rows  may  stand  apart  at  the  greatest  possible  in- 
terval. 

The  distance  between  rows  and  between  individual  bushes  in 
rows,  which  are  by  no  means  the  same  in  all  plantatious,  are 
usually  in  the  following  numerical  proportions,  the  . unit  being  a 
foot, — 3 : 3 ; 3J  : 3 ; 4:3;  4=4!  5-41  5=5-  It  has  been  dis- 
covered that  production  is  greater  when  the  plants  are  set  close 
together,  and  certainly  the  ground  is  thus  most  easily  kept  clear 
of  weeds  ; but,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  in  this  case  very  difficult 
to  work  the  soil  and  manure  it,  and  to  gather  the  leaves.  All  re- 
quirements, however,  are  met  when  they  are  planted  in  the  4 : 4 
or  4\  : 4 order,  especially  where,  as  in  Japan,  the  bushes  are  kept 
low.  They  have  free  play  in  all  directions,  and  for  the  roots  too, 
which  is  just  as  important  as  air  and  light  are  for  the  health  of  the 
parts  above  ground. 

Where  the  rows  are  set  at  a greater  interval,  leguminous  plants, 
vegetables,  tobacco,  or  even  mulberry  bushes  are,  in  China  and 
Japan,  planted  between  them.  On  the  way  from  Nara  to  Fushimi, 
in  Japan,  I observed  rows  of  tea-trees  at  intervals  of  about  4 to 
5 m.  interchanged  with  rows  of  fruit-trees  (Diospyros  Kaki).  The 
plantation,  at  some  distance,  reminded  me  of  those  in  my  own 
German  home,  where  rows  of  berry-bushes  alternate  with  cherry- 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


1 1 5 


trees.  Mixed  gardens  of  this  sort  are,  however,  exceptions  ; as 
a rule,  the  tea-garden,  mostly  lying  free,  serves  no  subordinate 
purpose. 

In  Japan,  particularly  in  Kiushiu,  tea-shrubs  are  not  unfrequently 
found  singly  on  the  borders  of  terraces,  fields,  and  roads,  and  some- 
times even  joined  together  as  hedges.  Such  plants,  however,  yield 
only  inferior  products,  and  are  not  to  be  at  all  regarded  as  examples 
of  a rational  culture. 

It  is  plain  that  E.  Kaempfer — who  did  not  become  acquainted 
with  those  districts  where  tea  culture  is  more  extensively  and 
carefully  carried  on — had  such  methods  in  view  in  Kiushiu,  when 
he  wrote  that  Tsja  (Tscha)  no  ki,  or  the  tea-tree,  is  given  no  other 
place  but  the  borders  of  fields  and  similar  spots  inconvenient  for 
use  otherwise.1  In  like  manner,  and  led  astray  in  the  same  fashion, 
Maron  remarks  : “ The  tea-shrub  is  but  little  grown,  and  only  in 
hedges  and  the  borders  of  gardens,  and  I think  it  is  scarcely  any- 
where cultivated  in  the  open  fields.”  2 

In  China  the  tea-gardens  are  mostly  little  spots  of  land,  such  as 
the  peasant  with  his  own  family  can  work,  though  Fortune  mentions 
some  that  embraced  four  or  five  acres.  Plantations  of  this  sort  are 
not  at  all  infrequent  in  Japan.  It  often  happens  that  many  of 
them  lie  contiguous,  like  the  vineyards  of  different  owners  in  Ger- 
many. Over  softly  swelling  land,  with  a gentle  rise,  frequently  by 
the  side  of  yellow-green  rice-fields,  these  tea-gardens  present  in 
summer  an  exceedingly  pleasant  aspect,  with  their  foliage  of  dark 
green,  especially  if  the  picture  is  still  further  enlivened  by  women 
and  children  in  their  gay,  clean  clothes,  busily  picking  the  leaves. 

The  proper  method  of  trimming  the  tea-shrub  is  one  of  the 
most  important  operations  in  tea-gardening,  and  calls  for  great 
skill  and  intelligence.  For  a pleasing  appearance  of  the  plan- 
tation is  not  the  only  object,  but  rather  an  increase  in  the 
amount  and  quality  of  crops.  Like  planting  and  manuring1,  this 
trimming  must  be  done  in  the  colder  time  of  the  year,  just  as  in 
the  cases  of  trees  with  us — a time  when  there  is  a cessation  of 
growth,  and  the  production  of  sap  is  at  its  least. 

The  tea-plantations  are  well  manured,  often  four  times  a year, 
the  strongest  supply  being  given  in  spring,  when  the  new  epoch 
of  vegetation  begins.  Oil-cakes  and  fish-guano  are  held  parti- 
cularly effective,  and  their  use  is  preferred,  especially  for  young 
plants.  Where  they  cannot  be  had,  and  for  older  plants,  recourse 
is  had  to  human  faeces.  Since  a year’s  crop  of  l,6oo  lbs.  of  tea 
leaves  per  hectare  deprives  the  soil  of  ioo  kg.  of  nitrogen  and 
24  kg.  of  potash,  etc.,  it  is  above  all  things  necessary  to  replace 
this  with  an  appropriate  fertilizer.  For  this  purpose  wood-ashes 
and  sea-algae  are  the  best,  where  they  are  to  be  obtained. 

1 E.  Kaempfer:  “ Geschichte  und  Beschreibung  von  Japan,”  p.  131  ; and  E. 
Kaempfer  : “Amosn  exot.,”  p.  612. 

2 Salviati : “ Ann  ale  n der  Landwirthschaft,”  1869,  p.  71. 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


u6 


The  picking  of  the  leaves  begins  in  the  third  or  fourth  year  of  the 
plant’s  age,  according  as  a garden  is  planted  with  seeds  or  with 
nursery-shoots.  The  crop  increases  up  to  the  tenth  or  twelfth  year 
if  the  trees  are  carefully  tended  and  the  weather  is  normal.  Then 
there  follows  a gradual  diminution,  till,  somewhere  between  the 
fifteenth  and  eighteenth  years,  a new  laying  out  is  necessary.  But  it 
often  happens  that  a plantation  is  dead  and  the  soil  exhausted  in 
ten  or  twelve  years.  On  the  other  hand,  one  finds  some  which 
are  at  least  twenty-five  or  thirty  years  old,  and  still  productive, 
as  for  example  in  the  celebrated  tea  district  Uji , to  which 
Kaempfer,  even  in  his  day,  referred.  “ Udsi  tsjaa  nominavi ; de 
qua  ne  quid  in  historia  omittatur,  pauca  addimus  Udsi  oppidulum 
est  ad  limites  maris  situm  (it  is  five  miles  north  from  the  sea  at 
Osaka),  non  procol  a metropoli  et  Pontifical!  sede  Miaco.  . . . 

Ejus  clima  mira  benignitate  favet  culturae  fruticus.”  The  produce 
of  this  town  of  2,400  inhabitants,  however,  owes  its  ancient  repu- 
tation, less  to  an  unusually  favourable  climate  than  to  the  peculiar 
handling  and  care  of  the  tea-bushes  at  the  time  of  the  first  growth 
of  leaves,  a fact  I learned  in  Uji  itself,  and  to  which  no  one,  to  my 
knowledge,  has  yet  called  attention. 

It  is  really  two  places,  on  each  side  of  the  Yodogawa,  three- 
fourths  of  a mile  above  the  town  of  Fushimi.  That  on  the  right 
bank  belongs  to  Uji-gori,  that  on  the  left  to  Kuse-gori,  both  of  them 
districts  in  the  province  of  Yamashiro,  of  which  the  old  capital, 
Kioto  (Miaco  or  Myako),  is  somewhat  over  one  geographical  mile 
distant. 

The  river  emerges  here  from  its  narrow  bed  among  the  moun- 
tains and  spreads  over  the  plain  which  now  begins.  On  the  low 
hills  of  this  transition-zone,  and  likewise  in  the  plain  itself,  is  raised 
the  most  valued  tea  of  Uji,  the  choicest  of  which,  to  this  day,  costs 
ten  yen — forty  shillings — per  kilo,  as  compared  with  two  or  three 
yen  for  the  common  sort. 

About  thirty  days  before  the  first  harvest,  which  begins  in  the 
middle  of  May  (the  second  commencing  at  the  close  of  the  rainy 
season,  about  two  months  later),  the  tea-gardens  of  Uji  are  roofed 
over.  The  roof  rests  on  stakes  and  poles,  and  is  composed  of  mats 
made  from  reeds  laid  closely  side  by  side.  It  stands  from  one  and 
a half  to  two  meters  above  the  ground — the  bushes  are  from  a 
half  to  one  meter  high-— so  that  the  people  at  work  can  walk  about 
under  it  comfortably,  and  attend  to  the  first  crop  of  leaves.  When 
this  is  over,  the  roof  is  taken  down  and  put  away  in  houses  or 
sheds  set  apart  for  it,  till  the  next  year.  It  is  said  that  it  was 
in  use  more  than  two  hundred  years  ago.  Its  object  is  to  protect 
the  bushes  from  the  cold  dew,  which  reddens  the  young  leaves 
and  gives  them  a bitter  taste.  It  evidently  diminishes  the  radiation 
of  heat  from  ground  and  leaves,  and  thus  the  nocturnal  cooling ; 
the  softened  light,  at  the  same  time,  lengthens  the  internodes  of 
the  young  shoots  and  makes  the  leaves  more  tender.  Both  in 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


17 


China  and  Japan,  the  leaves  are  plucked  twice,  as  a rule.  The 
first  plucking,  being  the  chief  harvest,  commences  at  the  beginning 
or  in  the  middle  of  May,  according  to  the  situation  and  advance- 
ment of  the  plantation  (in  Southern  China  it  is  earlier  still),  and 
lasts  from  ten  to  twenty  days.  The  second  is  after  the  great 
summer  rain,  that  is,  from  four  to  six  weeks  later.  In  many  places 
in  China  the  chief  harvest  is  preceded  by  one  in  April,  when  unde- 
veloped leaves  are  plucked,  from  which  the  white  down  has  not  yet 
departed,  This  yields  the  dearest  sorts  of  tea — the  finest  Pekoe, 
Pekoe  tips,  incorrectly  called  Pekoe  blossoms,  and  Young  Hyson — 
and  naturally  demands  especial  care,  so  that  neither  the  bushes 
may  be  injured,  nor  the  chief  harvest  prejudiced.  For  the  latter, 
full-grown,  but  still  young,  leaves  are  taken,  fifteen  pounds  being 
plucked,  on  an  average,  by  women  and  children  ; elsewhere,  and 
even  in  Assam,  three  times  that  quantity  is  reckoned  as  the  daily 
produce  of  an  industrious  man.  Four  pounds  of  fresh  leaves  are 
reckoned  to  one  pound  of  prepared  tea.  The  peasant  who  raised 
them  either  cures  them  himself,  or  sells  them  to  a middle  man. 
The  second,  or,  as  the  case  may  be,  third  plucking  of  leaves,  yields 
only  older,  coarser  leaves,  for  home  consumption  or  the  production 
of  brick  tea.  It  is  important  that  the  fresh  leaves  should  be  worked 
up  as  quickly  as  possible,  in  order  to  obtain  therefrom,  according 
to  the  process,  the  green  or  black  tea  of  commerce.  The  Chinese, 
according  to  the  colour  of  the  infusion,  name  the  one  sort  Luh-cha, 
i.e.  green  tea,  and  the  black,  Hungcha,  i.e.  red  tea.  It  has  been 
discovered  that  when  the  leaves  have  withered  for  a long  time  they 
are  easier  to  roll  and  otherwise  manipulate,  but  that  the  extract 
suffers  in  colour  and  flavour.  This  is  especially  the  case  with 
green  tea,  whose  quality  is  considerably  advanced  by  rapid,  skilful 
drying.  Let  us,  then,  first  consider  the  preparation  of  green  tea. 

Japan,  as  already  remarked,  yields  almost  only  green  tea.  The 
different  processes  through  which  the  leaf  passes,  after  being 
plucked,  may  be  divided  into  those  at  the  place  of  cultivation,  and 
those  at  the  wholesale  merchant’s  before  shipment. 

a.  The  steaming  of  the  leaves.  A series  of  immured  iron  kettles 
(or  pans)  are  half  filled  with  water,  which  is  brought  to  boiling  by 
fires  of  charcoal  beneath  them.  The  mouth  of  each  kettle  is  closed 
by  a sieve,  that  fits  tight  into  it.  This  is  about  45  cm.  in  dia- 
meter, and  on  its  bottom  several  handfuls  (about  a half-pound) 
of  fresh  tea-leaves  are  spread  out.  The  sieve  is  closed  above  with 
a cover.  For  a .short  time,  generally  about  half  a minute,  the 
steam  is  permitted  to  act  upon  the  leaves,  long  enough  to  produce 
the  characteristic  odour  of  tea.  The  sieve  with  its  contents  is  then 
taken  off  from  the  pans.  The  leaves  are  shaken  together  and  then 
spread  out  over  straw  mats  or  tables.  The  damp  leaves,  of  course, 
have  lost  their  stiffness.  They  are  soft  and  easily  bent  in  all 
directions,  showing  everywhere  traces  of  the  oil  which  comes  from 
them.  Being  spread  out  and  fanned,  they  are  quickly  cooled, 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


and  then  subjected  to  another  operation,  of  especial  importance, 
viz., 

b.  Firing.  A frame  of  wood  or  bamboo-cane  is  coated  with 
cement,  and  serves  as  an  oven  or  hearth.  This  frame  is  shaped 
like  one  of  our  country  kneading-troughs,  and  is  usually  120  cm. 
long  by  75  cm.  broad.  On  the  floor  of  this  hearth,  surrounded  with 
ashes,  a gentle  charcoal  fire  is  kept  up.  A second  frame — a hollow 
cover — shuts  down  over  this  vessel,  like  the  tray  of  a trunk.  The 
walls  of  this  light  tray  are  covered  with  heavy  bast-paper  ; likewise 
its  bottom,  which  only  reaches  to  within  40-50  cm.  of  the  glowing 
coals  below,  and  is  therefore  not  singed,  the  heat  being  not  more 
than  50-60°  C.  Large  producers  have  a number  of  these  arrange- 
ments (3  to  8)  in  an  airy  apartment ; for  small  producers  a single  one 
is  often  sufficient.  Each  is  served  by  a strong  man,  almost  naked. 
He  pours  into  the  tray  about  800  me  (nearly  3 kg.)  of  tea-leaves  pre- 
pared as  described  in  paragraph  «,  spreads  them  out  over  its  paper 
bottom,  and  then  stirs  and  works  them  continually  with  his  hands. 
Next  he  lifts  up  the  soft,  moist  leaves,  and  lets  them  fall  again,  till 
by-and-by  they  acquire  a darker  green  colour.  He  now  sets  to 
work  to  rub  and  roll  them  between  his  palms  into  balls,  which  he 
again  breaks  up,  and,  by  rolling  up  and  down  on  the  paper  side- 
walls  of  the  inner  trough,  forms  anew  and  rotates  with  heavy  pres- 
sure on  the  paper  walls.  Thus  he  keeps  up  the  weary  labour,  with 
more  or  less  variation,  busily  for  several  hours,  until  the  entire 
mass  has  taken  on  a dark  olive-green  colour,  and  the  separate 
leaves  are  curled  and  twisted  and  rolled.  They  are  called  squills 
by  English  tea-dealers.  They  are  now  spread  out  to  dry  on  paper 
frames  similarly  warmed.  Here  they  remain  some  time  (4  to  12 
hours)  until  quite  brittle.  The  tea  is  now  ready  for  home  con- 
sumption, and  only  requires  to  be  sorted  and  packed.  In  vessels 
of  clay  or  porcelain,  with  close-fitting  covers,  it  will  keep  at  least 
a year. 

c.  Sorting  the  tea.  Not  a few  young  seed-capsules,  besides  leaves 
that  were  neither  equal  nor  healthy,  were  plucked  in  harvesting. 
The  capsules,  on  their  short  stems,  look  not  unlike  ordinary  capers. 
In  sorting,  these,  as  well  as  stems  and  injurious  leaves,  are  cast 
out.  Further,  the  tea-dust  which  has  been  formed  is  separated 
from  the  leaves,  which  in  turn  are  divided,  the  smaller  from  the 
larger,  the  object  being  to  get  a uniform,  fine-looking  article.  To 
this  end  the  dry  tea  is  next  winnowed  with  a light  hand-sieve  of 
bamboo,  and  the  coarse  stuff  remaining,  such  as  leaf-stems  and 
seed-capsules,  taken  away.  Hereupon  follows  the  sifting  of  the 
tea.  The  sieve  is  suspended  breast-high  by  a rope  from  the  ceil- 
ing, so  that  it  can  be  moved  with  ease  in  every  direction,  as  well  as 
in  a circle.  The  finer  stuff  falls  through  on  a pile,  and  there  remain 
the  more  equally  rolled  and  twisted  leaves.  Lastly,  this  tea,  de- 
signed for  exportation,  is  spread  out  on  a table  and  carefully  gone 
over  again  by  girls,  who  pick  out  all  remaining  impurities — fruit- 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


19 


capsules,  bits  of  stems,  etc.  All  these  processes  being  at  length 
over,  the  product  is  packed  in  new  wooden  chests,  each  of  which 
holds  a half  picul  (30  kilo),  and  is  sent  to  one  of  the  treaty-ports 
for  sale.  Native  middle-men  attend  to  its  transference  from  the 
producer’s  hands  to  those  of  the  foreign  merchant  and  exporter. 

To  render  the  tea  fit  for  the  sea-voyage  and  marketable,  the 
exporter  subjects  it  for  one  or  two  hours  to  another  drying,  and 
finally  to  colouring.  With  reference  to  the  former,  two  methods 
are  employed — pan  firing  and  basket  firing.  Iron  pans,  more  or 
less  hemispherical,  each  40  to  50  cm.  across,  and  a little  more  than 
half  as  deep,  are  set  in  a row  in  low  brick  walls,  in  large,  airy 
halls  (tea-firing  godowns).  Each  pan  has  its  own  little  charcoal 
fire  underneath.  Many  merchants  have  500  persons,  mostly  wo- 
men and  girls,  to  serve  the  same  number  of  pans,  in  one  room. 
When  the  fresh  tea  is  brought  in  from  the  country,  it  is  lively 
enough  here,  from  early  morning  till  sunset,  and  the  joking  and 
nasal  singing  can  be  heard  from  afar.  Upon  a given  signal  from 
the  Chinaman  in  charge,  each  pan,  previously  warmed,  receives  the 
contents  of  the  basket  which  stands  ready — about  five  pounds  of 
tea.  This  is  now,  for  the  last  time,  industriously  worked  between 
the  hands  and  kept  in  continual  motion,  till  the  overseer  deems  it 
perfectly  dry.  Colouring,  in  so  far  as  it  is  still  practised,  comes 
next  (of  which  more  in  detail  below),  and  then  the  tea  that  is  ready 
to  be  shipped  is  taken  into  the  pack-room.  Here  it  is  packed  while 
yet  warm  in  so-called  half-chests,  each  containing  forty  English 
pounds,  and  lined  with  sheets  of  lead.  In  this  shape  it  reaches  the 
dealers  in  the  United  States  and  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  these 
being  the  almost  exclusive  customers. 

In  basket-firing  woven  baskets  of  split  bamboo  are  used,  open 
at  both  ends.  They  are  shaped  like  dice-boxes.  The  basket  is 
tilted  with  one  end  over  a pan  in  which  are  glowing  coals  sur- 
rounded by  ashes.  Into  the  other  end  is  fitted  a thick-meshed 
bamboo  basket,  round  and  flat,  in  which  is  strewn  the  tea  which  is 
to  be  heated.  This  method  has  only  a limited  application  as  com- 
pared with  the  other.  These  tea-drying  establishments,  and  the 
processes  gone  through  in  them,  certainly  increase  very  consider- 
ably the  price  of  export  tea,  but  no  plan  has  yet  been  discovered 
whereby  the  work  could  be  done  better  and  more  cheaply. 

The  Ten-cha  or  Hiki-cha , or  powder-tea,  was  named  even  by 
Kaempfer  as  the  prime  sort  of  Japanese  tea.  It  is  prepared  from  the 
most  delicate  leaves  of  older  and  very  carefully  tended  bushes,  in 
the  same  way  as  green  tea,  then  put  away  with  care,  and  ground 
before  use  with  a hand-mill.  It  is  the  costliest  sort,  is  not  ex- 
ported, and  as  a rule  is  served  only  on  great  occasions,  eg.  the  Cha- 
no-yu , or  tea-parties. 

Next  in  price  to  Hiki-cha  comes  Giyokurd  or  pearl  tea,  of  which 
likewise  little  is  exported. 

Of  the  great  mass  of  Japanese  tea  that  finds  its  way  out  of  the 


120 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


country,  the  better  variety  is  called  Sen-cha  and  the  poorer  Ban- 
cha.  The  latter  is  mostly  the  product  of  the  second  harvest. 
Of  each  of  these  two  sorts  of  Japanese  tea  the  annual  product  is 
now  about  fifteen  million  Japanese  pounds,  or  nine  million  kilo- 
grammes. According  to  the  descriptions  of  Fortune,  Williams, 
and  others,  the  production  of  green  tea  in  China  differs  in  several 
respects  from  the  Japanese  method.  The  fresh  leaves  are  not 
steamed,  but  heated  for  four  or  five  minutes  in  flat  iron  pans  over 
coal  fires,  with  constant  turning.  The  oil  and  water  thus  brought 
out  make  them  soft  and  flexible.  In  this  condition  they  are 
spread  out  on  so-called  rolling-tables.  Each  workman  takes  up 
as  many  as  he  can  comfortably  hold  and  manipulate.  By  pressing 
and  rolling  he  forms  a ball  of  them,  which  he  works  over  and  over, 
somewhat  as  a baker  does  his  dough.  Frequently,  in  this  process, 
the  ball  goes  from  the  hands  of  the  first  workman  into  those  of  a 
second  and  third.  These  open  it,  form  it  anew,  press  and  roll 
it,  and  so  it  goes  on  till  it  reaches  the  head  workman,  who  tests  it 
and  decides  whether  its  leaves  have  been  rolled  enough.  Although 
these  operations  last  but  a short  time,  they  injure  the  hands  of 
even  the  most  skilful  workmen  severely,  chiefly  in  consequence  of 
the  warmth  of  the  tea-leaves  and  their  juice.  They  diminish  the 
volume  of  the  leaves  considerably—to  about  one-fourth  of  the 
original,  and  change  yet  more  their  shape  and  colour.  These 
are  thereupon  spread  out  thinly  in  sieves  of  bamboo  sticks,  and 
slowly  dried  in  the  air.  When  the  sky  is  overcast  this  takes  several 
days.  A second  heating  and  manipulation  of  the  air-dried  leaves 
in  the  pans  comes  next,  lasting  about  an  hour.  The  leaves  are 
constantly  tossed  about,  first  by  hand,  and  then,  when  the  heat 
increases,  by  a brush  made  from  bamboo  cane.  In  slipping  down 
on  the  hot  sloping  back-wall  of  the  pan,  the  leaves  dry  and  roll  up 
tight.  Except  sorting,  the  tea  is  now  ready  for  home  consumption. 
For  the  foreign  market  it  is  further  manipulated,  as  described 
above,  in  the  case  of  Japanese  tea. 

China  exports  most  of  its  green  tea  from  the  northern  tea-ports, 
Ningpo  and  Shanghai.  It  comes  chiefly  from  the  provinces  di- 
rectly south  of  the  Yang-tse-kiang  and  west  of  Ningpo,  from  the 
hill-country  of  the  provinces  Chekiang,  Ngan-hui,  Kiangsi,  and 
Hunan.  It  is  customary  to  distinguish  the  sorts  with  the  English 
terms,  as  Imperial , Gunpowder , Young  Hyson,  Hyson,  and  Twankay. 
The  first  two  sorts  also  bear  the  name  pearl  tea.  They  are  pre- 
pared from  young,  undeveloped  leaves,  and  rolled  in  pellets,  like 
the  corresponding  caper,  which  is  included  among  the  black  sorts. 
According  to  Fortune,  the  caper  is  thus  produced  in  Canton:  “A 
parcel  (20  to  30  pounds)  of  the  tea  as  brought  in  from  the  country, 
and  not  yet  fully  prepared,  was  thrown  into  a heated  drying-pan, 
then  sprinkled  with  a bucketful  of  water,  and  quickly  turned  over. 
The  leaves,  of  course,  absorbed  the  water  at  once,  and  became 
thereby  soft  and  pliable.  They  were  now  put  in  a strong  canvas 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


sack,  which  was  twisted  tight  into  a ball.  This  was  thrown  upon 
a mat,  over  which  stretched  a horizontal  pole.  A workman,  hold- 
ing fast  to  the  pole  with  his  hands,  stepped  on  the  mat  in  his 
bare  feet,  and  turned  the  ball  continually  with  his  heels  and  toes 
and  the  soles  of  his  feet.  To  preserve  the  spherical  shape  of  the 
sack,  with  its  diminishing  volume,  the  man  sprang  aside  every 
now  and  then,  and  twisted  it  tighter.  In  this  way  there  came 
to  be  at  last  a much  smaller  but  hard  ball,  and  one  no  longer 
changing.  This  sack,  with  its  contents,  was  thrown  to  one  side, 
and  left  lying  there  several  hours.  When  it  was  opened,  and 
the  leaves  were  taken  out,  they  were  found  mostly  rolled  together 
in  pellets.  Quick  drying  in  heated  pans  and  sieves  did  the  rest.” 
(See  representation  on  title-page  of  Fortune’s  “A  Residence,” 
etc.) 

Twankay  is  the  ordinary  green  tea  that  comes  to  Europe;  Hyson 
the  better  sort.  The  word  is  said  to  be  derived  from  Hi-chun, 
blossoming  spring. 

The  production  of  black  tea,  or  Hung-cha  (i.e.  red  tea),  as  the 
Chinese  call  it,  differs  from  the  methods  employed  for  green  tea 
chiefly  in  the  fact  that  the  fresh-gathered  leaves  go  through  a kind 
of  fermentation,  to  develop  aroma  and  colour,  before  reaching  the 
hot  drying-pans.  The  character  and  quality  of  black  tea  depends 
in  great  measure  upon  this  process  of  fermentation.  Hence  it  is 
a matter  of  the  greatest  importance  that  it  should  be  properly 
conducted.  The  fresh  leaves  are  generally  left  over-night,  or  for 
several  hours,  on  bamboo  frames.  They  are  then  tossed  up  and 
gently  beaten,  till  they  are  soft  and  pliable.  These  withered 
leaves  are  then  piled  up  in  a heap  for  several  hours,  where  they 
become  warm,  moist,  and  dark.  In  this  they  may  be  compared 
with  plants  that  are  to  be  dried  for  a herbarium,  which  the  botanist 
puts  for  some  length  of  time  in  damp  paper,  and  which  become 
black,  instead  of  green,  as  by  the  usual  process.  They  remain 
wet  in  the  air  for  some  time — often  two  or  three  days,  according 
to  Fortune — and  are  then  subjected  to  a strong  heat  in  the  pans. 
Thus  their  peculiar  aroma  and  black — really  brown — colour  are 
developed,  and  also  the  reddish  brown  coloration  of  the  infusion 
of  the  dry  tea  with  boiling  water.  As  to  the  remaining  processes 
in  the  roasting-pan  and  elsewhere,  there  is  no  difference  between 
the  method  for  black  tea  and  that  for  green  already  described. 

Pekoe,  Souchong,  Congo,  are  the  most  noteworthy  black  teas  of 
China,  in  the  order  of  quality.  To  these  must  be  added  Caper  and 
Oolong.  I suppose  the  saying  is  in  general  correct,  that,  beginning 
with  the  tip  of  the  young  shoots,  Pekoe  is  made  from  the  end-buds 
and  the  first  (youngest)  leaf,  Souchong  from  the  two  following,  and 
Congo  from  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth,  that  is,  from  the  older 
leaves.  Caper,  as  has  already  been  remarked,  is  a fine  black  tea, 
of  which  the  leaves  are  rolled  into  tight  pellets  by  a particular 
method  of  handling,  similar  to  that  of  green  pearl-tea.  Oolong  is 


122 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


made  in  the  province  of  Fukien,  and  used  principally  in  India  and 
Australia.  It  is  a black  variety,  with  the  taste  of  green  tea.  The 
Congo, — that  is,  “ well-worked,” — is  also  called  Bo/iea,  after  a 
district  in  Fukien.  It  constitutes  the  great  mass  of  cheaper  black 
tea,  and  its  poorest  sort  has  been  sold  in  London  at  threepence  per 
pound.  The  common  black  tea  of  better  quality  is  Souchong  {i.e. 
small,  rare  sort),  to  which  the  Caravan-tea  largely  belongs.  The 
Pekoe  (Pek-ho,  i.e.  white  down)  is  the  finest  and  dearest  black  tea. 
The  English  expression  Pekoe  tips  better  characterizes  the  un- 
developed leaflets  of  the  buds,  still  covered  with  white  down,  than 
the  term  Pekoe-blossoms  used  by  German  merchants — a term 
against  which  Kaempfer,  even  in  his  day,  argued  in  vain ; for  the 
tea-plant  blossoms  in  autumn,  and  therefore  long  after  the  harvest, 
hence  there  cannot  be  blossoms  in  any  variety  of  tea,  least  of  all 
in  Pekoe,  which  is  picked  first. 

Souchong  and  Congo  are  blacker  than  Pekoe,  and  yield  a darker 
liquid.  It  is,  moreover,  an  established  fact  that  the  aroma  is 
developed  along  with  the  leaves  and  does  not  appear  until  after 
their  preparation.  Very  young  leaves  do  not  contain  it.  Hence 
the  best  Pekoe,  despite  its  high  price,  cannot  satisfy  our  taste,  and 
must  be  mixed  with  Souchong.  The  better  sorts  of  black  tea, 
especially  Souchong,  were  formerly  the  only  kind  exported  as 
Caravan-tea.  Being  transported  by  land  over  cold,  dry  countries, 
they  could  dispense  with  the  final  thorough  heating  in  the  drying- 
establishments  of  the  ports,  and  thus  the  aroma  was  better  pre- 
served ; so  that  they  were  deservedly  celebrated.  But  since  more 
time  has  been  devoted  to  preparing  and  packing  tea  for  shipping, 
and  this  is  so  much  more  quickly  accomplished,  the  difference  in 
quality  has  largely  disappeared,  and  there  remains  only  the  great 
difference  in  price,  to  the  disadvantage  of  the  Caravan-tea.  As  a 
consequence,  the  importation  of  cheap  tea  by  ship  into  Russia  is 
increasing  steadily,  while  a falling  off  in  that  of  Caravan-tea, 
across  Siberia,  has  long  been  observed.  A Zuibik , i.e.  a cubical 
box,  lined  with  lead,  and  painted  on  the  outside  and  marked 
with  Chinese  characters,  contains  usually  sixty  pounds  of  Caravan- 
tea. 

Black  tea  is  produced  chiefly  in  the  provinces  of  Fukien, Kuang- 
tung,  Hupeh,  Hunan,  and  Sz’chuan,  the  last  province  also  yielding 
a great  deal  of  green  tea  and  brick  tea,  for  Tibet.  Futscheufu 
and  Canton  are  the  principal  ports  for  black  tea,  though  Shanghai 
and  Ningpo  export  great  quantities  of  it  too,  besides  green  tea. 

The  preference  of  the  Mongolians  for  green  tea  is  shared  only 
by  North  Americans  and  the  upper  classes  in  Morocco.  By  far  the 
greater  number  of  tea-drinkers  in  Europe  prefer  the  black,  and  the 
foreign  resident  in  Japan  (even  the  tea-exporter)  has  it  sent  for  his 
own  use  from  China.  The  Japanese  are  well  aware  that  they 
depend  on  the  American  taste  for  the  sale  of  tea,  their  most  im- 
portant article  of  commerce,  save  one.  For  this  reason  their  efforts 


A GRICUL  TURA  L IND  US  TRIES. 


to  produce  black  tea,  especially  Congo  (Kocha)  and  Oolong  (Uriyo) 
have  been  multiplied  in  the  last  fifteen  years,  up  to  the  present 
time,  however,  without  satisfactory  result.  The  black  tea  prepared 
in  Japan,  lacking  the  characteristic  good  taste  and  aroma  and  the 
strength,  does  not  furnish  an  agreeable  beverage.  For  reasons  not 
yet  fully  learned,  the  Japanese  tea-leaf  cannot  stand  the  process  of 
fermentation  so  important  in  the  production  of  the  black  sorts  of 
Chinese  tea.  It  becomes  easily  damp  and  limp  after  this  process, 
yielding  an  unpleasant  smell  instead  of  the  prized  aroma. 

When  the  chief  harvest  in  Japan  is  past,  the  older  leaves  are 
gathered  for  home  consumption,  and  preparations  are  made  from 
them.  These  vary  according  to  the  method  of  drying,  and  are 
known  as  Hiboshi,  Kamairi,  and  Kuroguchi.  The  infusion  they 
yield  is  of  a dark  colour,  as  with  Congo,  and  has  a taste  that  is  not 
agreeable  to  us. 


Colouring  and  Scenting  the  Tea. 

Two  more  processes  are  here  to  be  considered,  which  are 
designed  to  satisfy  singular  preferences  of  Western  consumers, 
preferences  that  are  incomprehensible  to  the  Mongolian.  These 
processes  are  colouring  and  scenting. 

Colouring  is  applied  to  green  tea  only.  The  exporter  in  Japan 
and  China  adds  to  every  pan  of  tea,  especially  such  as  is  designed 
for  the  North  American  market,  towards  the  close  of  the  last  firing, 
a little  bit  of  powder — as  much  as  will  lie  on  a knife’s  point.  This 
powder  is  a mixture  of  Prussian  blue  and  Chinese  soap-stone,  or 
gypsum, — in  Japan  nearly  always  the  latter, — generally  in  the 
proportion  of  four  to  one.  This  blue  powder  is  readily  absorbed 
by  the  moist,  warm  tea.  It  increases  its  weight  only  about  ij  per 
cent.,  and  is  not  at  all  injurious  to  the  consumer’s  health.  But  it 
serves  no  rational  end,  since  its  only  result  is  to  change  and 
heighten  somewhat  the  natural,  though  less  pronounced  green  of 
the  leaves,  to  meet  what  has  been  hitherto  the  taste  in  North 
America. 

Scenting  of  tea  is  done  only  in  China,  and  chiefly  in  the  case  of 
the  better  black  sorts.  Like  colouring,  it  seems  to  be  on  the 
decline.  They  use  the  odorous  blossoms,  separated  from  their 
stems  and  calyxes,  of  Jasminum  Sambac,  Ait.,  Jasm.  paniculatum , 
Lour.,  Citrus  Bigaradia , Duham.,  Rosa  centifolia , L.,  Prunus  Mume, 
S.  and  Z.,  Olea  fragrans,  Thunb.,  Aglaia  odorata,  Lour.,  Gardenia 
jlorida,  L.,  and  Daphne  odora , Thunb.  When  the  tea  is  otherwise 
ready,  it  is  mixed  with  these  blossoms  (eg.,  one  hundred  pounds 
of  tea  with  forty  pounds  of  orange-blossoms,  or  blossoms  of  the 
Jasmin,  with  one  hundred  pounds  of  blossoms  of  the  Aglaia 
odorata).  They  are  allowed  to  remain  in  contact  for  twenty-four 
hours.  Then  the  blossoms  and  fragments  of  blossoms  are  separated 
out  by  sifting,  fanning,  and  picking.  The  tea  has  taken  from  them 


24 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


moisture  and  aroma,  both  of  which  are  got  rid  of  again  by  a quick 
heating.  The  odour,  “ the  bouquet,”  of  the  tea  remains,  however, 
from  one  to  six  years,  according  to  quality  and  strength,  if  it  is 
carefully  packed.  Scented  tea  was  formerly  prepared  only  in  Can- 
ton, but  now  also  in  the  northern  ports,  as  Shanghai  and  Ningpo. 
The  traveller  who  sails  towards  these  cities  in  early  summer  in 
a coaster  from  the  south  finds  himself  sometimes  accompanied  by 
hundreds  of  pots  filled  with  blooming  bushes  of  several  of  the 
above-named  species,  which  are  sent  north  for  this  purpose  from 
Canton,  Macao,  and  Hong-kong. 

Under  the  names  “ Orange  Pekoe,”  “Scented  Caper,”  etc.,  this 
perfumed  tea  comes,  carefully  packed,  to  London,  Rotterdam,  and 
other  ports,  and  is  here  further  mingled  with  tea  that  has  not  such 
“bouquet.”  (For  further  details  see  Fortune’s  “A  Residence 
among  the  Chinese,”  p.  199  ff.  London,  1857.)  Good  tea  must, 
however,  have  its  own  aroma.  The  addition  of  a foreign  one  is,  in 
my  opinion,  altogether  to  be  condemned.  The  volatile  oil  which 
the  tea  receives  in  being  scented  is  just  as  likely  to  have  an  in- 
jurious effect  upon  delicate  nerves,  and  produce  headache,  as  in 
wine  and  punch  essences. 

The  property  of  the  green  or  brownish  red  extract,  which  is 
produced  by  pouring  boiling  water  on  the  tea  of  commerce,  to 
warm,  refresh,  and  invigorate  the  body,  has  been  highly  valued 
for  many  centuries  by  the  Mongolian  races.  Among  the  civilized 
nations  of  the  West  tea  only  found  entrance  two  hundred  years 
ago,  and  very  slowly  at  first.  But  in  this  century  its  introduction 
and  distribution  have  been  all  the  quicker.  In  many  households  it 
has  already  completely  driven  its  competitors,  coffee  and  cocoa, 
from  the  field.  In  the  Orient  it  meets  with  no  competition  at  all, 
being  equally  popular  with  high  and  low. 

The  Japanese,  like  the  Chinese,  seldom  drinks  cold  water.  Tea 
is  his  favourite  beverage  at  every  meal  and  between  meals — green 
tea,  from  little  pots  on  little  saucers  to  correspond.  He  drinks 
it  plain,  and  when  it  is  not  to  be  had  does  not  despise  mere  warm 
water  from  the  iron  kettle,  which  always  serves  otherwise  to  fill 
up  the  tea-pot.  No  sooner  has  the  traveller  in  Japan  sat  down 
in  an  inn,  than,  without  delay,  a basin  with  some  glowing  coals  is 
set  before  him  to  light  his  pipe  with,  and  tea  to  refresh  him.  This 
attention  he  rewards  with  the  Cha-dai  (i.e.  tea-table),  or  tip,  which 
he  lays  on  the  salver.  When  a customer  enters  one  of  the  larger 
shops,  it  is  a point  of  etiquette  in  the  house  that  a cup  of  green 
tea  be  set  before  him  at  once,  before  proceeding  to  business. 

In  the  poor  mountain  country,  however,  the  quality  of  the  drink 
offered  under  the  name  of  Tscha  is  not  always  so  inviting — an 
infusion  or  decoction  from  the  cheapest  waste  matter  of  the  tea- 
districts,  looking  like  dish-water  and  just  as  little  appetizing. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


■25 


Brick-tea  {Chin.  Tung-kau , Russ.  Kirpitschnoi-tschai '). 

As  has  been  remarked,  black  and  green  tea  furnish  the  healthiest 
and  most  important  stimulant  for  a large  part  of  the  human  race. 
Apart  from  this  chief  use  of  the  leaves  of  the  tea-tree,  however,  we 
have  now  to  consider  another,  no  less  significant  for  a further 
portion  of  human  society,  namely,  as  an  actual  means  of  nourish- 
ment, for  as  such  we  must  regard  the  so-called  brick-tea.  Its 
preparation,  in  Sz’chuan,  Hupeh,  and  neighbouring  Chinese  pro- 
vinces, takes  place  after  harvest  and  the  operations  thereupon 
following  in  preparing  common  tea.  For  this  purpose  the  rem- 
nants and  the  older  leaves  are  exposed  for  some  considerable  time 
to  steam,  to  be  softened.  Then  they  are  pressed  in  tablets,  in  the 
form  of  thin  bricks,  namely,  8-12  inches  (20-30  cm.)  long  and 
broad,  and  one  inch  ( 2\  cm.)  thick,  and  kept  under  pressure  till 
dry  and  hard.  Mongolians  and  the  inhabitants  of  Tibet  are  the 
principal  consumers,  to  whom  must  be  added  several  Russian 
races.  For  use,  a piece  is  knocked  off,  boiled  with  milk  or  water, 
seasoned  with  butter,  a little  vinegar,  pepper,  and  salt,  and  eaten 
as  soup.  This  is  said  not  to  be  a very  inviting  dish  in  appearance, 
but  refreshing  and  nourishing,  as  may  be  supposed,  since  it  con- 
tains not  only  the  essences  of  tea,  but  also  the  coagulating  albumen 
and  the  cellular  substance. 

We  cannot  tell  exactly  when  the  cultivation  of  tea  began  in 
China.  According  to  W.  Williams,  the  oldest  Chinese  records  of 
tea  go  back  only  to  the  year  350  A.D.  An  Arabian  merchant, 
named  Soliman,  who  published,  about  850  A.D.,  an  account  of  his 
travels  in  Eastern  Asia,  remarks  that  tea  was  the  common  drink  of 
the  Chinese.  Strange  to  say,  Marco  Polo  makes  no  mention  of  it. 
This  may  perhaps  be  explained  by  supposing  that  up  to  the  end 
of  the  13th  century  the  knowledge  of  its  use  had  not  travelled  from 
the  Chinese  of  the  South  northward  to  the  Mongolian-Tartar 
peoples  among  whom  the  celebrated  Venetian  lived.  Certain  it  is 
that  Europe  received  its  first  knowledge  of  tea  through  Jesuit 
missionaries  in  the  second  half  of  the  sixteenth  century.  At  that 
time  the  Jesuits  in  great  numbers  lived  and  laboured  successfully 
among  the  people  in  China  and  Japan.1  But  the  first  specimens 
of  the  article  did  not  come  to  Europe  till  much  later  (1610  A.D.), 
and  then  not  through  the  Jesuits,  as  might  be  supposed,  but 
through  the  Dutch  East  India  Company,  and  probably  from  Japan. 
In  1664  the  English  East  India  Company  brought  two  pounds  and 
two  ounces  of  black  tea  from  the  province  of  Fukien,  as  a present 
to  King  Charles  II. ; but  not  until  fourteen  years  later  (1678)  did 
it  deem  it  advisable  to  admit  tea  into  its  list  as  a new  article  of 
commerce.  In  that  year  it  began  exporting  it  to  England,  with 
4,713  pounds  as  a beginning.  It  held  a monopoly  of  the  English 
trade  up  to  1834,  when  the  importation  into  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland  had  increased  to  30J  million  pounds. 

1 See  J.  P.  Maffeus  : “ Rerum  Indicarum,”  libro  ii.  p.  108  ff. 


26 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


When  the  tea-trade  was  thrown  open  in  England,  with  the  re- 
duction in  cost  of  transportation  and  of  entrance  duty,  and  with  the 
addition  of  new  producers  (India  and  Java),  the  prices  of  tea  sank 
more  and  more,1  and  its  consumption  increased  accordingly.  Tea 
ceased  to  be  a mere  luxury  on  the  tables  of  the  well-to-do. 
Millions  of  poor  people  in  Europe  and  in  all  English-speaking 
countries  have  become  accustomed  to  its  enjoyment,  and  found 
that  it  furnishes  them  the  cheapest  and  healthiest  warm  drink. 
The  way  its  use  is  distributed  over  the  different  countries,  is  seen 
in  one  of  the  following  summary  tables. 

According  to  Junker  von  Langegg,2  tea  has  been  known  in 
Japan  for  more  than  a thousand  years,  but  has  become  the  national 
beverage  only  since  the  fourteenth  century.  In  the  eighth  century 
of  our  era  the  imperial  court  (Shomu  Tenno,  Kwammu  Tenno) 
first  became  acquainted  with  it.  Towards  the  end  of  the  latter 
emperor’s  reign,  the  priest  Saito  (Denkio  Daishi)  introduced  tea- 
seeds  from  China  and  planted  them  at  Uji  (805  A.D.).  According 
to  another  authority,  tea-seeds  and  the  art  of  preparing  tea  were, 
previous  to  this,  brought  from  China,  by  the  abbot  Yei-shu,  to  his 
monastery  in  Omi,  and  cultivated  there.  In  agreement  with  this 
we  have  the  further  statement  that  Saga  Tenno,  the  fifty-second 
emperor,  visiting  this  monastery  in  815,  was  regaled  with  tea,  and 
that  the  drink  having  met  his  approbation,  he  issued  a mandate  for 
the  establishment  of  tea-gardens  in  the  neighbouring  provinces  of 
the  Gokinai,  and  also  in  Omi,  Tamba,  and  Harima. 

At  that  time,  and  even  centuries  later,  tea  was  very  dear,  a 
luxury  of  which  only  the  nobility  and  the  Bonzes  partook.  The 
cultivation  of  the  tea-plant  seems  to  have  gradually  fallen  into 
neglect,  for  only  on  this  supposition  is  there  significance  in  another 
story, — that  the  Bonze  Yei-sei,  about  the  year  1200,  introduced  the 
plant  into  the  province  of  Chikuzen,  on  the  island  of  Kiushiu,  by 
means  of  seeds  from  China,  and  that  anyhow  it  was  not  until  this 
time,  under  the  patronage  of  the  eighty-third  emperor  (Tsuchi 
Mikado  Tenn6)  that  tea-growing  secured  a firm  hold  in  Japan. 
Miyo-ye  (Meiki),  abbot  of  the  monastery  Togano,  near  Kioto,  re- 
ceived tea-seeds  from  Yei-sei,  with  directions  for  training  the  shrub 
and  treating  the  leaves.  He  is  considered  the  founder  of  tea-culture 
in  Yamashiro  and  Yamato,  and  particularly  at  Uji , the  celebrated 
place  for  tea.  To  this  day  in  a chapel  there  the  first  tea  is  offered 
to  him  every  year.  Further  advancement  of  tea-growing  around 
Uji  was  caused  by  Shdgun  Ashikaga  Yoshimitsu  after  his  abdi- 
cation, about  the  year  1400.  We  have  already  cited  some  of 
Kaempfer’s  remarks  about  the  tea  of  Uji,  and  seen  therefrom  that 
its  fame  was  already  great  throughout  Japan  two  hundred  years 

1 For  a long  time  a pound  had  cost  from  jio  to  ,£5  in  London,  and  even  in 
1780  it  was  sold  at  ^3. 

2 “Japanische  Theegeschichten.”  Vienna,  1884,  C.  Gerold. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


127 


ago.  In  another  passage  of  the  “Amcenitates  exoticse  ” the  author 
states  that  the  best  Uji  tea  was  reserved  for  the  court,  and  that  he 
had  been  told  that  a little  dish  of  it,  set  before  him,  was  worth  one 
Bu  (about  a shilling).  I bought  a pound  of  tea  in  Uji,  which  I had 
followed  in  the  making,  and  it  cost  me  three  yen.  I heard,  how- 
ever, that  the  finest  is  sold  for  five  yen, — twenty  shillings. 

The  court  had  its  special  official  in  Uji,  who  had  to  superintend 
most  carefully  the  ceremonial  and  the  regulations  for  the  prepar- 
ation of  its  tea  as  well  as  its  transportation. 

So  long  as  the  Portuguese  had  the  Japanese  trade  in  their  hands, 
tea  was  scarcely  thought  of,  and  even  in  the  long  period  when 
Holland  alone  enjoyed  commercial  relations  with  Japan,  tea  did 
not  figure  among  that  country’s  exports.  It  did  not  begin  to  do 
so  until  the  ports  were  opened  in  consequence  of  the  Perry  ex- 
pedition. The  appended  table  shows  to  what  extent  the  expor- 
tation of  tea  from  Japan  has  grown  since  then.  As  exportation 
increased,  the  plant  was  more  extensively  grown,  so  that  on  my 
journeys  I could  see  new  gardens  laid  out  in  hundreds  of  places 
where  tea  had  never  been  before  cultivated.  In  Tokio  itself,  as 
is  well  known  to  any  one  who  has  lived  there  any  time,  many  a 
piece  of  ground  has  been  transformed,  even  from  the  former  parks 
of  Daimio  residences,  into  tea-gardens.  The  Japanese  government 
has  reckoned  that  in  this  way  altogether  4,600  cho  of  land  have  in 
recent  times  been  withdrawn  from  cultivation  for  other  crops  and 
devoted  to  raising  tea. 

According  to  H.  Gribble,  whose  statistical  statements  I here 
follow,  Japan  possessed  42,224  cho  = 41,874  ha,  in  tea-plantations, 
in  the  year  1 88  r . Thus  they  at  present  embrace  at  least  42,000 
ha,  or  about  2\  per  cent,  of  all  the  cultivated  land.  Tea  is  grown 
in  nearly  all  the  provinces  of  Japan  south  of  the  Tsugaru  Strait, 
though  in  widely  varying  quantities.  North  of  the  thirty-seventh 
parallel  and  in  the  high-lying  provinces  of  the  interior,  as  Shinano 
and  Hida,  it  is  confined  to  a few  favourable  spots.  In  other  parts 
it  is  the  chief  source  of  wealth.  In  both  the  quality  and  the 
quantity  of  their  product  the  provinces  of  central  Hondo  take  the 
lead.  Two  mighty  wings  have  grown  from  the  old  centre  of  tea- 
culture,  at  the  southern  end  of  Biwa  Lake,  between  the  bays 
of  Idzumi,  Owari,  and  Wakasa,  to  which  are  to  be  reckoned 
the  provinces  of  Yamashiro,  Yamato,  Ise,  Iga,  Omi,  Mino,  and 
Tamba.  One  of  these,  beginning  with  Ise,  embraces  the  pro- 
vinces of  the  Tdkaido,  particularly  Mikawa,  Tdtdrni,  Suruga, 
Musashi,  Shimosa,  and  Hitachi.  The  other  reaches  over  those  of 
the  Hokurokudo,  among  which  Kaga  and  Echigo  deserve  especial 
attention.  It  is  precisely  in  the  region  of  these  two  highway- 
districts  (the  Tdkaido  and  Hokurokudd)  that  tea-culture  has  been 
greatly  extended  during  the  last  twenty  years.  It  would  un- 
doubtedly have  spread  still  further  in  the  provinces  of  the  Sea  of 
Japan,  especially  in  Echizen  and  Wakasa,  if  market  facilities  were 


28 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


more  favourable  here  and  the  product  could  be  shipped  directly 
from  the  port  of  Tsuruga. 

From  the  above  we  perceive  that  the  chief  tea-district  of  Japan 
lies  in  the  island  of  Hondo,  between  340  and  36°  N.  Lat.  Tea 
raised  at  a distance  from  these  boundaries  is  of  poorer  quality  and 
of  a lower  price. 

This  is  particularly  true  of  all  tea  shipped  from  Nagasaki,  and 
Niigata  to  Yokohama.  In  the  former  case  the  cause  is  the  care- 
less treatment  of  the  tea-plant,  in  the  latter  it  is  climatic.  The  tea 
sent  from  Niigata  comes  from  the  districts  of  Murakami,  Mura- 
machi,  Kurokawa,  and  Niidzu,  that  is  to  say  from  the  northernmost 
parts  of  the  province  of  Echigo.  The  tea-plant  is  kept  trimmed 
very  low  there  and  carefully  cultivated,  yet  it  is  impossible  to  give 
it  adequate  protection  against  the  effects  of  a long  winter  and  the 
night  frosts  in  April,  despite  the  covering  of  straw  and  snow  during 
the  former.  Its  leaf  is  consequently  tough  and  bitter. 

The  above  mentioned  regions  are,  at  any  rate,  the  most  northerly 
in  which  tea-bushes  can  be  profitably  and  largely  planted.  In 
Akita-ken,  under  the  fortieth  parallel,  where  I saw  the  last  tea- 
gardens,  they  can  be  maintained  only  by  special  protection  in 
winter.  My  observations  led  me  to  believe  that  successful  tea- 
culture  ends  with  the  wild-growing  camellia,  in  38 N.  Lat.,  in 
northern  Echigo. 

Much  can  be  learned  from  the  table  in  the  appendix.  First  we 
observe  that  the  provinces  of  Suruga,  Mino,  Totomi,  Ise,  Musashi, 
Shimosa,  Yamashiro,  Omi,  Hitachi,  and  Yamato  stand  in  advance 
of  all  the  others  in  the  area  devoted  to  tea-culture,  and  Suruga 
alone  has  more  than  one-eighth  of  all  tea-gardens  in  Japan.  In 
these  ten  provinces  tea-gardens  take  up  07  per  cent,  of  the  area, 
in  Suruga  i‘S  per  cent.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  extensive  tea- 
culture  of  Suruga  is  due  in  part  to  the  great  protection  afforded 
by  Fuji-san  and  other  high  mountains  against  the  rude  north 
winds. 

Of  the  total  area  in  1881  given  up  to  tea-culture,  42,224  cho  or 
41,874  ha,  the  proportion  was  as  follows  : 


Tencha  or  Hikicha,  i.e.  pulverized  tea 
Giyoku-ro  or  dewdrops  . 

Sencha  or  common  tea  . • . 

Bancha  or  ordinary  tea  . 

Hiboshi  or  tea  dried  in  the  sun  f 
Kamairi  or  tea  heated  in  the  pan  v 
Kuroguchi  or  badly  heated  tea  j 
Kocha  or  Congo  .... 
Uriyo  or  Oolong  .... 


kin. 

36,668 

167,728 


H-797.945 

14,294,895 


l 

j 


4,940,277 


450,124 

319,604 


Total  kin  35,007,241 

or  21,040,724  kilo.  This  makes  480  kilo  per  ha. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


[29 


In  general  four  pounds  of  fresh  tea-leaves  yield  one  pound  of 
the  finished  article  of  commerce.  The  leaf-crop  of  a Japanese  tea- 
garden  of  one  ha  would  therefore  amount  to  1,920  kg. 

Tea  culture  in  India  has  been  developed  since  the  year  1835,  at 
first  but  slowly,  but  afterwards  the  more  rapidly  during  the  last 
twenty  years.  After  the  first  experiments,  the  Assam  Tea  Com- 
pany was  founded,  in  1839.  From  1864  to  1876  the  crop  increased 
from  2\  million  pounds  to  28  million  pounds  of  prepared  tea.  In 
the  last-named  year  the  average  price  in  London  for  one  pound 
of  Indian  tea  was  ij.  1 id.  as  against  is.  3 d.  for  one  pound  of 
Chinese  tea.  In  the  year  1879  the  area  devoted  to  tea-plants 
in  India  was  reckoned  at  206,874  acres,  which  yielded  a total  of 
44,771,632  pounds  of  tea.  Of  this  41 J million  pounds  were  shipped 
to  Europe.  It  is  evident  from  these  data  that  an  acre  yields  on 
an  average  216  pounds  of  tea,  which  is  245  kg.  to  a hectare.  This 
amount  is  so  far  behind  that  ascribed  to  Japan  (480  kg.  per  ha) 
that  one  cannot  help  doubting  the  correctness  of  one  or  other  of 
the  reports  upon  which  the  calculation  is  based.  The  Indian  tea- 
industry  has  spread  from  the  Assam  valley  over  Chittagong  and 
Arracan,  Darjeeling,  Nagpore,  Kangra,  and  other  regions,  and 
gains  ground  every  year. 

Tea  culture  in  Java,  although  beginning  in  1828,  seven  years 
before  that  of  India,  has  had  no  such  rapid  growth.  Java  tea  has, 
certainly,  a good  appearance  and  is  nicely  rolled,  but  its  decoction 
is  weak  and  tastes  bitter.  Its  price  is  therefore  far  less  than  that 
of  the  Indian  and  even  of  the  Chinese,  and  indeed  to  this  circum- 
stance is  attributable  the  fact  that  the  industry  has  not  become  as 
widespread  in  Java  as  was  expected.  The  exportation  of  tea  from 
Java  was  3,104,000  kg.  in  1872. 

During  the  last  fifty  years,  as  has  been  shown,  the  cultivation  of 
the  tea-plant  has  extended  over  two  new  countries  (India  and  Java), 
while  ever  spreading,  with  increasing  exportation,  in  its  old  homfes, 
China  and  Japan.  But  it  remained,  for  all  that,  till  lately  confined 
to  the  monsoon-region.  Now,  the  Colony  of  Natal  must  be  added 
as  another  part  of  the  globe  in  which  tea  has  been  successfully 
tried  and  forms  already  an  article  of  export. 

However,  we  find,  in  the  monsoon-region  as  nowhere  else,  the 
two  fundamental  conditions  of  its  success, — a proper  climate  and 
plenty  of  cheap  labour.  Machines  can  never  quite  take  the  place 
of  hand  labour  in  picking,  preparing,  and  sorting  tea.  Throughout 
the  monsoon -region  the  cost  of  hand  labour  is  so  low,  and  that  of 
tea  in  proportion,  that  it  would  be  hard  for  other  civilized  countries 
to  compete  with  it. 

The  climatic  requirements  of  tea-growing,  too,  can  only  here  and 
there  be  met  elsewhere.  The  tea-plant  flourishes  best  and  yields 
the  most  valuable  leaves  where  the  temperature  ranges  between 
o°  and  35°  G,  where  the  humidity  of  the  atmosphere  during  the 
period  of  vegetation  is  considerable,  and  rainfalls  rather  frequent. 

II.  K 


3° 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


Its  needs  in  this  respect  are  quite  different  from  those  of  the  grape- 
vine, to  which  dry  heat  is  especially  advantageous,  so  that  a suc- 
cessful cultivation  of  the  one  excludes  the  other,  so  to  speak. 


A. — Table  of  the  areas  devoted  to  tea-growing 
in  Japan,  in  1881. 


Province. 

Cho. 

Province. 

Cho. 

Suruga 

5355-5 

321029 

Mino 

4069-3 

Hizen 

721-1 

Tot6mi 

354F2 

Iga 

679-7 

Ise 

3300-8 

Kaga 

655-2 

Musashi 

2830-2 

lyo 

564-0 

Shimosa 

2354-8 

Etchiu 

5I3-9 

Yamashiro 

2260-5 

Buzen 

4646 

Omi 

i555-o 

Awa 

428-5 

Hitachi 

1388-9 

Kii 

395-2 

Yamato 

1040-2 

Mikawa 

389-3 

Higo 

9307 

Chikugo 

348-3 

Tosa 

9617 

Osumi 

3337 

Hiuga 

867-1 

Kawachi 

308-0 

Echigo 

849-8 

The  rest  of  the 

Tamba 

797-2 

country 

4320-0 

32102-9 

Total, 
or  41 174  Ha. 

42224-4 

B. — Analyses  of  Tea. 

By  A.  W.  Blythe  : 

Water.  Thei'ne.  Extract.  Gum.  Ashes.  Potash, 

Hyson  661  r6o  36-95  7-25  6-85  3-37  1-53  0-52 

Japan  4-69  1-38  39'4i  10-29  6-56  3-21  1-41  079 

Green  Chinese  Tea  according  to  Hassall : 

Matter"  Water.  Theine.  ^^nd°Fat^  Gum.  Tannin.  Fibre.  Ashes. 

24-39  9-37  279  1-83  5-89  18-69  3i'66  5-38 

Stonehouse  according  to  the  “Annalen  der  Chemie  u.  Pharmacie,” 
vol.  45,  p.  336,  found  the  proportion  of  thei'ne  as  follows  : 

Black  Assam.  Green  Twankay. 

i-37  0-98 


Huasan. 

ID9 


Congo. 
I ‘02 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


2.  Tobacco , Nicotiana  Tabacnm,  L.,  and  N.  rustica , L. 

The  foreign  origin  of  this  world-wide  narcotic  article  of  luxury 
is  indicated  not  merely  by  the  name  Tabako, — the  Japanese  have 
no  name  of  their  own  for  it, — but  also  by  authentic  historical 
accounts  of  its  introduction.  Like  Christianity,  gunpowder,  and 
fire-arms,  tobacco  first  reached  Japan  through  the  “ Nanban  ” 
(pronounced  Namban)  or  “southern  barbarians.”  By  “ Namban,” 
however,  were  meant  distinctively  the  Portuguese,  and  then  later 
the  Spaniards  who  came  from  Manila.  One  may  say  that  smoking 
was  introduced  in  the  last  decades  of  the  sixteenth  century.  The 
planting  of  tobacco,  however,  began  about  the  year  1605.  A 
physician  named  Saka,  of  Nagasaki,  made  some  interesting  and 
characteristic  observations  about  it  in  a family  chronicle  of  that 
period.1  In  1607  he  writes  : “ Of  late  a thing  has  come  into 
fashion,  called  tobacco.  It  is  said  to  have  originated  in  Nanban, 
and  consists  of  large  leaves,  which  are  cut  up,  and  of  which  one 
drinks  the  smoke.”  Two  years  later  the  same  observer  remarks: 
“ For  the  last  two  or  three  years  an  article  called  Tabako  has  been 
coming  from  Nanban,  with  which  all  classes  of  Japanese  regale 
themselves.  It  is  said  to  be  a cure  for  all  diseases.  On  the  other 
hand,  however,  there  have  been  cases  where  people  got  sick  after 
they  had  drunk  tobacco-smoke.  Now  since  no  medicinal  work 
contains  directions  for  the  treatment  of  such  patients,  no  medicine 
could  be  offered  them.”  In  another  record,  of  the  year  1605, 
according  to  Satow,  there  is  found  the  following  note : “ In  this 
year  tobacco  was  brought  in  ships  of  the  Nanban-people,  and  sown 
near  Nagasaki.  The  inhabitants  of  the  capital  (Kioto)  contend 
with  one  another  in  smoking,  and  the  habit  is  rapidly  spreading 
over  the  country.” 2 We  may  be  sure  that  the  innovation,  before 
it  got  to  Nagasaki,  was  known  in  Bungo,  the  chief  foothold  of  the 
Portuguese  from  the  beginning,  and  in  Satsuma,  which  to  this  day 
has  a great  reputation  throughout  Japan  for  its  tobacco,  and  had 
been  visited  by  Pinto  and  likewise  by  Xavier.  And  there  can  be 
scarcely  any  doubt  that  smoking  came  to  the  Coreans  and  the 
neighbouring  Mandschu  from  Japan,  at  the  time  of  Hideyoshi, 
through  the  expedition  and  subsequent  efforts  between  the  years 
1 59—  ar)d  1597-  On  the  other  hand,  China  proper  was  blessed  with 
tobacco  via  Luzon,  as  can  be  proved  from  several  sources,  among 
them  Satow. 

In  China,  as  in  Japan,  smoking  spread  among  all  classes  of  the 
people  and  in  both  sexes,  with  incredible  rapidity.  As  vain  as 
the  efforts  of  Pope  Urban  VII.  and  James  I.,  to  check  the  habit  in 

1 See  Satow:  “The  Introduction  of  Tobacco  into  Japan  ? Japan  Weekly  Mail, 
Nov.  1 7,  1877.  Rein  : “ Zur  Geschichte  der  Verbreitung  des  Tabaks  und  Mais 
in  Ostasien.”  Peterm.,  Mitth.,  1878. 

2 We  here  expressly  remark  that  other  narcotic  luxuries,  such  as  smoking 
opium  or  hemp  and  chewing  betel,  are  unknown. 


32 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


Europe,  were  the  decrees  of  their  mighty  contemporaries,  of  the 
Ming-dynasty  in  China  and  lyeyasu  in  Japan.  Indeed,  of  all  the 
laws  of  the  founder  of  the  Tokugawa  rule,  probably  none  has 
proved  so  ineffectual  as  the  edict  of  1612  against  smoking  and 
planting  tobacco. 

The  Kiseru,  the  Japanese  pipe,  with  its  shining  metal  mouthpiece 
and  the  elegant  little  bowl  of  brass  or  silver  at  its  other  end — 
the  stem  is  of  thin  bamboo — is  quite  a different  apparatus  from  our 
smoking  implement,  and  demands  a different  kind  of  treatment.  The 
little  ball  of  fine-cut  tobacco  with  which  its  possessor  fills  the  bowl, 
which  in  shape  and  size  resembles  the  cup  of  a large  acorn,  suffices 
for  only  two  or  three  whiffs.  Then  the  bowl  must  be  knocked 
against  the  edge  of  an  ash-basin  and  filled  anew.  The  case  and 
tobacco-pouch,  of  stamped  leather-paper,  are  as  delicately  made 
as  the  little  pipe  itself,  and  often  artistically  decorated  with  lacquer 
or  silver-work,  as  shown  in  the  illustration.  Both  are  hung  to  the 
girdle-cloth  by  means  of  a netzuke  (of  which  an  account  is  given 
under  art-industries),  a sort  of  carved  button.  The  form  of  such  a 
pipe,  which,  with  tobacco,  every  one  carries  in  Japan,  does  not 
permit  of  smoking  on  the  road  nor  at  work.  On  the  other  hand 
no  opportunity  before  or  after  is  wasted  ; out  comes  the  pipe  and 
at  least  a couple  of  whiffs  are  taken,  a good  deal  of  time  being  often 
spent  with  it.  When  any  one  enters  a house,  the  first  attention 
shown  him  by  the  female  servants,  after  the  customary  greeting, 
is  to  set  the  tobacco-tray  (Tabako-bon)  before  him,  even  before 
offering  him  tea.  Upon  this  tray  stands,  however,  the  Hi-ire  or 
fire-pot,  with  glowing  coals,  and  a big  ash-basin  (Hai-fuki)  of 
bamboo-cane,  which  serves  also  as  a spittoon. 

The  Japanese  tobacco-pipe  resembles  the  shell  of  a snail  of 
the  genus  Clausilia,  which  is  represented  by  many  forms  in  that 
country.  This  has  not  escaped  the  attention  of  the  Japanese, 
who  call  them  kiseru-gai,  pipe-snails.  In  his  book,  “ Himalayan 
Journals,”  Table  III.  fig.  7,  Hooker  gives  an  illustration  of  a 
Thibetan  tobacco  pipe,  very  similar  to  the  Japanese  Kiseru. 

Tobacco-smoking  is  much  more  common  in  Japan  than  with  us, 
and  I always  caused  astonishment  by  the  phrase  I used  so  much, 
“ Arigato,  tobako-o  nomimasen,”  (“  Thank  you,  I don’t  drink 
tobacco  ”),  for  they  can  hardly  imagine  a foreigner  who  does  not 
like  tobacco.  The  Japanese  says,  not  incorrectly,  “Tabako-o 
nomimas,”  “ I drink  tobacco,”  since  he  sips  in  the  smoke  and  expels 
it  through  his  nose.  In  Germany  too  it  was  called  at  first  “ drinking 
tobacco,”  instead  of  smoking,  as,  among  others,  Freytag  teaches  us 
in  his  “ Bilder  aus  der  deutschen  Vergangenheit.” 

On  the  paper-lined  screen  that  divides  a Japanese  tobacco  shop 
from  the  street,  a tobacco-leaf  is  painted  instead  of  a sign,  and 
beside  this  stand  two  Chinese  hieroglyphics  which  in  other  cases 
might  perhaps  be  translated  “ chief  town  of  the  country,”  but  which 
mean  in  this  case  Kokubu , a district  of  Osumi  in  southern  Kiushiu, 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


133 


celebrated  for  its  tobacco.  Its  name  has  been  everywhere  applied 
to  the  tobacco  business. 

I visited  the  district  of  Kokubu  in  the  spring  of  1875.  It  com- 
prises a small  plain  on  the  north-eastern  shore  of  the  Kagoshima 


Fig.  I.  KISERU — THE  JAPANESE  PIPE. 

Bay.  Its  light  soil,  mixed  with  much  pumiceous  sand,  yields  fairly 
good  harvests  only  when  very  carefully  manured  and  worked. 
The  seed-bed  of  the  tobacco  is  protected  against  too  great  cooling 
from  radiation  on  spring  nights  by  straw  roofs  about  a meter  high. 


34 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


Towards  the  end  of  April  the  shoots  are  strong  enough  to  be  trans- 
planted into  rows,  as  elsewhere.  They  are  set  out  beside  rows  of 
barley,  which  has  by  this  time  passed  its  bloom.  Elsewhere,  for 
instance  in  Higo,  tobacco-sowing  does  not  take  place  till  April, 
but  transplanting  is  in  June,  to  barley  or  wheat  fields  which  are  not 
intended  to  receive  rice. 

Tobacco-growing  is  widely,  though  very  unequally,  spread 
throughout  the  Japanese  islands.  The  first  picking  takes  place  in 
August,  with  a second  and  third  in  September.  The  leaves  are 
then  hung  about  the  houses  to  dry,  as  with  us.  I saw  the  following 
arrangement  employed  for  this  purpose  in  Aidzu  : one  person  was 
twisting  two  thin  straw  ropes  into  a thicker  one,  another  mean- 
while inserting  tobacco  leaves  in  pairs,  with  their  stems  all  turned 
up  at  intervals  of  about  io  cm.  When  fixed  in  this  way  the  rope 
was  hung  up  on  the  walls  of  the  building  or  on  poles,  with 
numerous  leaves  pointing  downward. 

Of  all  the  varieties  of  Japanese  tobacco  that  from  the  former 
dominion  of  Satsuma,  to  which  Kokubu  also  belongs,  as  we 
have  said  already,  has  the  greatest  reputation  among  the  natives. 
Its  flavour  is  too  sweet  for  Europeans,  however,  and  it  is  therefore 
but  little  exported.  The  kind  most  valued  for  export,  though  it 
too  is  far  inferior  to  American  tobacco,  comes  from  Higo  and 
other  provinces  of  the  south.  It  is  sent  to  Nagasaki  packed  in 
straw  mats.  Here  it  is  stemmed  and  repacked  in  bales.  These 
go  exclusively  to  England.  The  leaf  has  a spongy  character  ; it 
is  therefore  mixed  with  stronger  sorts,  with  the  result  that  it  ab- 
sorbs a considerable  amount  of  the  sharpness.  As  an  article  of 
exportation,  tobacco  ranks  far  behind  many  other  products,  and  is 
in  general  not  much  in  demand. 


b.  Drugs. 

In  the  diary  of  my  first  journey  in  Japan,  in  the  summer  of 
1874,  there  is  this  entry,  at  the  town  of  Sunjo,  at  the  foot  of 
Ibukiyama  (See  Rein,  “Japan,”  vol.  i.  p.  77)  : — “ My  host  told  me 
that  Ibukiyama  abounded  in  herbs,  yielding  130  different  medicines, 
mostly  vegetable.  From  his  little  collection  he  presented  me  with 
two  included  in  that  number,  the  one  a piece  of  stalactite,  the  other 
a piece  of  fibrous  wollastonite.”  The  Chinese  science  of  pharmacy, 
which  the  Japanese  followed  blindly  till  thirty  years  ago,  like  our 
own  in  the  Middle  Ages  and  even  later,  up  to  the  development 
of  chemistry,  enumerates  a very  large  number  of  drugs,  some  of 
which  are  exceedingly  rare.  Thunberg  brought  a small  list  of 
Japanese  plants  used  for  pharmaceutical  purposes,  and  v.  Siebold 
in  the  work  already  cited,  “ Verhandl.  van  het  Batav.  Genootschap, 
xii.  deel.  Bat.  1830,”  furnished  a long,  but  by  no  means  exhaustive, 
catalogue.  Oyaku-yen  (the  Garden  of  Physic),  which  was  estab- 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


:35 


lished  by  the  Tokugawa  in  Yedo,  two  hundred  years  ago,  the 
Botanical  Garden  of  the  Tokio  of  to-day,  contains  the  most  im- 
portant of  them.1  It  is  not  within  the  scope  and  purpose  of  this 
work  to  repeat  or  enlarge  it.  I shall  confine  myself  rather  to  the 
relatively  few  plants  which  I found  cultivated  for  medicinal  pur- 
poses, and  in  regard  to  which  I know,  from  my  own  observation, 
that  they  are  still  of  more  or  less  importance  in  husbandry. 

(1)  Pceonia  Moutan , Sims,  Jap.  Botan. 

(2)  Pczonia  albijlora , Pall.,  Jap.  Shakuyaku. 

The  ancients  more  than  two  thousand  years  ago,  celebrated  the 
healing  power  of  Pceonia  officinalis , L.,  which  is  indigenous  in  the 
mountains  of  Greece  and  other  Mediterranean  countries,  and 
named  it  after  Paeon,  the  chief  physician  of  the  gods.  Both  of 
those  kinds  of  shrub-shaped  peonies  enjoy  an  equally  long  standing 
renown  among  the  Chinese  and  Japanese.  They  are  often  raised, 
not  only  for  their  handsome  flowers,  but  for  their  medicinal  roots. 
(See  also  decoration,  in  “ Art  Industry.”)  One  sometimes  finds  a 
third  and  larger  shrub  set  beside  them  in  a garden  plot,  which,  too, 
serves  medicinal  purposes,  namely  : — 

(3)  Evodia  rutcecarpa , Benth.,  Jap.  Goshiu-yu  or  Kawa-haji-kami. 

It  resembles  sumach,  with  its  pinnate  leaves,  and  is  valued  chiefly 

for  its  aromatic  berries, — like  its  relatives,  Evodia  glauca  and 
Xanthoxylum  piperitum. 

(4)  Ricinus  communis , L.,  Jap.  Himashi.  This  is  also  called 
Tojin-mame  (Chinese  bean)  and  To-goma  (Chinese  sesame),  names 
which  speak  for  its  introduction  from  China.  Often  enough  one 
meets  with  little  plantations  of  various  medicinal  herbs  side  by 
side.  In  this  wise  I have  found  growing  in  the  open  field  : — 

(51  Fceniculum  vulgare , Gaertn.,  the  fennel,  Jap.  Uikiyo. 

(6)  Angelica  refracta,  Fr.  Schmidt.,  Jap.  Senkiyu. 

(7)  Angelica  anomala , Lall.,  Jap.  Biyakushi. 

(8)  Scutellaria  macrantha , Fisch.,  Jap.  Ogon. 

(9)  Mentha  piperita , Thunb.,  peppermint,  Jap.  Hak’ka. 

(10)  Rheum  palmatum , L.,  Jap.  Daio. 

(11)  Rheum  undulatum,  L.,  Jap.  Dai6.  We  know  now  the  real 
home  of  this  rhubarb  through  Przewalski’s  account  of  his  journey 
to  the  Kuku-noor  and  the  head-waters  of  the  Hoang-ho.  Accord- 
ing to  him  the  centre  of  its  natural  distribution  is  the  mountain 
country  between  the  sources  of  the  Hoang-ho,  Yalung,  and  Min- 
kiang,  in  China. 

In  connection  with  the  foregoing  drugs,  I would  mention,  on 
account  of  their  peculiar  and  well-known  use,  three,  that  grow  wild 
in  Japan  : — 

(12)  Aconitum  Fischeri,  Reich b.,  Jap.  Tori-kabuto. 

(13)  Artemisia  vulgaris , L.,  Jap.  Yomogi  (Mogusa). 

(14)  Illicium , S.  and  Z.,  Jap.  Sikimi  (pronounced  Skimi.) 

1 In  the  tenth  volume  of  the  Pharmaceutical  Journal , Holmes  has  recently 
annotated  a large  number  of  them. 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


The  first  of  these  three  plants,  the  light-blue  monk’s-hood,  which 
is  found  in  mountain  forests  all  over  japan,  furnishes  in  its  bulbs, 
called  Udzu  (Shurku  by  the  Ainos),  the  familiar  poison  with 
which  the  Ainos  arm  their  hunting-arrows.  It  is  the  same  Coniin 
Cg  H17  N,  which  is  found  in  the  bulbs  of  other  aconites  also,  and 
has  lately  been  artificially  reproduced.1  It  produces  convulsive 
movements  and  paralysis  in  animal  organisms. 

The  fruits  of  the  Ski  mi,  which  is  consecrated  to  Buddha  and 
therefore  much  grown  about  Buddhist  temples  and  cloisters,  made 
a great  stir  some  time  ago.  They  came  to  market  as  a spice, 
instead  of  the  Staranis,  which  they  closely  resemble,  and  turned 
out  to  be  poisonous.  Quite  a different  role  is  played  by  its  bark, 
which  is  pulverized  and  then,  with  the  help  of  a little  resin,  formed 
into  small  brown  sticks,  of  the  thickness  of  quills.  In  this  shape 
they  are  the  “ smoke-candles  ” with  which  incense  is  made  before 
the  idols.  These  glimmering  candles  are  also  used  with  the 
Mogusa  (pronounced  Moxa).  This  is  a peculiar  sort  of  plaster, 
used  to  avert  diseases.  The  Moxa  or  pieces  of  blossom  of  the 
Artemisia  vulgaris  are  dried  with  the  felt  that  surrounds  them.  A 
piece  of  this  is  laid  on  the  naked  body  and  then  burnt  by  contact 
with  the  glimmering  candle.  This  gives  rise  to  wounds  and  later 
to  scars  as  big  as  a shilling,  such  as  one  can  frequently  see, 
especially  on  the  backs  and  posteriors  of  labourers. 

The  above-mentioned  plants  hold  no  position  whatever  in  the  com- 
merce of  Japan.  They  supply  a home  demand  only,  and  have  no 
place  at  all,  in  comparison  with  ginseng  and  camphor,  two  oriental 
drugs  which  deserve  a more  thorough  consideration,  not  merely 
because  of  the  strange  mode  of  their  acquisition  and  use,  but  also 
as  being  noteworthy  articles  of  export  from  J apan. 

(15)  Panax  ginseng,  C.  A.  Meyer  ( Aralia  ginseng , Jap.  Nin-jin, 
Chinese  Jin-san).  Kaempfer  says  of  ginseng,  that  next  to  tea  it  is 
the  most  celebrated  plant  in  the  whole  Orient,  on  account  of  its 
root.  It  is  closely  related  to  the  umbelliferous  plants,  and  is  a 
perennial  growth,  of  the  family  of  the  Araliaceoe.  Its  cylindrical, 
carrot-like  root  yields  the  medicine  so  highly  prized  by  the  Chinese, 
Japanese,  and  Coreans.  In  fact  this  ginseng- root,  or  all-heal,  as  it 
is  also  called  with  us,  the  cinchona  and  the  musk  of  these  races,  is 
a cure  for  fevers  and  weaknesses  of  all  sorts — the  chief  and  most 
costly  medicine.  Recourse  is  still  had  to  it  in  cases  of  deadly 
illness,  when  nothing  else  will  work.  As  characterizing  both  its 
costliness  and  the  belief  in  its  power  to  cure,  we  may  repeat  the 
Japanese  proverb  : “ Ninjin  kute  kubi  kukuru,”  i.e.,  literally,  “ After 
ginseng  death  by  hanging,”  meaning  “You  will  probably  get  well 
if  you  eat  ginseng,  but  will  die  of  hunger  afterward,  for  it  will 
make  you  poor.” 

From  what  has  been  said  it  is  plain  enough  that  Linnaeus  could 

1 See  the  recent  experiments  of  A.  W.  Hofmann  in  the  “ Berichten  der  d. 
diem.  Gesellschaft,”  17.  Jahrg.,  pp.  825-833. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


137 


hardly  have  found  a more  fitting  name  for  the  panacea  of  the 
eastern  monsoon-region  than  the  word  Panax,1  with  which  the 
ancients  probably  designated  certain  species  of  Ferula  in  Asia 
Minor  and  Pontus.  He  had  heard  of  it  through  Kaempfer  and 
others. 

The  ginseng-plant  grows  wild  in  the  mountain  forests  of  Eastern 
Asia,  from  Nepal  to  Manchooria.  But 
in  Japan  it  has  only  been  found  as  yet 
in  cultivation.  In  the  deep  woods  of 
Chinese  Manchooria,  between  390  and 
470  N.  Lat.,  it  was  first  observed  by 
Pater  Jartoux.  But  the  roots  gathered 
here  with  so  much  care,  a prerogative 
of  the  Chinese  imperial  household,  do 
not  suffice  for  the  large  demand  in  that 
country.  The  supply  has  to  be  made 
up  in  part  by  a considerable  cultivation 
of  the  plant  in  Northern  China,  in  Corea, 
and  Japan,  and  by  a rather  large  import- 
ation from  Philadelphia  and  Baltimore. 

These  cities  furnish  China  the  roots  of 
the  less  valuable  Panax  quinquefolius 
which  grows  in  the  Alleghany  Moun- 
tains. 

In  Japan,  black,  loamy  soil,  in  dry 
situations,  is  chosen  for  raising  ginseng. 

Only  in  such  earth  does  its  tap-root 
grow  sturdy  enough,  and  of  a white 
colour.  In  ferruginous  soil  it  takes  a 
reddish  tinge,  which  lessens  its  value. 

The  field  is  well  manured,  thoroughly 
dug  up  and  prepared.  Then  it  is 
divided  into  beds,  which  are,  as  a rule, 

27  Japanese  feet  (8- 1 3 meters)  long,  2\ 
feet  broad,  and  2 feet  apart.  They 
always  lie  from  east  to  west.  To  shield 
the  plants  from  direct  sunshine  and 
heavy  rains,  each  bed  is  covered  with  a 
thatched  roof,  running  lengthwise  f to 
1 meter  above  the  ground  and  sup- 
ported on  posts  and  poles.  These  roofs 

incline  slightly  to  the  south.  Ginseng  plantations  are  thus  easily 
recognisable  at  a distance  by  an  observant  traveller,  eg.  in  the 
province  of  Shinano,  by  the  side  of  the  Nakasendo,  in  Aidzu,  and 
elsewhere.  While  it  is  growing,  it  is  only  necessary  to  keep  the 
ground  clear  and  loosen  the  soil  occasionally,  besides  manuring  it 
several  times  with  straw  ashes. 

1 From  navaKTis,  all-healing. 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


In  Southern  Japan  (e.g.  in  the  provinces  of  Idzumi  and  Hoki), 
sowing  takes  place  in  November ; further  north,  however,  not  till 


Fig.  3- 

April.  The  seeds  lose  their  germinating  power  easily,  so  they 
have  to  be  kept  mixed  with  earth  for  the  spring  planting.  They 


A GRICUL  TURAL  1ND  US  TRIES. 


139 


are  set  in  deeply-delved,  thoroughly-pulverized  soil,  at  intervals  of 
6 to  9 cm.  and  at  that  same  depth.  Each  bed  holds  two  rows  about 
30  cm.  apart.  Ginseng  grows  slowly,  requiring  3 \ years  to  develop. 
There  are  therefore  to  be  seen  fields  with  plants  of  the  first  vear 


Fig.  4. 


(ichi  nen  sho),  of  two  years  (ni  nen  sh6),  of  three  years  (san  nen 
sho),  and  of  the  fourth  year  (yo  nen  shd).  Plants  of  the  Ichinensho 
(see  fig.  2,  page  137)  have,  up  to  autumn,  put  forth  only  one  or 
two  leaves  and  no  stalk.  A leaf  of  this  sort,  exclusive  of  its  long 


;4° 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


stem,  is  8-10  cm.  high,  and  triple,  like  clover.  The  oval,  pointed 
leaves  have  sharply  dentated  edges.  The  cylindrical,  sturdy  root 
appears  more  strongly  developed.  In  the  second  summer  it  puts 
forth  a simple,  smooth  stalk,  which  forks  above  into  two  or  three 
petioles  (see  fig.  3,  page  138).  The  individual  leaves  are  now 
developed  symmetrically  into  five  leaflets,  finger-shape,  the  middle 
one  of  these  latter  being  strongest.  In  form  and  in  character  of 
their  edges  they  are  the  same  as  in  the  first  year.  The  root  is 
about  12  cm.  long,  just  about  equalling  the  length  of  the  part  above 
ground.  In  the  third  summer  (fig.  4,  page  139)  the  upper  part 
becomes  30-40  cm.  high,  sending  out,  half-way  up,  a crown  of  3-4 
leaves,  in  each  of  which  the  five  leaflets  are  formed  the  same,  but 
larger  than  in  the  second  year.  The  smooth  petioles  have,  like 
the  round  under-stalk,  a red-brown  colour.  From  the  base  of  the 
leaves  the  plant’s  axis  continues  10-20  cm.  more,  as  a bare, 
greenish  stalk,  ending  in  a simple  umbel,  beneath  and  somewhat 
to  one  side  of  which  there  is  sometimes  a second,  smaller  umbel. 


It  is  only  when  seed  is  wanted 
that  the  plant  is  allowed  to  blos- 
som in  the  third  or  fourth  summer. 
Otherwise  the  blossoms  are  cut 
off.  Above  a crown  of  5-7 
lanceolate  sheath-leaflets  is  arched 
the  small  umbel,  radiating  in  10-20 
directions,  and  reminding  one  of 
the  Allium  species.  The  umbel 
has  light-green,  polygamous  blos- 
soms, which  are  composed  of  un- 
assuming, superior,  five-toothed 
calyx,  five  petals,  five  stamens,  and 
two  or  three  styles.  The  inferior 


j) 


fruit-capsule  develops  into  a bright  scarlet  berry  as  big  as  a pea, 
and  flattened,  which  encloses  two  grey,  furrowed  grains  the  size 
of  hemp-seeds  (fig.  6,  page  141).  After  these  have  been  gathered 
they  are  buried  30-50  cm.  deep  in  the  ground  till  November  or 
the  next  spring,  so  as  to  retain  their  germinating  power  until 
planting  time.  Ginseng  roots  are  harvested  in  the  Doy6  (July 
and  August)  of  the  fourth  summer.  They  are  cylindrical,  never 
thicker  than  a man’s  finger,  and  often  divided  towards  the  bottom 
like  a fork  (fig.  7,  page  142).  They  are  white,  and  smell  and 
taste  something  like  carrots  ( Daucus  carotci).  The  ordinary 
weight  of  a fresh  ginseng-root  is  20  to  25  grammes.  They 
seldom  weigh  twice  that  much,  and  the  product  of  a sq.  meter 
of  land  amounts  to  I to  ij  kg.  of  fresh  roots.  After  being  dug 
up  they  are  freed  from  fibres  and  other  attached  substances,  and 
carefully  washed.  Then  they  are  scalded  with  boiling  water  or 
steam,  until,  on  being  cut  across,  they  have  a brownish  yellow 
and  jelly-like  appearance.  Then  they  are  set  out  in  kilns,  each 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRY. 


141 


containing  about  twelve  drawers,  one  above  another,  their  bottoms 
being  made  of  stout  paper.  Here  they  stay  for  two  or  three  days, 
according  to  their  size,  enduring  a temperature  of  ioo°  to  120°  C, 
which  renders  them  perfectly  dry  and  ready  for  market.  But 
sometimes  this  drying  is  done  in  the  sun,  in  which  case  it  lasts 
correspondingly  longer. 

These  prepared  and  dried  ginseng  roots  have  only  about  one- 
fourth  of  their  original  weight ; 160-200  of  them  go  to  one  kilo- 
gramme. In  colour  they  range  from  yellowish  to  brown.  They 


Fig.  6. 


are  semi-diaphanous,  somewhat  brittle,  and  have  a bitter-sweet 
taste,  which  excites  mucus.  They  have  to  be  carefully  protected 
from  dampness  and  small  beetles  ( Rhynchophoms ),  and  are  used 
in  the  form  of  decoctions  and  extracts.  The  stalks  and  leaves 
of  the  plant  are  utilized  also,  being  boiled  to  a black,  sticky  paste, 
which,  in  consequence  of  its  sugar  having  gone  over  into  caramel, 
looks  and  tastes  like  liquorice,  though  with  a bitter  twang.  This 
preparation  is  not  exported. 

There  are  many  buyers  of  the  prepared  ginseng-root,  who  pay 


142 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


5-7  yen  for  a kin  (600  grammes).  In  China  it  is  worth  10  yen, 
or  40  shillings.  The  ginseng  of  Manchooria  fetches  a much  higher 
price,  especially  the  sort  most  in  demand,  which  looks  like  amber, 
and  which  is  often  paid  for  in  five  to  eight  times  its  weight  of  sil- 
ver. Equally  esteemed  is  the 
ginseng  of  Corea,  which  is 
still  an  important  item  in 
exportations.  In  the  Toku- 
gawa  period  the  Daimio  of 
Tsushima  was  exempt  from 
taxation,  but  had  to  furnish 
instead  a certain  quantity  of 
ginseng  yearly  to  the  court 
of  the  Shogun,  from  the 
neighbouring  Corea. 

Now  that  the  younger 
Japanese  physicians  have 
begun  to  get  more  and  more 
acquainted  with  the  Euro- 
pean methods  and  means  of 
treating  diseases,  the  gin- 
seng-root has  fallen  very 
much  in  public  esteem  in 
Japan;  although  its  culti- 
vation is  about  as  great  as 
ever,  and  in  some  places 
greater,  since  it  is  shipped 
more  and  more  every  year 
to  China,  where  it  always 
finds  ready  purchasers.  Its 
exportation  used  to  be  in 
the  hands  of  the  Dutch, 
at  Nagasaki ; now  it  takes 
place  directly,  mostly  via 
Osaka,  through  Japanese 
and  Chinese.  In  1879  it 
reached  the  high  figure  of 
507,494  yen  ; since  then, 
however,  it  has  fallen  off  a 
little. 

Ginseng  is  cultivated  in 
several  hilly  districts,  at  a 
height  of  300-800  meters, 
The  chief  of  these  are  : 

of  Idzumo,  south  of  the  capital  Matsuye, 
on  the  mountain  slopes  of  I-wu  (I-wu-gori),  and  on  the  little  Radish- 
island  (Daikon-jima)  in  the  Nakano-umi. 

2.  In  the  province  of  Hoki,  on  the  northern  side  of  the  Daisen. 


principally  in  Hondo. 
1.  In  the  province 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


;43 


3.  In  Shinano  along  the  Nakasendd,  between  the  post-stations 
Iwamurata  and  Wada,  and  also  near  the  city  of  Takeda,  on  the 
border  of  Hida. 

4.  In  Aidzu,  about  140  miles  north  of  Tokio,  in  several  places, 
especially  near  Terayama  and  Matsukawa,  and  also  near  Kuradani 
and  Uchi,  on  the  road  from  Sann6-toge  to  Wakamatsu. 

Besides  these  parts  of  the  country,  where  ginseng  cultivation 
was  observed  by  Kempermann  or  myself,  it  is  also  found,  according 
to  Maximowicz,  near  Hakodate,  and  in  various  other  parts  of  the 
Japanese  empire,  as  can  be  seen  in  the  Catalogue  of  the  Exhibition 
of  Agricultural  Products  held  in  Tokio  in  1877. 

For  a number  of  years  the  immense  demand  for  ginseng  in  China 
has  been  supplied  in  part,  too,  by  the  United  States.  The  roots  of 
a species  (Panax  quinquefolius , L.)  indigenous  in  the  Appalachian 
range,  have  been  prepared  and  put  upon  the  Chinese  market. 
According  to  the  reports  of  the  commissioner  of  agriculture,  nearly 
1700,000  worth  were  exported  in  1 877. 

(16)  Cinnamomum  camphor  a,  Nees  and  Eberm.  ( Laurus  cam- 
phora , L.),  the  camphor-tree  or  camphor-laurel,  Jap.  Kusu-no-ki 
(pronounced  Ksunoki).  This  is  the  giant  among  foliaceous  trees 
in  Japan,  exceeding  all  others,  not  only  in  girth,  but  in  height 
also,  not  excepting  Planera  acuminata } Its  weak  representatives 
in  our  green-houses,  with  their  yellowish-green  leaves  and  sickly 
look,  give  scarcely  an  idea  of  the  grand  form  with  its  dark-green 
foliage  which  the  producer  of  camphor  { Jap.  Shond)  attains  in  its 
home.  But  beyond  the  Alps,  on  the  beautiful  shores  of  the 
Northern  Italian  lakes,  in  the  Riviera,  and  further  south,  where  the 
tree  flourishes  and  is  distinguished  for  its  rapid  growth,  we  get 
a more  adequate  conception  of  it.  One  specimen,  for  instance,  in 
the  park  of  the  well-known  Villa  Pallavicini  near  Pegli  has  grown 
a stem  of  one  meter  in  circumference,  in  25  years.  Even  more 
astounding  is  the  growth  of  a camphor-tree  in  Cannes,  which  has 
been  raised  from  seed  sown  in  1871,  and  had  in  the  autumn  of 
1878  a girth  of  98  cm.  at  the  base,  and  a height  of  30  meters. 
Much  older  and  still  more  stately  is  the  camphor-laurel  in  the  bo- 
tanical garden  at  Pisa,  perhaps  the  largest  specimen  in  Europe. 

The  quick  growth  of  the  tree  in  the  Mediterranean  region,  how- 
ever, is  not  the  only  remarkable  thing  about  it.  It  accommodates 
itself  easily  to  the  hottest  and  driest  climate  in  that  region,  not- 
withstanding the  rainy  character  of  its  home  in  East  Asia.  It  is 
one  of  the  few  Japanese  plants  which  thrive  in  the  Canary  Islands, 
for  example,  and  has  even  grown  sturdily  at  Schubrah,  near  Cairo. 
The  Laurus  Camphora  flourishes  also  in  various  other  tropical 
and  sub-tropical  parts  of  the  world,  eg.,  at  Buenos  Ayres  and  in 
Mauritius.  Under  these  circumstances  it  is  surprising  that  plan- 
tations to  obtain  camphor  have  not  been  established  anywhere. 

The  camphor-tree  is  the  principal  and  most  widespread  Japanese 
1 Kaempfer  compares  it  with  a linden. 


144 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


representative  of  the  evergreen  genus  Cinnainomum  of  the  laurel 
family.  All  species  of  Cinnainomum  are  marked  by  their  odour  of 
volatile  oils,  which  are  developed  in  various  parts  of  the  tree,  and 
also  by  their  leaves,  which  are  long-stemmed,  quickly  warping, 
even-edged,  leathery,  and  of  a bright  dark-green  colour.  In  most 
cases  they  are  placed  alternately,  and  are  further  distinguished  by 
a characteristic  three-branched  veining.  The  change  of  leaf  takes 
place,  as  with  most  evergreens,  in  April,  when  the  young,  delicate, 
yellowish-green  foliage  displaces  the  dark-green  leaves  after  the 
latter  have  lost  their  brightness.  The  young  branches  of  the 
Kusunoki  break  off  easily,  and  after  every  heavy  wind  a large 
number  of  them  are  found  on  the  ground.  Hence  the  camphor- 
tree  rarely  develops  a symmetrically  full  crown.  But  what  it  thus 
loses  in  beauty  is  made  up  by  its  mighty  form.  Apart  from 
the  difference  of  foliage,  and  in  the  production  of  blossom  and 
fruit,  an  old  camphor-tree  resembles  nothing  so  much  as  a stately 
oak,  in  its  thickness  of  trunk,  the  want  of  symmetry  in  its  crown, 
its  mighty  gnarled  and  twisted  boughs,  and  its  rough,  torn  bark. 
This  is  especially  true  of  the  specimens,  sometimes  very  old,  found 
near  the  temples  and  in  the  old  parks  of  the  southern  castle-cities. 
Fortune  says  that  he  never  saw  such  large  old  camphor-trees  in 
China  as  at  the  old  temples  in  Nagasaki.1  But  surprisingly  large 
specimens  occur  also  in  other  and  more  northerly  parts  of  Japan. 
Thus  in  the  spring  of  1875,  in  the  province  of  Kii,  on  the  road 
from  Wakayama  to  the  celebrated  cloister-town  Koyasan  (about 
34^°  N.  lat.  and  1350  20'  E.  long.  Gr.),  I saw  such  a tree  at  Kaseda- 
mura,  with  a trunk  circumference  of  1 1 *5  m.  At  a height  of  l|  m. 
the  giant  divided  into  a number  of  mighty,  wide-branching  boughs. 
In  the  northern  part  of  Tokio,  in  the  park  of  Uyeno,  there  is  a tree 
near  the  temple  of  Gongen-sama,  the  lofty  trunk  of  which  at  breast 
high  had  in  1874  a circumference  of  5 ’88  m.,  and  at  a height  of 
40  to  50  m.  still  partially  overshadowed  with  its  thick  boughs  the 
slender  coniferous  trees  around  it  (Cryptomeria  and  firs).  Another 
large  specimen  is  to  be  seen  in  Hon-j6,  on  the  left  side  of  the 
Sumida-gawa.  Here,  in  the  capital,  these  trees  have  to  endure  a 
winter  of  seventy  to  eighty  nights  of  frost,  in  which  the  tempera- 
ture sometimes  sinks  to  — 70  C.,  and  in  exceptional  cases  even  to 
-9°  C. 

In  Northern  Italy,  too,  e.g.,  on  Lake  Maggiore,  the  camphor- 
laurel  endured,  in  December,  1879,  a cold  of  — 90  C.  But  it  seems 
to  have  reached  at  this  point  the  lower  temperature-limit  within 
which  it  occurs  in  the  open  air,  for  I did  not  find  it  north  of  the 
thirty-sixth  parallel,  even  on  the  flat,  mild  coast  of  the  Pacific.  In 
the  rough  highlands  of  the  interior  it  nowhere  occurs,  even  more  to 
the  southward. 

1 Kaempfer  saw  in  Kiushiu,  in  1691,  a camphor-tree  which  was  noted  for  its 
size.  In  1826  von  Siebold  found  it  still  growing  and  thickly  leaved.  Its  hollow 
trunk  was  then  i6'884  m.  in  girth. 


A GRICUL  TURAL  IND  US  TRIES. 


145 


From  those  occurring  near  temples  and  human  habitations,  we 
must,  however,  distinguish  well  others  in  a wild  condition.  In  this 
state  it  nowhere  crosses  the  thirty-fourth  parallel,  confining  itself 
to  the  mild  hill-country  near  the  sea,  in  Southern  Japan.  These 
are  parts  of.  (Dsurni  and  Satsuma  on  the  Bay  of  Kagoshima,  of 
Hiuga  on  the  island  of  Kiushiu,  and  above  all  the  province  of 
Tosa  on  the  island  of  Shikoku.  Kaempfer  and  Thunberg  say 
that  the  tree  is  frequently  to  be  found,  too,  on  the  Gotd  ( Gothd  oar, 
Thunb.).  In  the  regions  named  it  forms  a constituent  of  the  ever- 
green forests,  mixed  with  several  other  species  of  the  genus  Cinna- 
momum,  with  laurel-leaved  oaks  ( Quercus  cuspidata , Qu.  acuta , Qu. 
glauca),  Camellia  japonica , and  other  more  shrub-like  growths. 
But  such  stout,  old,  thick-barked  specimens  as  those  in  the  temple- 
courts,  do  not  occur  anywhere  here. 

As  to  the  general  geographical  distribution  of  Cinnamomum 
Camphora,  it  only  extends  over  parts  of  the  eastern  monsoon 
region,  embracing  the  coast-countries  of  East  Asia,  with  many 
interruptions,  from  Cochin-China  to  about  the  mouth  of  the  Yang- 
tse-kiang,  including  the  islands  of  Heinan  and  Chusan,  the  island 
of  Formosa,  the  Riukiu  Islands,  and  the  parts  of  Kiushiu  and 
Shikoku  already  mentioned  ; thus  comprising  a region  between 
10°  and  340  N.  Lat.,  which  belongs,  therefore,  partly  to  the  tropics, 
partly  to  the  sub-tropical  zone.  This  region  is  marked  by  plentiful 
rainfalls,  especially  in  summer.  Hence  its  climate  is  especially 
favourable  to  a luxuriant  development  of  vegetation.  According 
to  all  reports,  the  camphor-tree  is  found  most  frequently  on  the 
island  of  Formosa,  and  most  chiefly  in  the  hilly  and  mountain- 
ous districts  in  its  north-western  portion.  Formosa  has  for  a long 
time  furnished  the  largest  amount  of  camphor,  its  only  other  im- 
portant articles  of  export  being  rice  and  sugar.  It  used  to  be 
brought  in  junks  to  Hong-kong,  Amoy,  or  Futschau  first,  and  from 
there  to  Europe  ; but  now  it  is  sent  directly  from  Tamsui. 

In  China  Proper,  Fukien  is  the  province  that  is  richest  in  camphor- 
trees.  It  is  to  this  province  and  its  product  that  Marco  Polo  refers 
(Yule:  “ Marco  Polo,”  ii.  217),  as  well  as  many  another  later  traveller 
in  its  forests.  These  latter  still  yield  annually  about  2,500  piculs 
(150,000  kg.);  and  the  production  has  been  known  to  reach  4,000 
piculs  (240,000  kg.)  in  one  year. 

Adjoining  the  area  of  the  Laurinean  camphor  is  that  of  bor- 
neol — Baros  or  Sumatra  camphor.1  This  species  of  camphor  is 
found  stored  in  hollows  and  fissures  in  the  wood  of  Dryobalanops 
Camphora,  Colebr.,  a tree  of  the  Dipterocarp  family,  but  seldom 
in  quantities  of  more  than  a quarter  to  one  pound  to  a tree.  This 
camphor-tree  grows  in  Sumatra  and  West  Borneo.  J unghuhn  speaks 
of  it  thus:  “ Among  the  forest-trees  of  Tapanuli  (on  the  west  coast 

1 Fliickiger,  in  his  very  readable  article  “ Camphora  ” (Pharmakognosie  des 
Pflanzenreichs,  2.  Aufl , p.  148),  makes  mention  also  of  the  Blumea-camphor, 
which,  however,  has  no  connection  with  Japan. 

II. 


L 


146 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


of  Sumatra,  north-east  of  Nias,  and  south-east  of  the  city  of  Baros) 
the  traveller’s  attention  is  attracted  above  all  by  the  camphor-tree 
(. Dryobalanops  Camphord),  distinguished  for  its  colossal,  straight, 
columnar  trunk  and  its  crown  of  leaves,  which  rises  high  above  the 
forest  carpet.  It  exceeds  in  dimensions  the  Rasamala  ( Liquidam - 
ber  Altingiana ),  the  highest  tree  of  Java.”  1 

Both  kinds  of  camphor  were  undoubtedly  known  and  valued 
throughout  South  and  East  Asia  as  early  as  the  beginning  of  the 
Christian  era,  as  shown  by  the  fact  that  it  was  brought  into  Europe 
by  Arabs  in  the  first  century.  All  through  the  Middle  Ages,  and 
down  to  quite  recent  times,  Borneo  camphor  especially  was  held  to 
be  a medicine  of  the  utmost  importance,  even  by  the  Chinese  and 
Japanese,  who  greatly  preferred  it  to  their  native  sort.  Its  proper 
Malay  name  is  Kapur  Baros  or  Barus,  i.e.,  camphor  from  Baros, 
the  chief  place  of  export  on  the  north-west  coast  of  the  island  of 
Sumatra,  in  distinction  from  Kapur  China  or  Kapur  Japun,  Laurel 
camphor.  Sumatra  camphor  came  from  Baros,  but  also  from  the 
other  parts  of  the  north-west  coast  between  i°  and  2^°  N.  lat.,  viz., 
Tapanuli,  Natal,  and  Ajer  Bangngies,  via  Padang  to  Batavia,  and 
via  Atschin  to  Penang  and  Singapore.  The  Arabs,  among  others, 
adopted  the  name  Kapur,  applying  it  also  to  the  camphor-tree, 
as  may  still  be  observed  in  Egypt.  Marco  Polo  was  the  first 
European  to  mention  Sumatra  camphor.  He  calls  it  Camfora 
Fansuri,  and  says  it  is  so  fine  that  it  is  bought  in  China  for  its 
weight  in  gold.2 

Kaempfer  states3  that  a Catti  (605  grammes)  of  imported  Borneo 
camphor  is  exchanged  for  80-100  Catti  of  Japanese  camphor,  and 
de  Vriese  writes  as  follows,  in  his  previously  mentioned  article 
on  Sumatra  camphor : “Une  caisse  de  camphre,  qui  contenait  en 
tout  125  livres  de  camphre  en  trois  diffentes  qualites  rendait  au 
Japon  un  prix  de  2,500-3,000  rijksdaalders,  c’est-a-dire  d’environ 
12,500-15,000  francs.”  He  further  remarks:  “ Pendant  les  annees 
de  1750-1760,  le  commerce  de  cet  article  avec  la  Chine  a rendu  a 
la  Compagnie  le  provenu  considerable  de  153,490  florins.”  This 
high  estimation  of  the  Ping-pien  (ice-flakes)  or  Lung-nan  (dragon’s- 
brains),  as  the  Chinese  call  Sumatra  camphor,  appears  still  to  exist, 
for,  according  to  the  same  authority,  the  total  amount  of  this  article 
exported  from  Baros  (less  than  400  kg.  annually)  goes  to  China, 
where  its  price  exceeds  that  of  the  native  product  a hundredfold. 
In  the  year  1760  it  cost  44  Dutch  florins  per  picul  in  Padang,  and 
about  60  florins  in  i860,  against  114  florins  in  Canton  and  Shang- 
hai. It  has  been  valued  not  only  as  an  internal  medicine  and  a 
cure  for  eye-diseases  ; it  used  to  be  employed  for  another  quite 

1 W.  H.  de  Vriese,  in  1856,  gave  a detailed  description  of  the  tree,  with  an 
illustration,  under  the  title  : “ Mdmoire  sur  le  Camphrier  de  Sumatra  et  de 
.Borneo.” 

2 Yule  : “ Marco  Polo,”  ii.  282. 

3 E.  Kaempfer  : “ Geschichte  und  Beschreibung  von  Japan,”  1 777,  p.  131. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


147 


different  purpose  in  Sumatra.  When  a rajah  of  the  Battas  died, 
his  corpse  was  laid  in  a coffin  made  from  the  wood  of  the  Durio 
zibethinus , and  there  embalmed  in  camphor  and  kept  enclosed  till 
the  rice  sown  on  the  day  of  his  death  could  be  harvested — five  or 
six  months  later.  By  this  time  the  body  had  become  a mummy. 
It  was  then  buried,  together  with  this  new  rice.  It  has  been  calcu- 
lated that  this  custom,  every  time  it  was  honoured,  cost  50-100 
pounds  of  camphor,  worth  2,000-5,000  florins. 

In  the  early  half  of  the  eighteenth  century  there  was  a lively 
trade  with  Japan  in  this  Sumatra  camphor.  But,  according  to 
de  Vriese,  the  books  of  the  Dutch  Company  make  no  further  men- 
tion of  it  after  1768,  so  that  it  probably  ceased  then. 

When  the  Portuguese  first  went  to  India,  both  kinds  of  camphor 
were  known  there  and  used  in  medicine.  A picul  (60  kg.)  of  first- 
class  Sumatra  camphor  brought  1,360  dollars.  The  same  weight 
of  Chinese  camphor  cost  42-45  dollars,  the  relative  values  being, 
therefore,  from  1 : 34  up  to  1 : 30.  The  fame  of  the  Borneo 
camphor  was  known  to  Camoens,  who  dedicated  a verse  to  it 
in  his  “Lusiad,”  canto  10,  line  133. 

Laurel  camphor  (Japanese  Shono)  is  obtained  from  the  chips  of 
the  freshly  felled  timber,  by  distillation  with  water,  at  all  seasons, 
but  usually  in  summer.  A very  sharp,  concave  adze,  with  a short 
handle,  is  used,  with  which  trunks,  branches,  and  the  thicker 
roots  are  laboriously  hewn  into  chips,  such  as  fly  off  in  felling 
a tree.  The  apparatus  used  in  obtaining  camphor,  and  especially 
the  arrangement  for  receiving  and  condensing  the  fumes,  are  not 
everywhere  the  same.  The  one  which  I saw  in  operation  in  the 
woods  not  far  from  Kochi,  the  capital  of  Tosa,  was  constructed 
as  follows  : On  a crown-shaped  foundation  of  primitive  masonry 
(see  fig.  8)  | m.  high,  which  encircled  the  fire-place  (f),  there 
rested  an  iron  pan  (p),  and  on  this  a wooden  tub  (k)  i m.  in  height. 
The  bottom  of  this,  which  was  perforated,  measured  50  cm.  in  dia- 
meter, while  its  upper  opening  was  37  cm.  wide.  This  vat  was 
surrounded  by  a layer  of  mud  (w)  from  12  to  15  cm.  thick,  which 
also  rested  on  the  wall  below.  Before  putting  this  apparatus  in 
operation,  the  iron  pan  was  filled  with  water  from  above,  and  the 
vat  almost  up  to  its  brim  with  fresh  chips.  Then  a cover  (d)  was 
set  on  top,  and  plastered  steam-tight  to  the  edge  of  the  vat  with 
mud.  Then  the  fuel  in  the  fire-place  (F)  was  kindled.  Steam  is 
soon  generated.  It  rises  from  the  pan  through  the  perforated 
bottom  into  the  vat,  where  it  settles  on  the  chips  of  camphor- wood, 
and  heats  them  through.  Then,  carrying  with  it  the  camphor-fumes, 
it  passes  off  into  the  cooling  apparatus  (c)  through  a piece  of 
bamboo  cane  (b)  which  fits  in  tightly  near  the  upper  edge  of  the 
vat.  This  cooling-apparatus  lies  on  a contiguous  hill-side,  and  con- 
sists of  two  water-tight  troughs  or  boxes,  of  different  sizes.  The 
larger  of  them  stands  on  the  ground,  open  side  up,  and  is  divided 
by  parallel  boards  into  several  communicating  compartments,  like 


148 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


a pneumatic  separator.  The  smaller  lies  in  the  other,  bottom-side 
up,  being  the  receptacle  for  the  steam.  A piece  of  bamboo  cane 
(B1)  pours  a steady  stream  of  water  over  its  bottom  and  down  over 
its  walls  to  the  separator  below.  Through  a hole  half-way  up  the 
side  of  this  the  overflow  runs  off.  In  about  twelve  hours  the  chips 
are  exhausted.  A valve  (v)  near  the  bottom  of  the  vat  (the  joint 
having  been  hitherto  closely  sealed),  is  now  opened,  and  the  wood 
withdrawn.  It  is  dried  before  the  fire,  so  as  to  serve  for  fuel  in  the 
next  filling. 

Camphor  and  camphor-oil  are  now  found  collected  on  the  water 
in  the  cooling-apparatus.  They  are  skimmed  off  and  separated 
from  each  other  by  filtration  through  straw  or  by  pressure. 


Fig.  8.  APPARATUS  FOR  PRODUCING  CAMPHOR  IN  TOSA,  JAPAN. 


100 


The  description  of  camphor  manufacture  given  by  Thunberg 
differs  from  this.  He  says  that  on  an  iron  kettle  there  rests  a 
wooden  cover,  terminating  in  a long  point,  in  which  straw  was 
fastened  ; that  the  camphor-chips  are  boiled  with  water  in  the 
kettle ; that  the  steam,  rising,  collected  and  condensed  in  the  straw 
of  the  point  of  the  cover,  from  which  it  was  then  separated  as  a 
granular,  greyish  white  mass,  to  be  packed  in  wooden  tubs,  and 
sold  by  weight  to  the  Dutch  Company  in  De-shima. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  process  I witnessed  marks  a 
notable  advance  over  that  just  described.  In  Japan  it  is  not 
customary  to  soak  the  chips  several  days  in  water  before  begin- 
ning distillation,  as  is  said  to  be  the  method  in  China.  Scherzer 
describes  the  manufacture  of  camphor  in  Formosa.  It  agrees  in  its 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


149 


main  features  with  that  given  for  Tosa,  but  the  contrivance  is 
decidedly  more  primitive  than  here. 

As  might  be  expected  from  the  more  careful  manner  of  its 
manufacture,  Japanese  camphor  is  much  purer  and  more  valuable, 
and  therefore  commands  a higher  price  than  Chinese.  It  is  a 
granular,  greyish  white  substance,  not  unlike  the  lumpy  Firn 
(coarse  glacial  snow)  of  our  high  mountains,  or  white,  unrefined 
sugar.  It  is  obtained  chiefly  in  Tosa.  Since  Kochi,  the  capital 
of  this  province  of  the  island  of  Shikoku,  is  in  direct  steamship 
connection  with  Osaka,  it  reaches  European  hands  mostly  via  this 
city,  and  is  shipped  from  the  neighbouring  town  of  Kobe  (Hiogo). 
The  exportation  of  camphor  from  Nagasaki  is  scarcely  one-third 
as  large  as  that  from  Hiogo.  Still  less  is  that  from  Yokohama. 
Tamsui  in  the  northern  part  of  Formosa  and  Hiogo,  are  at  present 
the  chief  places  for  obtaining  this  drug,  though  the  annual  expor- 
tation from  them  and  other  places  varies  exceedingly,  having  in 
recent  years  ranged  between  18,000  and  24,000  piculs — r, 080,000 
kg.  and  1,440,000  kg. — at  an  average  price  of  £\2  per  picul,  or  4 s. 
per  kg.  Before  Formosa  appeared  in  the  market  as  the  principal 
producer  of  this  article,  a picul  of  Japanese  camphor  was  worth 
from  £ 20  to  £24.,  while  the  present  price  is  £14  to  £17.  In 
the  year  1876,  Osaka-Hiogo  exported  8,393  piculs  of  camphor,  at 
a value  of  ;£  12 1,846;  in  the  previous  year,  however,  only  half  as 
much.  The  total  value  of  the  Japanese  shipments  of  this  drug 
amounted,  in  1872,  to  ^152,879  ; in  the  following  year  to  only 
£71,026.  Since  then  the  exportation  of  camphor  from  Japan  has 
increased  considerably,  amounting  in  1882  to  more  than  5,000,000 
yen. 

The  properties  and  uses  of  camphor  can  be  found  in  any  text- 
book of  chemistry  and  pharmacy,  and  are  so  well  known  that  it 
would  be  superfluous  to  enumerate  them  here.  But  an  application 
peculiar  to  Japan  and  China  seems  to  me  worth  mentioning, 
namely,  its  general  use  for  thinning  lacquer.  It  is  thoroughly 
mixed  with  lacquer,  while  itself  hard,  by  means  of  a spatula, 
until  it  becomes  fluid,  and  thins  the  lacquer  also.  And  there  can 
be  no  doubt,  either,  that  the  brownish  camphor-oil  (01.  camphorce 
japonicmn),  which  appears  as  a subsidiary  product  of  camphor 
manufacture,  is  the  primary  product,  from  which  camphor  (C10  Hlg  O) 
is  formed  by  oxidation.  It  is  a substance  that  bleaches  gradually 
in  the  light,  and  resembles  turpentine-oil,  not  only  in  odour,  but 
also  in  chemical  composition  (Cl0  Hl6).  Borneifn,  or  Borneo  cam- 
phor-oil, agrees  with  it  in  this.  The  close  relationship  of  borneol 
(C10  H18  O)  with  Japanese  camphor,  and  the  easy  convertibility  of 
the  one  into  the  other,  have  been  shown  long  ago.1  Camphor-oil 
is  an  excellent  solvent  for  the  solid  camphor,  but  is  not  used  for 
this  purpose  in  any  other  technical  or  pharmaceutical  way,  but 

1 Of  recent  treatises  on  this  subject,  see  Kachler  and  Spitzer  in  the  “Sitz- 
berichte  der  Wiener  Akademie,”  Band  80,  pp.  197-216. 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


150 


only  burnt  in  lamps,  an  application  for  which  it  is  very  poorly 
fitted,  on  account  of  its  sooty  flame. 

The  wood  of  the  camphor-tree  is  much  employed  in  Eastern 
Asia  for  the  manufacture  of  cabinets,  chests  of  drawers,  small 
chests,  etc.  This  is  especially  the  case  at  Otami,  and  in  the 
Hakone  Mountains,  a day’s  journey  to  the  west  of  Yokohama.  It 
has  a fine  grain,  a clear,  yellow-brown  colour,  a silky  sheen,  and  a 
beautiful  appearance,  so  that  it  is  well  adapted  to  veneering.  Not 
being  subject  to  the  attacks  of  insects,  it  might  be  recommended 
on  this  account  as  a material  for  cupboards  and  chests  of  drawers, 
especially  in  countries  where  termites  and  small  red  ants  are  a real 
plague,  as  in  the  West  Indies  and  West  Africa. 


(c)  Oil-plants  and  their  products. 

Japan  possesses  a considerable  number  of  plants,  some  wild, 
others  cultivated,  from  the  seeds  of  which  fatty  oils  (Abura)  or 
tallowy  and  waxy  fats  (R6)  are  manufactured.  Only  a few  of 
them  are  of  much  industrial  importance — particularly  the  oils  of 
rape,  sesame,  the  Perille,  the  Camellia,  and  the  vegetable  tallow  or 
Japanese  wax  of  several  kinds  of  sumach.  This  last  is  also  an 
export  of  consequence,  holding  sixth  place  in  the  lists  given  in 
the  English  consular  reports. 

The  following  serve  as  food-oils : Goma-no-abura,  sesame-oil 
(from  Sesamum  orientate),  Kaya-no-abura,  Kaya-oil  (from  Torreya 
nucifera ),  Buna-no-abura,  beech-oil  (from  Fagus  Sieboldi ),  Rak- 
kash6-no-abura,  groundnut-oil  (from  Arachis  hypogcea),  Karashi- 
abura,  mustard-oil  (from  Sinapis  cernua  and  .S.  integrifolia ),  Tane- 
abura,  rape-oil  (from  Brassica  chinensis),  and  some  others.  For 
burning  in  lamps  (Andon)  Tane-abura,  rape-oil,  Dokuye-no-abura 
(from  Elceococca  cordata),  Hyobu-no~abura  (from  Cephalotaxus 
drupeacea ),  sometimes  also  Gioto,  or  fish-oil  (from  different  mem- 
bers of  the  herring  family)  are  chiefly  used.  Gas  and  especially 
petroleum,  have,  however,  considerably  diminished  the  use  of  the 
fats  as  agents  for  lighting  in  Japan.  The  principal  articles  used 
for  hair-oil  are  Tsubaki-no-abura,  camellia-oil  (from  Camellia 
japonica , C.  Sasanqua , and  C.  tlmfera,  the  last  called  also  Cha-no- 
abura,  tea-oil).  And  finally,  for  technical  purposes,  the  kinds  most 
used  are  Ye-  (pronounced  A)no-abura,  the  oil  of  Perilla  ocymoides, 
T6-goma,  hempseed-oil  (from  Cannabis  sativa),  Zokudzui-shi, 
spurgeworts-oil  (from  Euphorbia  Lathyris ),  and  Shira-shibori, 
cold-pressed  rape-oil,  as  well  as  the  Ro  from  the  sumachs. 

In  manufacturing  these  various  vegetable-fats,  the  Japanese,  as 
well  as  the  Chinese,  employ  wooden  wedge-presses  of  various  con- 
structions. A reproduction  of  one  of  these  is  given  by  Stanislas 
Julien,  in  his  well-known  book,  “Industrie  de  l’Empire  Chinois,” 
p.  1 19.  Another  kind  is  that  which  I frequently  saw  used  in 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


51 


Japan,  not  only  for  oils,  but  also  for  vegetable  tallow,  and  of  which 
a sketch  is  given  here.  Its  arrangement  and  mode  of  operation 
need  no  further  explanation.  Of  course  the  fatty  substance,  after 
being  chopped  up  in  a simple  stock,  is  generally  heated  before  it 
is  put  under  pressure  in  the  hollowed  stone,  or  block,  or  box,  as 
the  case  may  be.  As  with  us,  the  seed-meal  is  wrapped  in  bags  or 
cloths.  It  often  happens  that  the  arrangement  for  receiving  the 
liquid  oil  does  not  simply  stand  on  the  ground,  but  is  sunk  into  it. 


Fig.  9. 


The  extraction  of  oils  by  chemical  process  has  never  been  in  opera- 
tion in  East  Asia,  for  almost  all  the  solvents  of  oil  in  use  among  us 
are  lacking. 

As  to  the  several  fats  mentioned  above,  and  their  products,  the 
following  statements  may  be  here  made  : 

i.  Tane  abura,  the  oil  of  rape-seed  (Na-tane)  is  mostly  burned 
in  lamps.  Because  of  the  harsh  taste  it  imparts  to  food,  its  use  in 
the  kitchen  is  confined  to  the  place  where  it  is  produced.  This 


52 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


rape  (Brassica  chinensis , L.),  called  Na,  Abura-na,  or  Td-na,  is  more 
largely  cultivated  in  Japan  than  all  the  other  oil  plants — so  too  in 
China,  I suppose — and,  to  the  best  of  my  observation,  always  as  a 
winter  crop.  Seed  time  is  in  September  or  October  ; flowering  in 
April,  and  harvest  in  July.  It  is  often  planted  side  by  side  with 
rice.  In  this  case  it  is  frequently  raised  in  seed-beds,  and  trans- 
planted in  rows  beside  the  rice.  When  TSne-na  is  heated  before 
pressing,  you  get  the  common  Tane-abura ; with  cold  pressing, 
however,  the  clearer  and  better  Shira-shime  or  Shira-shibori,  which 
is  used  principally  for  oiling  tools  and  machines. 

2.  Karashi-no-abura,  fat  mustard-oil.  This  is  manufactured 
from  the  seeds  of  Smapis  cernua , Thunb.  (Karashi  or  Karashi-na), 
and  also  from  .S',  integrifolia , Wild.,  the  6-garashi  (big  mustard),  and 
Taka-na  (high  rape)  of  the  Japanese.  It  is  clearer  and  softer  than 
rape-oil,  and  is  therefore  preferred  to  this  for  food.  I found  both 
kinds  very  frequent  in  Kiushiu,  eg.,  in  the  province  of  Higo,  and 
was  impressed  by  the  appropriateness  of  the  term  Taka-na  (high 
rape)  for  the  one.  Its  stalks  reach  a height  of  about  2 m.,  and 
hence  stand  high  above  those  of  rape,  which  it  resembles.  They 
are  raised  at  intervals  of  15  to  20  cm.  in  rows  that  are  about  85  cm. 
apart.  By  the  middle  of  April  the  mustard  fields  around  Kuma- 
moto were  in  full  bloom,  but  the  rape  beside  it  had  already 
advanced  beyond  that  stage.  Mustard  is  used  in  Japan  as  with  us, 
for  a sort  of  condiment,  and  its  volatile  oil  is  developed  in  the  same 
way  ; but  for  the  most  part  it  is  grown  for  similar  purposes  as  rape. 

3.  Tsubaki-no-abura,  Sasank’wa-no-abura,  Cha-no-abura.  Under 
these  names  the  thick  oils  from  the  nut-like  seeds  of  the  following 
plants  are  known  in  Japan,  where  they  are  used  principally  for 
the  hair  : Camellia  japonica , L.,  Jap.  Tsubaki,  C.  Sasanqua,  Thunb., 
Jap.  Sasank’wa,  and  C.  theifera,  Griffith,  Jap.  Cha.  These  con- 
tain 30-35  per  cent,  of  oil.1 

Only  those  tea-nuts  which  are  not  needed  for  planting  are  used 
for  making  tea-seed-oil.  But  the  two  other  kinds  of  camellia  are 
grown  specially  for  their  oily  seeds.  Thus,  for  instance,  in  the 
coast-country  of  Sendai  and  Nambu  on  the  Pacific  Ocean,  between 
latitude  38  and  40,  camellias  are  planted  either  singly  or  in  rows 
along  the  edge  of  many  a field  or  roadside.  They  are  regular  trees, 
some  of  them  having  straight  boles  4 to  6 m.  high  and  30  cm.  in 
diameter.  Their  shapely  dark  green  crowns  stand  out  sharp 
against  the  fading  foliage  of  most  of  the  other  growths,  especially 
in  autumn.  The  fruit,  which  is  round  and  the  size  of  a pigeon’s 
egg,  becomes  red-brown  under  the  sun’s  direct  rays.  When  over- 
ripe it  becomes  dark  and  even  black — inside  as  well  as  out — and 
then  bursts  out  in  three  spots,  letting  fall  three  long,  angular, 
dark  grey  nuts. 

The  Tsubaki-no-abura  that  is  got  from  them  is  the  highest- 

1 With  regard  to  the  first  two,  see  the  chapter  on  ornamental  plants.  De- 
tails as  to  C.  theifera  ( Thea  chinesis,  Sims.)  are  to  be  found  under  3a  Tea. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


53 


priced  of  all  Japanese  oils  (75  sen  per  sho,  or  3 shillings  for  175 
liter).  Its  colour  ranges  from  amber  to  straw  colour.  Its 
specific  gravity  is  092 7 at  140  C.  It  congeals  at  between  — 40  and 
— 6°  C.  Its  weight  consists  of  oleic-acid  and  stearic-acid  glycerides, 
in  proportion  as  f to  \.  In  China  it  is  said  to  be  utilized,  like 
tea-oil,  which  resembles  it  closely,  for  food,  light,  and  the  manu- 
facture of  soap.  The  oil  of  the  Sasanqua  is  clearer,  though  in 
other  respects  not  differing  greatly  from  the  foregoing. 

This  plant  is  cultivated  in  Suruga,  in  Kiushiu,  e.g.  in  Hizen,  in 
Amakusa,  and  in  several  other  districts,  just  like  the  tea  plant.  It 
grows  in  the  shape  of  spreading  bushes  from  2 to  4 m.  high,  never 
as  trees,  and  is  in  general  more  like  the  tea-shrub  than  the  common 
camellia,  in  regard  to  its  season  of  blossoming  for  example,  this 
being  in  November  and  December. 

4.  Wata-no-abura,  cottonseed-oil.  Cotton  seeds  (.Wata-no-mi) 
have  only  lately  been  utilized  in  Japan,  as  elsewhere,  to  produce  a 
heavy  (specific  gravity  0^92 6),  thick,  brown  oil.  This  is  made  e.g. 
in  Awa,  on  the  Island  of  Shikoku,  from  seeds  of  Gossypium  her- 
baceum , and  is  used  for  lamps,  though,  like  hempseed-oil,  which  it 
recalls  in  smell  and  taste,  it  creates  a sooty  flame.  When  refined, 
it  is  straw-coloured  and  has  a nutty  taste.  In  this  state  it  is  used 
in  Europe  as  a food-oil — olive-oil,  which  is  double  the  price,  being 
frequently  adulterated  with  it. 

5.  Rakkuwashd-  (pronounced  Rakkashd)  no-abura,  groundnut- 
oil.  It  is  yielded  by  Arachis  hypogceci , L.,  Jap.  Rakkashd,  or 
Tojin-mame,  the  ground-nut  (pea-nut,  pistache  de  terre,  and 
arachide).  It  is  used  for  food,  and  is  produced  only  in  small 
quantities,  in  Southern  Japan.  A very  considerable  botanico- 
geographical  interest  attaches  to  this  remarkable  leguminous  herb. 
Numerous  leaves  appear  on  its  low-lying,  branching  stalk.  These 
are  elliptical  or  oval,  inverted,  and  at  their  axils  grow  short- 
stemmed, yellow  blossoms.  When  these  have  disappeared  their 
stems  lengthen  out,  the  joints  sink  into  the  loose  sandy  soil,  where, 
at  a depth  of  5-8  cm.  below  the  surface,  they  develop  into  little 
pods,  15-30  mm.  long,  and  10-15  mm-  thick.  As  a rule  they 
have  a constriction  in  the  middle,  deep  and  gradual,  reminding  one 
in  this  respect  of  the  male  cocoons  of  many  breeds  of  the  common 
silk-worm,  which  they  resemble  also  in  their  entire  shape,  and  in 
size  and  their  reticulate  surface,  though  less  in  their  grey-white 
earthy  colour.  These  shells  contain  a seed  on  each  side  of  the 
constriction.  Shorter  ones,  without  constriction,  hold  only  one. 
These  seeds  may  be  compared  to  the  kernels  of  long,  medium- 
sized hazel  nuts.  Externally,  they  are  a brownish  red  ; inside, 
white.  They  yield  40-60  per  cent,  of  a fatty  oil,  which  serves  almost 
all  the  purposes  of  olive-oil.  The  taste  of  the  seeds  when  raw 
resembles  that  of  all  leguminous  plants ; when  roasted,  that  of 
almonds,  pistachios,  and  other  nuts,  as  the  various  names  indicate. 

Brazil  was  formerly  considered  to  be  the  original  home  of  the 


1 54 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


ground-nut ; but  now  that  it  has  become  known  how  widely  dis- 
tributed it  is  in  Africa,  this  opinion  has  been  relinquished,  and 
it  is  held  more  probable  that  it  was  introduced  into  the  New 
World,  by  Portuguese  slave-ships,  from  Africa.  In  the  Old  World 
it  is  found  cultivated  in  many  tropical  and  sub-tropical  countries, 
though  never  to  the  same' extent  as  on  the  West  Coast  of  Africa, 
from  Senegambia  and  the  regions  adjacent  down  to  the  Gold 
Coast,  where  it  is  a prominent  article  of  export.  Marseilles  is  the 
chief  market  for  ground-nuts  and  the  oil  they  yield,  as  well  as  for 
oil-seeds  in  general.  In  Japan  and  China,  as  well  as  in  North 
America,  ground-nuts  are  usually  eaten  roasted,  and  their  cultiva- 
tion is  very  limited. 

6.  Goma-no-abura,  sesame  oil.  Sesamum  indicum,  D.  C.,  Jap. 
Goma,  the  plant  that  yields  this  food-oil,  so  highly  prized  by  many 
peoples,  has  long  been  widely  distributed  over  most  of  the  warmer 
countries  of  the  earth,  from  the  East  Coast  of  Asia  to  the  shores  of 
the  Mediterranean,  on  the  East  and  West  Coasts  of  Africa,  and 
also  in  the  New  World.  It  grows,  too,  in  the  interior  of  Africa, 
where,  e.g.,  E.  Vogel  found  the  islands  of  Lake  Tchad  planted 
with  it.  De  Candolle,  from  good  grounds,  regarded  India  as  its 
original  home,  and  both  forms — with  black  seeds  ( Sesamum  orien- 
tate, L.,  Jap.  Kuro-goma)  and  with  white  (S.  indicum,  L.,  Jap. 
Shiro-goma) — as  mere  varieties  of  the  same  thing. 

In  India,  sesame  goes  by  the  names  Til  and  Gingeli.  In  China 
it  is  called,  according  to  Bretschneider,  Chi-ma ; and  on  the  West 
Coast  of  Africa,  Benni-seed.  Marseilles  is  the  great  market  for 
sesame,  as  for  ground-nuts.  Vast  quantities  of  both  the  white  and 
the  black  grain  are  imported  thither  from  India,  Siam,  Formosa, 
the  Levant,  the  East  and  West  Coasts  of  Africa,  and  other  sources. 
As  a rule  the  white  and  black  grain  bear  to  each  other,  in  price, 
the  relation  of  io  to  9;  so  in  Japan,  too,  where  the  oil  of  the  former, 
or  Shiro-goma,  sells  at  30  sen  per  shd,  when  that  of  Kuro-goma 
stands  at  27  sen  per  sho. 

The  sesame  plant  is  a herb-like  Bignoniaceae.  Its  stiff  stalk, 
furrowed  on  four  sides,  attains  a height  of  1 m.,  and  bears,  at  its 
axils,  the  short-stemmed  white  blossoms,  which  have  some  re- 
semblance in  size  and  shape  to  those  of  our  Digitalis  species, — a 
fact  that  was  hinted  at  in  the  names  formerly  in  frequent  use, 
“ white  or  oriental  fox-glove,”  The  fruit  is  a four-chambered  cap- 
sule about  3 cm.  long,  with  four  rounded  edges.  Its  countless  seeds 
are  found  in  four  rows  about  a central  strip.  In  size  and  shape 
they  remind  one  somewhat  of  linseed  (being  a flattened  oval  and 
pointed),  but  differ  from  them  in  colour,  and  in  having  no  lustre. 
According  to  Fliickiger’s  careful  experiments,1  their  proportion  of 
oil  is  S6'33  per  cent.,  of  which  48  to  50  per  cent,  can  be  obtained  by 
pressure,  and  the  whole  amount  by  extraction.  Sesame-oil,  especi- 
ally when  cold-pressed,  has  a beautiful  clear  colour,  and  a specific 
1 “ Schweizerische  Wochensclirift  fur  Pharmacie,”  1868,  p.  282  ff. 


A GRICUL  RURAL  IND  US  TRIES. 


155 


gravity  of  0‘9235,  becoming  congealed  at  — 5°  C.  Its  flavour  is 
agreeable,  though  not  so  mild  as  that  of  olive-oil,  which  is  much 
dearer,  so  that  it  is  often  adulterated  with  it.  Sesame-oil  is  readily 
recognised  by  the  red  colour  which  it  assumes  when  equal  quantities 
of  sugar  and  hydrochloric  acid,  with  a specific  gravity  of  ri8  are 
sprinkled  into  it.  Groundnut-oil  is  third  in  the  Marseilles  oil-trade. 
It  is  recognisable  and  distinguishable  from  olive-oil  by  the  Arachic 
acid,  which  proceeds  with  a mother-of-pearl  appearance  from  the 
hot  alcoholic  solution  of  the  precipated  fatty  acids  in  cooling.1 

The  sesame-plant  is,  however,  not  extensively  cultivated  in  Japan. 
One  often  sees  a bed  of  it  here  and  there,  or  more  frequently  a 
border  of  it  encircling  beds  of  other  herbs  or  whole  fields.  Hence 
the  demand  for  food-oil  is  only  partly  met  by  this  article,  and 
recourse  must  be  had  to  various  others  as  substitutes. 

7.  Ye-  (pronounced  A)  no-abura,more  properly  Yegoma-no-abura, 
oil  from  seeds  of  the  Yegoma-plant  (. Perilla  ocymoides , L.).  It  has 
served  from  time  immemorial  in  Japan  and  China  as  a drying- 
oil,  instead  of  linseed-oil.  Like  flax-growing  in  general,  this  oil 
was  unknown  to  the  East  Asiatics  until  recent  times.  Perilla 
ocymoides , L.,  a Labiate  characterized  in  all  its  parts  by  a strong, 
peculiar  odour,  is  of  slow  growth.  Its  seed-time  is  in  April,  but  the 
plants  do  not  attain  their  full  size  till  about  the  end  of  September 
or  the  beginning  of  October.  Their  many-branched  stalks  have  by 
that  time  reached  a height  of  i-i'5o  m.  Then  little  white 
blossoms  begin  to  appear  in  axillary  ears,  but  soon  drop  off  and 
cover  the  ground  in  the  early  half  of  October.  Only  a fortnight 
later  the  seeds  are  ripe — a quick  development  characteristic  of 
most  labiate  plants.  These  seeds  are  of  a greyish  brown  colour. 
They  are  much  smaller  than  rape-seeds,  and  very  friable.  They 
fall  readily  out  of  their  capsules,  so  that  harvest  must  take  place 
before  they  are  fully  ripe,  otherwise  there  is  danger  that  a stronger 
wind  than  usual  may  shake  a large  part  of  the  crop  to  the  ground. 

According  to  the  experiments  of  the  chemist  Cloez,  in  Paris, 
Perilla  seeds  grown  in  the  South  of  France  yielded,  by  pressure, 
30  per  cent,  of  thin,  colourless  drying-oil ; 34/5  per  cent,  by  extrac- 
tion with  bisulphide  of  carbon  ; while  Japanese  seeds  gave  39-2  per 
cent.  This,  like  linseed-oil,  is  useful  in  painting,  and  in  Japan 
possesses  great  importance  for  several  technical  purposes.  It  is 
used  especially : — 

(1)  In  the  manufacture  of  oiled  papers  (Abura-kami)  for  lanterns, 
umbrellas,  and  waterproof  cloaks. 

(2)  In  the  manufacture  of  the  so-called  leather-paper  (Kami-kawa). 

(3)  As  an  ingredient  of  several  kinds  of  lacquer. 

(4)  As  an  addition  to  the  fruit-meal  of  the  lacquer  and  tallow- 
tree,  to  obtain  Japanese  plant-wax  more  easily  and  perfectly.3 

1 Dingler’s  Polyt.  Jourti..  1882,  p.  324. 

2 For  details  in  regard  to  the  uses  of  Perilla-oil  here  mentioned,  see  the 
corresponding  sections. 


56 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


Oil-cakes,  rich  in  nitrogen  and  phosphorus,  are  used  to  fertilize 
the  soil.  They  would  make  just  as  good  fodder  as  linseed-cakes. 

To  meet  the  above-mentioned  uses,  and  others  besides,  we  find 
that,  next  to  rape-seed,  the  yegoma  is  grown  more  extensively  than 
all  other  oil-producing  plants  in  Japan.  In  England  it  has  been 
known,  from  its  Indian  home,  since  1770.  Attempts  to  cultivate  it 
have  in  recent  times  been  made  in  the  South  of  France.  Thus 
L6on  de  Lunaret,  of  Montpellier,  in  1878,  sowed  a piece  of  land 
measuring  50  square  m.  with  500  grammes  of  seed,  harvesting  7 kg. 
of  seed  in  return.1  One  ha  will  accordingly  yield  at  least  500  kg. 
A further  result  of  these  attempts  has  shown  that  Perilla  ocymoides , 
L.,  only  finds  in  the  Mediterranean  regions  a sufficiently  long 
summer  heat  for  its  development,  and  its  cultivation  is  impossible 
in  higher  latitudes  in  Europe. 

8.  Dokuye-no-abura  is  the  name  for  oil  from  the  nuts  of  the 
Elceococca  cordata,  Bl.  ( E . verrucosa , S.  and  Z.,  Aleurites  cordata, 
Miill.),  a medium-sized  tree  with  wide-spreading  crown,  of  the 
Euphorbiacea  family — a tree  cultivated  in  many  parts  of  Japan,  and 
also  in  China.2  Of  its  four  Japanese  names,  Dokuye,  Abura-no-ki, 
Abura-giri,  and  Yama-giri,  the  second  means  “oil-tree,”  the  third 
“ oil-kiri,”  the  fourth  “ wild-kiri.”  Kiri  (giri)  is,  however,  the  name 
for  Pauloivnia  imperialism  which  Elceococca  cordata  resembles — 
chiefly  in  its  large,  heart-shaped  leaves,  and  partly  too  in  the 
appearance  of  its  stem.  Its  large  white  bunches  of  blossoms  appear 
late  in  May  and  early  in  June;  the  capsules  (for  three  and  four 
seeds)  get  ripe  in  autumn,  and  remind  one,  as  do  also  their  con- 
tents, of  Ricinus.  The  oil  obtained  from  these  seeds  has  only 
recently  been  closely  examined  by  Cloez.3  It  is  numbered  among 
the  drying-oils,  and  serves  in  Japan  for  illuminating  purposes  chiefly. 
In  China,  where  it  bears  the  name  T’ung-tsze-yu,  i.e.,  wood-oil,  it 
is  used  also  as  a medicine,  for  greasing  wood  on  ships,  and  other 
purposes.  This  is  referred  to  in  the  nam ^.Elceococca  vernicea , Spreng.4 
The  tree  is  known  all  over  Japan.  It  is  usually  planted  in  soil 
that  is  unfitted  for  farming,  as  in  Suruga,  Echizen,  and  Kaga. 

The  seeds  of  three  other  Euphorbiaceae  and  the  oils  obtained 
from  them,  because  of  their  use  in  medicine,  are  better  known  in 
Europe  than  the  species  of  which  we  have  just  spoken.  These  are 
Croton  Triglium , L., Ricinus  communis,  L., and  Euphorbia  Lathyris , L. 

9.  Himashi-no-abura  is  the  Japanese  name  for  Ricinus-oil. 
Ricinus  (Himashi  or  To-goma,  i.e.,  Chinese  sesame)  is  raised  here 

1 Revue  Horticole. 

2 The  tree  described  by  Kaempfer  in  “ Amoen.  exot.,”  pp.  789  and  790,  under 
the  name  of  Abrasin  (. Ricinus  arboreus,  fol.  Alceae),  and  by  Thunberg  in  “ Flor. 
jap.”  as  Dryandra  cordata , is  undoubtedly  the  same.  Both  authors  mention, 
besides,  the  oil  for  illumination,  made  from  its  seeds. 

3 See  also  Fliickiger:  “ Archiv  d.  Pharmacie,”  1876,  pp.  208  and  422. 

4 From  a statement  in  the  Augsburg  A.  Zeitung , of  June  6th,  1876,  I learn 
that  termites  are  expelled  by  means  of  this  oil  in  China,  and  that  the  French 
consul  in  Canton  recommended  it  to  his  government  for  the  phylloxera  vastatrix. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


157 


and  there  in  small  patches  beside  other  medicinal  herbs,  never 
losing  its  herb-like  character.  Its  oil,  apart  from  purposes  already 
mentioned,  is  used  to  produce  red  or  black  colour  for  seals. 

10.  Zokudzu-shi  is  the  oil  of  the  Zokudzui  or  Horutoso  ( Euphor- 
bia Lathyris , L.).  Only  a small  quantity  of  this  is  made,  and  it 
is  used  to  protect  iron  weapons  against  rust.  The  swords  of  the 
Samurai  especially,  their  favourite  weapons,  were  kept  bright  by 
this  means. 

ix.  Asa-no-abura,  hemp-seed  oil,  made  from  Asa-mi,  hemp-seed 
(1 Cannabis  sativa,  L.),  whose  properties  are  sufficiently  well-known, 
is  also  used  for  obtaining  the  red  and  black  colours  for  seals  and 
stamps. 

12.  Kaya-no-abura,  Kaya-oil,  is  manufactured  by  the  Japanese 
from  the  seeds  of  Torreya  nucifera , S.  and  Z.,  the  Kaya,  which  are 
like  hazel-nuts  or  acorns.  It  is  used  mostly  in  the  kitchen.  The 
Kaya  resembles  our  yew.  It  is  found  in  most  cases  as  of  under- 
wood, scattered  like  brush  in  mountain  forests ; seldom  as  a tree. 
In  autumn  the  plant  is  laden  with  nuts,  which  are  good  to  eat, 
although  having  a resinous  after-taste. 

13.  Inu-gaya-no-abura  is  obtained  from  the  nuts  of  the  Inu-kaya, 
i.e.,  Dog-Kaya  or  bad  Kaya  ( Cephalotaxus  drupeacea , S.  and  Z.).  It 
is  a resiny  oil  of  small  value,  used  only  in  lamps.  The  fruit  hangs 
plentifully  on  its  bushes,  which  are  distributed  through  the  upland 
woods.  It  is  of  the  thickness  of  a small  cherry,  and  rather  long, 
and  brown.  The  flesh  surrounding  its  nuts  has  a sweetish,  resinous 
flavour,  and  is  not  good  eating. 

14.  Buna-no-abura,  oil  extracted  from  the  beech-nut,  beech 
being  Buna  ( Fagns  Sieboldi,  Endl.,  and  F.  sylvatica , L.).  It  is  used 
as  with  us,  though  not  frequently. 


Average  Composition  of  various  Japanese  Oil-seeds , 
according  to  E.  Wolff  and  others. 


Water 

per  cent. 

Ashes 

per  cent. 

Raw-pro- 

teine 

per  cent. 

Raw  fibre 

per  cent. 

Non-nitro- 
genous  ex- 
tractive 
matter 

per  cent. 

Raw  fat 

per  cent. 

Rape-seed  .... 

ir8 

3 '9 

19'4 

10-3 

I2’I 

42-5 

Ground-nut  . . . 

6-3 

3 ’2 

28-2 

i3'9 

7'2 

412 

Cotton-seed  . . . 

77 

7-8 

22-8 

1 6’o 

154 

303 

Sesame  (brown)  . . 

5 '9 

7-52 

21.42 

9'53 

55 '63 

Sesame  (white)  . . 

7’o6 

6-85 

22-30 

I4‘95 

50-84 

Hemp-seed  . . . 

I2'2 

45 

16-3 

I2-I  | 

21-3 

33'6 

Shelled  beech-nuts  . 

IQ'S 

4*12 

24-0 

4o-oo 

21-26 

Soy-beans  .... 

IO'O 

5° 

33 '4 

4-8  | 

29-2 

17-6 

Taken  from  Ollich’s  “ Die  Riickstande  der  Oelfabrikation,”  Leipzig,  1884. 


58 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


15.  The  solid  Japanese  plant-fats,  especially  the  most  important 
ones,  which  are  obtained  from  the  fruit  of  several  sorts  of  sumach, 
bear  the  name  Ro.  In  foreign  trade  it  is  called  Japanese  wax  ( Cera 
Japonica),  vegetable  wax,  and  Japanese  plant-wax  ; but  its  resem- 
blance to  beeswax  (Jap.  Mitsu-ro)  is  merely  external,  and  not  of 
chemical  foundation.  It  is  similar  to  beeswax  in  appearance,  con- 
sistency and  the  uses  to  which  it  is  applied,  but  in  its  composition, 
like  all  other  fats,  it  is  a mixture  of  several  fatty-acid  glycerides.1 

Among  the  six  species  of  the  genus  sumach  (fam.  Anacardiacece) 
known  in  Japan,  there  are  two  of  foreign  importation,  which  are 
cultivated  in  different  parts  of  the  country  and  have  acquired  great 
importance,  viz.,  Rhus  vernicifera,  D.  C.,  and  Rk.  succedanea , L. 
The  latter  species  probably  originated  in  the  Riu-kiu  Islands,  but 
it  cannot  be  proved  to  a certainty  that  either  is  indigenous.  The 
latter  kind  requires  a milder  climate  than  the  former,  and  hence 
flourishes  only  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  country,  350  N.  lat.,  and 
1 350  E.  long,  being,  roughly,  the  northern  and  eastern  limits  of  its 
cultivation.  The  object  of  cultivating  it  is  to  obtain  plant-tallow 
from  its  fruit.  Rhus  vernicifera  is  grown  for  similar  purposes  in 
the  colder  parts  of  the  island  of  Honshiu  almost  to  the'Tsugaru- 
strait,  but  more  on  account  of  the  lacquer  obtained  from  its  sap.2 

The  fruits  of  the  wild  species  of  Japanese  sumach,  viz.,  Yama- 
urushi  (Rh.  sylvestris,  S.  and  Z.),  Nurude  or  Fushi-no-ki  (Rh.  semi- 
alata,  Murr.),  Tsuta-urushi  (Th.  Toxicodendron , L.),  and  Rh.  tricho- 
carpa,  Miq.,  also  contain  solid  fat,  but  in  a less  degree;  but,  with  the 
exception  of  the  first  named,  are  never  employed. 

Rhus  vernicifera , D.  C.  (R.  vernix,  Thunb.),  the  lacquer-tree,  Jap. 
Urushi-no-ki,  attains  a height  of  8-10  m.,  and  with  an  age  of  forty 
and  more  years,  frequently  a girth  of  1 m.  During  the  first  six 
years  its  growth  is  pretty  quick,  in  favourable  soil  amounting  to 
50-80  cm.  annually ; then,  however,  it  diminishes  to  an  average  of 
25-50  cm.  a year.  The  greenish  yellow  wood  at  its  heart,  which 
looks  like  Morus,  Maclura,  and  other  related  genera,  has  therefore 
a relatively  great  weight.  The  younger,  lighter  wood  is  white,  the 
bark  is  of  a light  grey,  cracking  with  increasing  age. 

Lacquer-trees  grow  up  straight  and  have  fairly  symmetrical 
crowns.  But  when  old  their  branches  are  too  few  and  their  foliage 
too  light  and  thin  for  beauty.  On  the  other  hand,  young  specimens, 
under  fifteen  years  old,  can  be  grown  to  advantage  as  foliage-trees 

1 An  excellent  treatise  on  this  subject  was  published  by  A.  Meyer  of  the 
Pharmaceutical  Institute  of  the  University  of  Strassburg,  in  Reichardt’s  “ Archiv 
der  Pharmacie,”  Bd.  XII.,  Heft  2,  1879,  under  the  title  “ Ueber  den  Japantalg.” 
I made  several  contributions  to  this  myself,  e.g.,  the  drawing  of  the  press,  as 
the  author  conscientiously  acknowledges.  From  the  same  institution,  under  the 
further  encouragement  of  its  deserving  head,  Prof.  Fliickiger,  there  has  appeared 
a smaller  essay  by  Dr.  Buri,  as  more  or  less  a supplement  to  that  treatise,  and 
with  the  same  title,  in  the  same  journal,  Band  XII.,  Heft  5. 

2 Details  as  to  the  manufacture  of  this  peculiar,  costly  material,  will  be  found 
in  the  section  devoted  to  the  lacquer  industry. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


59 


in  landscape  gardening,  for  the  sake  of  their  fine  large  pinnate 
leaves,  which  in  good  soil  often  grow  to  be  more  than  a meter  long, 
and  far  exceed  all  other  species  of  Rhus  in  size  and  beauty.  These 
leaves  are  unequally  pinnate,  and  have  long  stems.  Before  falling 
off  in  October  they  become  yellow  or  brownish  red.  Fresh  leaves 
appear  in  May.  There  are  from  nine  to  fifteen  leaflets,  large, 
oval,  pointed  and  unindented,  and  have  fine  short  hairs  on  the 
under  side. 

In  June  appear  loose,  greenish  yellow  branches  of  blossoms, 
growing  from  numerous  axils  near  the  end  of  the  thick  twigs. 
The  fruit  is  ripe  in  the  second  half  of  October — dry,  yellowish 
green  stone-fruit,  which  remain  hanging  all  winter,  though  usually 
gathered  in  November. 

In  the  case  of  the  lacquer-tree,  the  two  sexes  are  separate. 
Therefore  when  the  chief  object  of  its  cultivation  is  the  manufacture 
of  fat  from  its  seeds,  male  trees  should  be  avoided,  reproduction 
being  obtained,  not  by  seed,  but  by  root-sprouts  from  female 
specimens.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  object  is  to  get  lacquer, 
propagation  is  brought  about  with  seeds,  because  they  furnish 
hardier,  better-rooted  trees. 

Lacquer-trees  bear  fruit  from  the  eighth  year  onwards.  When 
eighteen  or  twenty  years  old,  they  are  at  their  best  for  yielding 
lacquer,  furnishing  at  that  age  the  greatest  quantity ; and  then 
they  are  sacrificed  and  replaced  by  others.  On  the  other  hand, 
lacquer-trees  that  are  looked  to  only  or  chiefly  for  seeds  and 
wax,  as  in  Aidzu  and  South-eastern  Echigo,  reach  a great  age, 
increasing  in  productiveness  up  to  their  thirtieth,  or  even  fortieth 
year. 

The  lacquer-tree  flourishes,  it  is  true,  all  over  Japan,  from  the 
Riukiu  Islands  to  Yezo.  But  in  southern  sections  of  the  country 
it  is  only  occasionally  found  cultivated,  and  nowhere  extensively, 
despite  the  fact  that  its  near  relative,  the  tallow-tree,  occurs  there. 
The  principal  region  of  its  cultivation  is,  however,  Northern  Hondo, 
between  latitudes  370  and  390.  Large  plantations  are  especially 
met  with  in  the  valley  of  the  Tadami-gawa  with  the  central 
Hibara  in  Western  Aidzu,  and  also  at  Yonegawa  and  Mogami  in 
Uzen,  as  well  as  in  Northern  Echigo.  Many  a village  here  lies,  as 
it  were,  in  a grove  of  lacquer-trees.  Along  the  borders  of  valley- 
bottoms  and  in  mountain-hollows,  where  rice  and  sometimes  even 
other  crops  cannot  be  raised,  lacquer-plantations  are  very  often 
seen  ; less  frequently,  trees  planted  in  rows  and  at  regular  intervals 
in  cultivated  fields,  are  found,  like  fruit-trees  with  us.  But  in  no 
case  are  they  manured  like  ordinary  plants,  for  it  is  understood 
that  their  roots  draw  enough  nourishment  from  the  fields  of  them- 
selves. As  a rule,  old  and  young  trees  grow  promiscuously  to- 
gether— at  least  wherever  reproduction  is  obtained  through  root- 
sprouts. 

In  South-western  Aidzu  the  lacquer-tree  is  the  chief  of  all  the 


:6o 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


products  of  the  field,  shading  the  roads  in  some  places,  and  is 
cultivated  with  great  care.  Under  Daimio-rule  there  were  exact 
regulations,  even  as  to  the  minimum  number  of  trees  to  be  planted 
annually  in  each  place.  The  punishment  for  injuring  them  was 
most  severe.  Female  trees  (me-gi)  were  allowed  to  be  tapped 
only  once  in  four  years,  in  autumn,  and  at  a few  points  only.  It 
was  believed  that  they  were  benefited  by  this,  as  by  a sort  of 
blood-letting,  and  accordingly  it  was  called  Yojo-gaki  (Yojo  = 
health-culture,  gaki  = kaki  = scratching).  By  this  means  hardy  fruit 
was  obtained  and  a little  lacquer,  but  that  excellent.  The  pro- 
duction of  wax  was  regarded  as  the  principal  thing.  But  with 
male  trees  (6-gi)  every  one  could  take  what  course  he  chose. 

Aidzu-r6  and  Aidzu-ro-soku,  i.e.,  plant-tallow,  and  candles  made 
therefrom,  came  from  Aidzu,  and  had  always  a great  reputation  in 
Yedo.  They  are  still  much  in  use,  notwithstanding  the  serious  com- 
petition of  petroleum.  Their  manufacture  and  peculiar  properties 
are  the  same  as  those  of  the  fruits  of  species  next  to  be  men- 
tioned, and  will  be  treated  more  particularly  at  the  close.  Yone- 
zawa,  north  of  Aidzu,  yields  in  many  years  more  than  30,000 
kg.  of  R6-soku  from  the  R6  of  the  tallow-tree. 

For  many  years  an  Indian  shrub-like  species  of  sumach  has  been 
cultivated  in  various  botanical  gardens  under  the  wrong  name  of 
Rhus  vernicifera.  It,  however,  bears  only  a slight  resemblance  to 
our  plant.1  The  real  plant  was  actually  unknown  until  I intro- 
duced it  in  1875  and  1876.  Lacquer-trees  grown  from  seeds  have 
developed  especially  well  in  the  botanical  gardens  at  Frankfort  on 
the  Main  and  Strasburg,  so  much  so,  indeed,  that  in  one  or  two 
years  it  will  be  possible  in  the  former  to  proceed  to  attempts  at 
lacquer-making. 

They  stood  splendidly  the  hard  winter  of  1879-80,  when  the 
thermometer  stood  at  — 2 7°C,  thereby  proving  themselves  quite 
proof  against  the  winter  climate  of  Germany.  This  fact  is  the 
more  surprising  when  one  considers  that  lacquer-trees  in  the  snowy 
winters  of  Northern  Honshiu  are  exposed  to  a temperature  of 
— I2°C.  at  the  lowest.  It  proves  that  the  possibility  of  acclimatizing 
a plant  cannot  be  decided  upon  d priori , according  to  the  actual 
conditions  of  its  life  as  already  known,  but  a certain  capacity 
of  accommodation  must  be  taken  into  account,  which  varies 
greatly,  and  can  be  definitely  determined  only  by  experiments. 

Rhus  succedanea , L.,  Jap.  Haze-no-ki  or  R6-no-ki,  i.e.,  wax-tree  or 
tallow-tree.  The  range  of  its  cultivation,  as  has  been  said  already, 
is  in  the  south.  The  plantations  of  it  I found  farthest  north  in 
Kii,  on  the  Linschoten  Strait,  where  it  develops  more  slowly  and 
its  fruit  does  not  reach  the  normal  size.  The  fruit  falls  still  farther 
short  of  this  in  the  botanical  garden  at  Tokio,  so  that  there  is  no 
possibility  of  the  plant  succeeding  in  Germany. 

1 Ailanthus  gla?uiulosa,  Desf.,  occurs  frequently  in  France  under  the  wrong 
name,  “ Vernis  de  Japon.” 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


161 


In  lyo  and  other  parts  of  Shikoku,  and  also  here  and  there  in 
the  district  of  San-y6-d6,  on  the  Inland  Sea,  but  above  all  in 
Kiushiu,  the  tallow-tree  is  largely  cultivated.  It  often  forms  an 
important  factor  in  the  landscape  here,  covering  the  hillsides,  the 
borders  of  fields  and  roads,  and  the  dykes  of  rivers  and  canals. 
It  has  the  habit  of  apple  trees,  though  by  no  means  reaching  an 
equal  strength.  As  it  branches  out  earlier  than  the  lacquer- 
tree,  it  spreads  forth  a wider  crown  and  does  not  grow  so  high, 
being,  as  a rule,  only  4 to  6m.  high.  Its  primate-leaves  are  much 
smaller,  but  its  fruit  is  larger,  heavier,  and  richer  in  fat  than  that 
of  the  lacquer-tree.  It  bears  a closer  resemblance  to  the  fruit  of 
Rhus  sylvestris. 

Production  of  Sumach-tallow , and  its  Properties. 

The  dry  stone-fruit  of  both  the  above-mentioned  species  of 
sumach  is  more  or  less  kidney-shaped  and,  when  ripe,  of  a bright 
yellowish  green  colour.  In  size  they  resemble  small  dwarf  beans, 
as  the  Adzuki  ( Phaseolus  radiatus ).  Its  semi-transparent  epi- 
dermis loosens  and  falls  off  easily,  as  is  the  case  with  all  Japanese 
sumachs,  especially  Rhus  vernicifera  and  R.  sylvestris,  so  that  in 
the  case  of  the  latter,  for  example,  the  greyish  white  fat  of  the 
mesocarp  is  visible  soon  after  maturity  all  over  the  fruit-clusters. 
The  fat  belongs  entirely  to  this  middle  layer,  where  it  fills  out  the 
cells  lying  here  loosely  side  by  side.  Between  them  are  hard 
fibres  (intercellular  milk-juice  passages),  which  intersect  the  meso- 
carp as  in  the  nuts  of  oil  and  coco-palms. 

In  the  case  of  Rhus  vernicifera  this  middle  layer  lies  loose 
above  the  stone  or  kernel,  from  which  it  is  easy  to  separate  it. 
But  in  the  case  of  the  real  tallow-tree  it  adheres  tight  in  spots. 
This  may  be  the  reason  why  these  kernels  are  first  separated 
in  making  R6  from  the  fruit  of  the  lacquer-tree,  while  with  the 
other  sort  they  are  left  united  with  the  crushed  hull.  In  the 
former  case  separation  is  effected  by  stamping  in  round  rice-troughs 
(Usu),  after  the  stems  have  been  removed.  Then  the  mass  is 
made  to  fall  gradually  on  mats  of  rush,  by  means  of  a draught  of 
air  blown  through  an  elevated  sifter.  The  heavy  kernels  fall  down 
first  and  are  thrown  aside  as  worthless.  The  meal  from  the 
epidermis  and  mesocarp  is  gathered  up  and  heated  with  steam  in 
hempen  sacks,  and  then  quickly  subjected  to  pressure  in  the  wedge- 
press.  This  process  is  repeated  with  the  refuse. 

This  is  substantially  the  method  which  I saw  pursued  at  Mura- 
kami in  Northern  Echigo  for  obtaining  tallow  from  the  fruit  of  the 
lacquer-tree.  I found  it  precisely  analogous  in  lyo,  on  Shikoku, 
where  it  was  applied  to  the  somewhat  larger  fruit  of  Rhus  succe- 
danea.  The  wedge-presses  employed  here  were  of  the  same  con- 
struction, but  more  carefully  worked.  In  driving  in  the  wedge, 
the  wooden  rams  were  not  swung  free  in  men’s  hands,  but  were 

II.  M 


:62 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


hung  on  ropes,  and  thus  swung  horizontally,  a saving  of  the  force 
which  would  have  been  otherwise  expended  in  merely  holding 
them.  An  iron  kettle  was  employed  here,  as  elsewhere,  to  warm 
the  mass,  which  still  included  many  kernel-stones.  It  was  half- 
filled  with  boiling  water ; in  its  upper  part  rested  a bamboo 
basket,  lined  with  cloth,  in  which  the  fatty  meal  was  steamed. 

A wax-press  shown  me  in  Nagasaki  had  an  entirely  different 
shape  and  arrangement.  It  was  the  trunk  of  a tree,  Keaki  {Planer a 
Keaki ),  hollowed  out  in  the  form  of  a flask,  and  bound  with  iron 
rings  at  both  ends.  The  stuff  was  heated  in  hempen  bags,  then 
packed  between  stout  round  wicker  mats,  and  pushed  into  the  neck 
of  the  flask,  which  was  turned  upside  down.  To  fill  the  remaining 
hollow  space,  thick,  circular  pieces  of  board  were  driven  in  from 
above  by  means  of  wedges.  The  vessel  for  receiving  the  fat, 
which  flowed  down  through  a tube,  stood  on  a chafing-dish. 

However  the  process  of  obtaining  vegetable  tallow  may  differ 
as  to  particulars  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  it  is  in  general 
still  the  same,  and  is  insufficient  to  extract  all  the  fat  from  the 
vegetable  mass.  This  might  be  better  done  by  adding  some 
Perilla-oil,  as  has  been  mentioned  by  some,  though  I never  ob- 
served it  myself. 

I made  a comparative  estimate  of  the  weight  of  the  several 
parts  of  the  sumach  fruits  used  for  making  tallow  in  Japan,  and  of 
the  amount  of  fat  extracted  by  means  of  ether.  The  results  given 
by  A.  Meyer  do  not  agree  with  mine,  so  I give  them  both.  Meyer 
took,  as  he  says,  ten  pieces  of  the  fruit  of  Rhus  succedanea , (from 
whence  is  not  stated),  and  found  that  they  weighed  I *5 1 gr.  and 
consisted  of  464. 5 per  cent,  mesocarp.  42 '36  per  cent,  epidermis 
and  putamen  (shell  of  the  kernel),  and  8‘85  per  cent,  embryo,  with 
a loss  of  2'35  per  cent.,  accounted  for  by  dust.  Grating  the 
mesocarp,  he  extracted  from  it  with  ether  20  9 per  cent,  of  the 
entire  fruit,  in  tallow.  The  cotyledons  yielded  him  in  oil  2’6$  per 
cent,  of  the  entire  weight,  and  36  per  cent,  of  their  own  weight. 
In  my  experiments  I took  considerable  quantities  of  fresh,  air- 
dried  fruit  of  the  lacquer-tree,  from  Murakami  ; of  the  tallow- 
tree,  from  Nagasaki,  with  a result  as  shown  in  the  following 
table  : 


R.  vernicifera. 

R.  succedanea. 

100  pieces  of  normally  formed  fruit  weighed  . 

875  grm. 

1 2 ‘So  grm. 

Of  which  the  epidermis  gave 

57  per  cent. 

47  per  cent. 

„ the  mesocarp 

39'3  „ 

42'4  „ 

„ epidermis  and  mesocarp 

45 -o  „ 

74’ 1 ,, 

,,  endocarp  (putamen  and  embryo) . . 

55'°  » 

52-9 

The  fat  extracted  with  ether  weighed.  . . . 

24-2  „ 

27-0  „ 

Leaving  for  the  stone-shells  (putamen)  . . . 

20'8  „ 

20'!  „ 

AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


’63 


The  vegetable  tallow  that  flows  from  the  press  into  the  recep- 
tacle soon  congeals  there  into  a solid  mass.  To  rid  this  of  im- 
purities it  is  melted  in  iron  kettles,  and  the  clear  wax  skimmed  off 
into  small  earthen  saucers,  from  which  it  can  easily  be  lifted  out 
when  cool.1 2  It  is  always  in  this  shape  that  it  appears  in  com- 
merce. It  is  used  in  many  ways,  but  especially  and  extensively 
for  making  candles  or  Ro-soku.  The  Ro  of  Rhus  succedanea , 
from  the  southern  ports,  is  almost  all  that  is  exported — partly  in 
its  ordinary  condition,  partly  bleached. 

The  bleaching  process,  which  I saw  in  operation  in  Uchinoko, 
in  Southern  Iyo,  was  as  follows  : The  raw  wax  was  melted,  and 
allowed  to  drop  through  woollen  bags  into  cold  water,  so  as  to 
sub-divide  it.  Then  it  was  exposed  to  the  sun  in  little  boxes, 
2\  feet  long  by  1 foot  wide,  on  frames.  The  pieces  of  tallow  need 
to  be  sprinkled  with  water  and  turned  frequently,  as  in  bleach, 
ing  linen  on  a lawn.  In  one  of  the  bleacheries  I saw  altogether 
14  rows  of  these  flat  bleaching  boxes,  on  trestles  3 feet  above 
the  ground,  and  in  every  row  82  pieces.  In  about  30  days  the 
Ro  is  white,  like  bleached  beeswax,  and  almost  odourless. 
Common  sumach-tallow  bleaches,  however,  even  in  closed  places, 
e.g.,  a bureau  drawer,  turning  white  gradually  on  the  surface. 
But  the  white  rime  with  which  it  becomes  covered  is  not  very 
deep. 

There  is  no  difference,  either  external  or  in  composition,  between 
the  fat  of  the  lacquer-tree  and  that  of  the  tallow-tree.  Both  pre- 
sent solid,  brittle  masses  when  cold,  with  a muscular  fibre  or  grain  ; 
both  give  off  a peculiar  odour  (like  wax  and  grain-soap  mixed) ; 
both  are  of  a clear  yellow-green  colour  when  unbleached.  They 
are  harder  than  wax,  but  much  softer  than  Carnauba-wax.  The 
specific  gravity  is  0'9i6;  that  of  bleached  tallow  ranging  from 
0'97  to  ri4.3  Melting-point  is  52°C.,  but  if  the  stuff  is  melted 
again  when  scarcely  yet  set,  it  is  42°C.  In  700  parts  of  alcohol  of 
97  per  cent,  and  at  30°C.  it  becomes  entirely  dissolved. 

Chemical  investigations  have  shown  that  this  sumach  tallow 
consists  of  a mixture  of  several  glycerides,  that  of  palmitic  acid 
predominating.  The  Japanese  use  it  not  only  for  candles,  but  in 
many  other  ways  besides,  instead  of  beeswax — for  instance,  to 
produce  polish  in  cabinet-work.  With  us  it  is  added  to  beeswax, 
so  as  to  impart  more  solidity  to  the  candles,  and  cause  them  to 
come  more  easily  from  the  mould.  It  is  used  instead  of  beeswax 
for  a similar  purpose  in  some  rubber  factories. 

The  exportation  of  vegetable  tallow  from  Japan  began  when  the 
country  was  opened.  Its  value  has  been  subject  to  many  fluctu- 

1 These  cakes  of  tallow  look  like  lumps  of  North  American  maple  sugar. 
They  are  of  different  sizes  (8  to  16  cm.  in  diameter,  3 to  6 cm.  thick)  and  weigh 
from  J kg.  to  1 kg. 

2 Among  several  pieces  in  my  possession  there  is  one  of  075  kg.  from  Aidzu, 

which  sinks  immediately  in  spring-water,  at  is°C. 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


164 


ations  since  then,  from  106,000  yen  in  the  year  1878  to  377,000  in 
1873.  England  and  the  United  States  are  the  chief  purchasers. 

The  amount  exported  and  its  value  depend  in  this  case,  too, 
upon  the  demand.  If  the  demand  were  to  increase,  Japan  would 
soon  be  in  a condition  to  meet  it,  by  limiting  the  use  of  candles 
on  the  one  hand,  and  also  by  gathering  and  utilizing  the  very 
considerable  quantity  of  lacquer-tree  fruit  which  now  often  goes 
to  waste.  Besides,  the  country  still  has  at  its  disposal  great  areas 
in  which  the  cultivation  of  both  species  of  sumach  might  be  ex- 
tended, in  case  it  should  be  advantageous. 

16.  Ibota-ro,  Ibota-wax,  from  Ligustrum  Ibota , Sieb.  ( L . vulgare, 
Thunb.)  This  is  very  solid,  of  a beautiful  white  colour,  fibrous, 
and  with  a silky  sheen,  like  the  fibres  of  asbestos.  It  resembles 
Chinese  Pelah-wax,  which  is  produced  by  the  Coccus  Pelah  (a  kind 
of  cochineal)  on  the  young  shoots  of  Fraxinus  chinensis,  Roxb.,  as 
is  well  known.  Ibota-wax  is  said  to  result  from  the  secretions  of 
a similar  insect.  I do  not  know  how  it  is  produced  or  used,  nor 
have  I observed  that  cochineal  insect  on  the  Ibota-privet,  which 
is  very  widely  distributed.1 


5 upplementa  ry. 

Thunberg,  in  his  “Flora  Japonica,”  p.  180,  remarks,  under  Melia 
Azedarach,  that  a fatty  oil  of  the  consistency  of  wax  is  made 
from  the  fruit,  which  is  ripe  in  December,  and  that  this  is  used  for 
making  candles.  This  note  has  found  its  way  into  several  later 
works. 

In  reference  to  this,  however,  I agree  with  Siebold’s  remark : 
“ E fructibus  exprimitur  oleum  (Thunb.),  id  quod  ignoro,”  and  am 
ready  to  believe  that  this  is  a case  of  confusion  with  Rhus  succedanea 
or  R.  vernicifera , to  whose  fruit  that  of  Melia  Azedarach  bears 
some  resemblance,  though  it  is  much  larger. 

Siebold  says  oil  is  obtained  also  from  the  fruit  of  Litscea  glauca, 
L.,  and  L.  Thunbergii , Sieb.  ( Tomex  japonica , Thunb.),  but  I could 
learn  nothing  further  as  to  that. 

Kujira-abura,  whale  or  train-oil,  and  Giotd,  or  fish-oil,  are  ob- 
tained from  the  animal  kingdom.  The  large  number  of  herring- 
species  ( Clupeacei ) caught,  especially  on  the  coasts  of  Hondo  and 
Yezo,  are  utilized  for  the  most  part  in  the  manufacture  of  fish-oil 

1 I take  opportunity,  though  late,  to  thank  Prof.  Fesca  of  Tokio  for  the  follow- 
ing observations  on  this  subject,  collected  by  his  Japanese  assistant : 

“ Ibota-wax  is  obtained  principally  in  the  provinces  of  Chikuzen,  Chikugo,  and 
Buzen,  on  the  island  of  Kiushiu,  and  is  brought  to  market  via  Osaka.  The 
total  amount  from  these  three  provinces  is  only  2,000  kin  (1,202  kg.)  a year. 
The  price  ranges  from  50  to  70  yen  for  100  kin.  The  Japanese  use  this  fat  as 
varnish  (?)  for  their  furniture.”  A small  specimen  of  the  raw  material,  sent  me 
by  Prof.  Fesca,  consists  of  light,  loose  lumps  of  a grey-white  colour,  which 
feel  like  flour. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


165 


and  fish-guano.  To  these  belong  especially  the  Iwashi,  or  Japan- 
ese sardines  ( Clupea  melanosticta  and  Cl.  gracilis ),  and  the  Nishin 
Cl.  harengus).  Of  the  former  sorts  one  can  buy  24  to  40  for  three 
half-pence,  at  Choshi,  for  example,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tone-gawa 
(see  Rein’s  “Japan,”  vol.  i.  p.  189).  The  fish,  as  soon  as  caught, 
are  put  into  large  iron  kettles  filled  with  water,  and  made  to  boil. 
The  fat  floats  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  is  skimmed  off. 
Then  the  residue  is  spread  out  on  mats  in  the  sun  to  dry.  It 
creates  an  abominable  smell  in  the  neighbourhood  of  fishing- 
villages,  but  furnishes  later  a valuable  fertilizer,  which  is  carried 
away  by  merchants  from  the  larger  towns,  and  retailed  to  gardeners 
and  farmers  in  the  tea-districts. 


(d)  Textile  Plants. 

We  include  under  this  head  all  the  plants  of  Japan  which  contri- 
bute in  any  sense  to  textile  industries,  hence  not  only  textile 
plants  proper,  but  also  those  which  are  used  in  different  kinds  of 
wicker-work,  as  rushes  and  willows,  or  in  the  manufacture  of  ropes 
and  paper,  as  many  species  of  bast. 

1.  Cannabis  saliva,  L.,  Jap.  Asa.  This  figures  as  the  oldest 
textile  plant  of  the  Mongolian-Tartar  races,  as  far  back  as  the 
history  of  hemp  can  be  followed.1  It  has  been  spread  with  them 
far  from  their  old  home  in  Central  Asia,  eastward  across  China, 
Corea,  and  Japan,  and  westward,  chiefly  by  the  Scythians,  across 
anterior  Asia  and  Sclavic  countries.  By  the  Sclavs  it  was  made 
known  to  the  Germanic  peoples,  and  by  them  to  the  Romans,  in 
so  far  as  these  had  not  already  made  its  acquaintance  by  way  of 
Asia  Minor  directly.  Hemp-smoking,  or  Hashish,  was  known  even 
then  to  the  Scythians,  as  we  learn  from  Herodotus,  and  is  still  wide- 
spread in  the  Mohammedan  countries  of  Asia  and  Africa  ; but  was 
never  taken  up  by  the  Buddhistic  East  Asiatics. 

Hemp  was  grown  in  Japan  several  thousand  years  ago,  like  flax 
in  ancient  Egypt.  Before  silk  and  wool  were  introduced,  it  was  the 
most  important  for  all  classes,  and  for  most  the  exclusive  clothing 
material.  An  old  legend  ascribes  its  introduction  to  the  sublime 
creative  divinity  Taka-mi-musubi,  who  commanded  two  subject 
gods  to  plant  Kodzu  ( Broussonetia ) and  Asa  {Cannabis),  in  order 
to  obtain  and  utilize  the  bark  of  the  one  and  the  bast  of  the 
other.2  To  this  day  coarse  hemp-yarn  is  the  material  of  which 
a considerable  part  of  the  country  population  make  their  trousers 
and  blouses ; and  fish-nets  and  mosquito-nets  are  made  of  it. 
But  fine  white  textures,  not  much  inferior  to  good  European 

1 See  on  this  subject,  among  others,  Hunfalvy:  “Die  Ungarn  oder  Mag- 
yaren.”  Vienna,  1881. 

2 See  Satow  : “The  Shinto  Temples  of  Ise.”  “Transactions  As.  Soc.  of 
Japan,”  voL  ii.  p.  129. 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


1 66 


linen,  are  also  extensively  made  from  hemp,  and  are  called  Nuno 
or  J6fu. 

Hemp  is  cultivated  all  over  Japan,  being  most  frequently  found, 
however,  in  the  mountain  valleys  and  the  northern  plains,  where 
the  cotton-plant  does  not  thrive.  Like  flax  in  many  parts  of  Ger- 
many, hemp  is  here  raised  on  small  patches  of  ground,  and  mostly 
for  home  use.  Climate  and  soil  are  everywhere  favourable.  It 
flourishes  well  even  on  Yezo,  as  we  learn  from  Gartner’s  reliable 
accounts,  and  is  without  doubt  one  of  the  plants  most  to  be  re- 
commended to  Japanese  agriculture  in  its  further  extension  and 
development. 

When  harvested,  the  hemp-stalks  are  separated  from  their  leaves 
and  roots,  and  then  soaked  in  water  4 to  6 days.  The  loosened  bast 
is  then  stripped  off  by  hand  and  dried,  as  are  also  the  stalks,  which 
look  like  bare  willow  rods.  They  are  used  for  thatching  roofs, 
composing  the  first  layer  above  the  rafters,  and  are  covered  in  turn 
by  a layer  of  straw.  The  Japanese  hemp-bast  is  1 to  1 J m.  long,  and 
of  excellent  quality,  being  soft  and  firm,  and  having  a silky  sheen. 
It  might  become  a prominent  article  of  export  if  its  cultivation  were 
more  extensive. 

2.  Gossypium  herbaceum , L.  This,  the  most  important  of  all 
cotton-plants,  and  the  only  kind  they  cultivate,  is  called  by  the 
Japanese  Wata-no-ki  or  Ki-wata,  and  its  product  they  call  Wata. 
This  word  recalls  the  German  Watte,  the  French  ouate,  and  similar 
Romanic  terms,  as  well  as  badarti,  the  Sanskrit  name  for  cotton. 
Its  derivation  from  the  latter  seems  more  natural  than  that  given 
by  Diez,  of  ovum,  especially  as  the  plant  has  been  longest  culti- 
vated in  India. 

According  to  the  oldest  Japanese  authorities,  the  first  attempts 
to  raise  cotton  in  Dai  Nippon  were  made  about  the  year  799,  with 
seeds  brought  by  accident  in  a boat  from  India.  But  at  that  time 
its  cultivation  did  not  secure  a firm  footing,  and  seems  not  to  have 
been  tried  again  till  1570.  And  it  only  gained  a wide  extension 
after  the  establishment  of  the  Tokugaw'a  regime,  in  the  next  cen- 
tury. 

The  production  seems  never  to  have  equalled  the  demand,  and 
China  appears  to  have  furnished  supplies  of  raw  cotton  for  home 
consumption  then  as  in  more  recent  times.  With  the  present  free- 
dom of  commerce,  and  the  low  prices  of  English  and  Indian  cotton 
goods,  circumstances  hardly  favour  a further  extension  of  Japanese 
cotton-growing. 

The  northern  limit  of  its  cultivation  is  somewhere  about  the 
thirty-eighth  parallel.  The  Japanese  probably  became  acquainted 
with  it  through  the  Portuguese,  and  from  them  learned  the  name 
Wata,  for  they  have  no  word  of  their  own  for  cotton,  nor  yet  a 
Chinese  term,  and  the  plant  itself  is  thought  not  to  have  found 
entry  into  Southern  China  till  the  eleventh  century. 

There  are  three  varieties  of  the  cotton-plant  in  Japan,  with 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


167 


yellow,  white,  and  red  blossoms.  The  yellow-blossoming  kind 
much  preponderates.  Early  in  May  the  seeds  are  planted  3 to  4 
cm.  apart,  in  rows  that  are  separated  about  40  cm.  from  each 
other.  The  ground  is  prepared  beforehand,  and  afterwards  the 
seeds  are  covered  with  rice-straw  ashes.  As  a rule,  however, 
cotton  is  planted  alongside  of  and  after  a winter  crop,  especially 
of  barley  and  wheat,  a row  of  cotton-seed  being  put  into  the  ground 
— which  has  been  loosened  a little  for  it — close  beside  each  row 
of  ripening  stalks.  Having  been  previously  softened  in  water  a 
whole  day,  they  soon  sprout.  As  soon  as  the  first  true  leaves 
appear,  some  strong  manure,  such  as  oil-cakes  or  fish-guano,  is 
added — the  latter,  however,  only  in  a circular  furrow  running 
around  the  sprout  at  a distance  of  6 to  9 cm.,  lest  the  sharpness  of 
the  fertilizer  destroy  the  plant.  But  usually  a kind  of  compost  is 
used,  which  has  been  prepared  long  beforehand,  consisting  of  a 
mixture  of  mud,  straw-ashes,  chopped  weeds,  oil-cakes,  and  fish- 
guano,  in  equal  parts.  As  soon  as  the  grain-crop  has  been  har- 
vested, the  ground  is  worked  over  and  loosened  with  great  care, 
and  a fresh  supply  of  manure  put  on,  being  this  time  probably 
made  up  partly  of  cesspool  stuff.  About  June  20  the  superfluous 
plants  are  hoed  out,  and  only  27  or  28  left  standing  to  the  ken 
(r8om.).  Two  weeks  later  there  is  another  clearing  out.  During 
the  hottest  days  (July  20  to  Aug.  7)  buds  come  out  on  the  branching 
stalks.  August  is  the  month  of  blossoms,  and  harvest  is  in  Sep- 
tember. It  is  considered  a good  harvest  if  300  tsubo  (9 '92  are) 
yield  253  kin  of  cotton  (i50’26i  kg.). 

3.  Boehmeria  nivea,  Hooker  and  Arn.  ( Urtica  nivea,  L.),  Jap.  Mao, 
Kusa-mao,  and  Kara-mushi,  Chin.  Tschou-ma.  This  plant  is  dis- 
tinguished from  all  related  species  of  nettle  by  the  fact  that  its 
leaves  are  white  on  their  under  side.  It  grows  wild  in  Cochin 
China,  China,  and  Japan,  but  is  also  cultivated  in  these  countries, 
and  in  the  southern  monsoon  region.  In  its  bast  it  furnishes  the 
celebrated  China-grass  of  the  English,  from  which  the  Chinese 
make  their  fine  nettle-cloth.  A related  species,  with  higher  stalks 
and  leaves  green  on  both  sides,  is  Boehmeria  tenacissima,  Gaud. 
{B.  utilis,  Bl.),  whose  bast  is  called  Ramee  or  Rheea-fibre.  It  be- 
longs to  the  tropical  monsoon  region,  and  does  not  occur  in  Japan. 
However  the  bast  of  China-grass  is  often  called  Ramee,  as  are 
also  the  fibres  of  other  Boehmeria  species  and  of  the  Japanese 
Urtica  T lumber giana,  S.  and  Z.,  or  Shi-kusa. 

Boehmeria  nivea  requires  a moist,  fruitful  soil,  and  strong 
manure.  Our  summer  warmth  is  sufficient  for  it,  as  numerous 
experiments  in  botanical  gardens  have  long  since  proved.1 

1 Its  stalks  grew  to  be  1 *31  m.  high  in  the  botanical  garden  at  Marburg,  in 
1877,  while  stalks  of  B.  utilis,  Bl.  close  beside  them  had  grown  in  the  same  time 
i'9°m.  high  and  proportionately  thicker.  The  former  species  was  introduced 
into  England  as  early  as  1739,  under  the  name  of  Chinese  or  White-leaved 
nettle. 


[68 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


Like  its  relatives,  it  puts  forth  its  stiff  stalks  from  to  2 m. 
high,  every  summer,  from  perennial  roots.  These  are  cut  off  close 
to  the  ground  towards  the  end  of  August  or  in  September,  and 
subjected  to  a short  soaking  in  water  to  get  the  bast.1 

There  are  several  special  obstacles  in  the  way  of  a technical 
utilization  of  Boehmeria  nivea,  as  of  certain  other  nettle  species. 
There  has  not  yet  been  nearly  as  much  success  as  might  be  ex- 
pected from  the  great  efforts  and  encouragements  to  its  use,  not  to 
mention  the  exaggerated  hopes  which  many  set  on  such  utili- 
zation. The  first  thing  necessary  is  to  invent  a machine  for  sepa- 
rating and  preparing  the  bast.  The  Indian  government,  in  1878, 
offered  a grand  prize  of  £5,000  for  this  object,  and  declared  its 
willingness  to  furnish  Boehmaria  stalks  from  the  botanical  garden 
of  Calcutta  for  the  experiments,  which  were  to  be  undertaken  in 
Sahdranpur,  India,  from  the  middle  of  August  to  the  middle  of 
September,  1879.  Yet  it  failed  to  accomplish  its  purpose,  and  the 
matter  fell  through. 

The  epidermis  of  this  plant,  however,  adheres  so  fast  to  the 
bast-tissue  beneath  it,  that  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  thoroughly 
separate  them.  There  are  a large  number  of  other  difficulties 
besides  this,  rendering  it  hard  to  get  the  bast  clear.  Wiesner,  in 
his  book  on  plant-stuffs,  pp.  387-393,  has  dealt  with  these  in  part. 

Marco  Polo  makes  mention  of  this  white-leaved  nettle,  remark- 
ing that  the  province  of  Kweichau  is  especially  distinguished  for 
textures  from  its  bast.  This  so-called  grass-linen  is  fine,  smooth, 
and  shiny,  like  cambric,  besides  being  very  cool,  and  therefore 
peculiarly  adapted  for  summer  wear.  I never  observed  any  culti- 
vation of  the  Mao-plant  in  Japan.  It  is  said  to  be  cultivated, 
particularly  in  Uzen,  Kaga,  Echigo,  and  Idzumo,  as  was  shown  at 
the  National  Exhibition  at  Tokio,  in  1877,  the  official  catalogue  of 
which  recorded  no  less  than  thirteen  exhibitors  of  fibres,  ropes,  and 
textures  from  Yamagata-ken  (Uzen),  and  seventeen  from  Chimane- 
ken  (Idzumo).  This  industry  is,  however,  by  no  means  in  an  ad- 
vanced and  influential  stage.  The  bast  ordinarily  used  is  perhaps 
tough  and  durable  enough,  but  it  lacks  fineness.  The  so-called 
“cottonized  China-grass,”  on  the  other  hand,  consists  of  white 
fibres,  which  compare  favourably  with  flax  in  fineness  and  strength, 
and  with  silk  in  lustre. 

4.  Musa  basjoo,  Sieb.  {M. paradisiaca,  Thunb.,  M.  textilis,  Nees), 
Jap.  Basho.  The  banana  is  no  longer  found  in  Japan  proper, 
though  it  is  extensively  grown  on  the  Riukiu  Islands,  chiefly  for 
its  bast,  from  which  the  natives  make  a light,  loosely  woven  brown 
cloth,  called  Bashdfu.  Of  this  plant  Doederlein  speaks  as  follows:— 

“ Bananas  (on  Amami-Oshima)  grow  almost  as  high  as  Cycas, 
though  keeping  close  to  the  water-courses,  along  which  they  grow 


1 St.  Julien’s  statement  in  “Industries  de  1’Empire  Chinois,”  etc.,  p.  166, 
Chaque  ann6e  on  peut  faire  trois  rdcoltes,”  is  mistaken. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


169 


densely.  It  is  as  textile-plants  that  they  are  cultivated  (Manila 
hemp).  Their  fibres  furnish  not  only  a superior  material  for  ropes 
and  mats,  but  are  universally  esteemed  for  the  excellent  clothing- 
stuff  that  can  be  manufactured  from  them.  In  summer  such 
garments  are  much  preferred  to  woollen.  It  is  one  of  the  chief 
exports  of  the  Liu-kiu  Islands,  and  large  quantities  are  sent  to 
Satsuma,  whence  it  may  make  its  way  further  through  Japan.”1 
This  last  is  true  only  to  a very  limited  extent.  These  textures 
do  not  leave  Southern  Japan,  being  used  in  scarcely  any  other 
part  of  the  country. 

5.  Corchorus cctpsularis,  L.,  Jap.  Ichibi,  Tsunaso,  and  Kanabi-kiyo. 
This  plant  yields  jute-fibre,  which  has  become  of  such  great  im- 
portance. It  is  found  in  several  parts  of  Japan.  But  I doubt 
whether  the  plant  has  been  cultivated  and  its  bast  made  into  ropes 
and  coarse  textures,  as  has  been  stated  by  one  authority.2  The 
following  four  bast-plants  are  not  cultivated.  As  a source  of 
clothing  material  it  is  likely  that  they  played  a much  more  im- 
portant part  in  old  times  than  at  present. 

6.  Wistaria  chinensis , S.  and  Z.,  Jap.  Fuji  (see  Ornamental 
Plants).  At  the  Exhibition  of  1877  in  T6kio,  there  was  an  exhibit 
of  prepared  bast  of  this  plant,  as  well  as  textures  therefrom,  called 
Fuji-nuno,  or  Wistaria-linen,  from  Iwate-ken,  Fukushima-ken, 
Shimane-ken,  and  Hiroshima-ken,  hence  both  from  the  North  and 
South-west  of  the  island  of  Honshiu. 

7.  Pueraria  Thunbergiana,  Benth.,  Jap.  Kudzu.  Young  shoots 
from  this  abundant  plant  (see  bulbous  plants)  are  boiled  in  an  iron 
kettle  in  pieces  1 m.  long,  and  then  submitted  to  longer  soaking  in 
running  water,  till  their  bast  becomes  loose,  when  it  is  stripped  off 
by  hand.  To  bleach,  soften,  and  divide  its  fibres,  it  is  pounded  and 
treated  with  water,  and  otherwise  manipulated.  When  finished, 
the  fibres  are  tolerably  firm  and  white,  like  hemp-bast.  They  are 
used  for  the  woof  of  several  kinds  of  cloth,  but  only  to  a very 
limited  extent.  The  Aino  women  make  threads  of  them,  with 
which  to  sew  their  clothes. 

8.  Ulmus  montana , Sm.,  is,  according  to  the  testimony  of  Boh- 
mer 3 and  Scheube,4  the  tree  which  the  Ainos  call  At  and  the  J apan- 
ese  Ohio-no-ki.  The  former  manufacture  from  its  bast  that  brownish 
yellow  stuff  of  which  their  clothes,  as  a rule,  are  made.  It  is 
distinguished  more  by  durability  than  fineness,  and  is  much  worn 
also  by  the  Japanese  of  Yezo.  The  bark  of  the  tree  is  peeled  off 
in  spring,  and  left  to  soak  a half  to  one  month  in  water,  till  its 
bast  is  loose  enough  to  come  off  in  long  strips.  The  Aino  women 
twist  these  into  threads,  and  use  them  on  their  looms,  whose  con- 

1 “Die  Liu-kiu  Island  Amami  Oshima.”  Zeitschrift  der  deutschen  Gesell- 
schaft  Ostasiens.  Band  3,  p.  141. 

2 “Le  Japon  h l’Exposition  Universelle  de  1878,”  p.  152.  Paris. 

3 “Reports  to  the  Kaitakushi,”  1875. 

4 “Die  Ainos.”  “ Mitth.  d.  deutsch.  Ges.  Ostasiens.”  Heft  26.  1882. 


70 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


struction  Scheube  has  described  somewhat  more  fully  in  the  above- 
mentioned  work. 

9.  Tilia  cordata , Mill.,  Jap.  Shina-no-ki,  called  Nibeshi  by  the 
Ainos,  who  make  ropes  from  its  bast.  I saw  it  worked  into  mats 
in  Aidzu.  It  is  loosened  from  the  bark  by  long  soaking  in  run- 
ning water,  an,d  made  pliable  by  pounding.  The  bast  of  Tilia 
mandschurica  serves  the  same  purposes. 

10.  To  the  plants  already  mentioned  must  be  added  those  whose 
bast  is  used  chiefly  in  the  manufacture  of  paper,  though  occasionally 
also  for  making  coarse  garments,  a much  more  general  appli- 
cation, however,  in  ancient  times.  The  chief  of  these  are  the 
various  species  of  paper-mulberry  ( Bi'oussonetia  papyrifera , Vent., 
B.  Kasinoki,  Sieb.,  and  B.  Kaempferi,  Sieb.) ; also  the  white  mul- 
berry ( Morns  alba , L.),  the  Edgeworthia  papyrifera,  S.  and  Z.,  and 
the  Wickstrcemia  canescens,  Meisn.,  all  of  which,  except  the  last, 
are  extensively  grown.  Further  details  regarding  the  nature  of 
their  cultivation  and  the  way  their  bast  is  obtained  come  later,  in 
the  chapter  on  the  paper-industry. 

11.  Chamcerops  excelsa,  Thunb.,  Jap.  Shuro,  or  Shuro-no-ki.  This 
beautiful  fan-palm  usually  attains  a height  of  5 to  6 m.  in  Japan 
and  a girth  of  about  0'8o  m.  It  is  not  indigenous,  but  is  culti- 
vated much  as  in  the  warmer  parts  of  China,  that  is,  wherever 
the  evergreen  oaks  and  camphor-laurel  grow.  Solitary  specimens 
are  found  on  the  eastern  side  of  Hondo,  near  Sendai  Bay,  in  lati- 
tude 38!°  N.  On  the  eastern  side  it  does  not  reach  so  far  north, 
and  in  the  interior,  which  lies  higher,  it  does  not  occur  at  all.  Its 
real  home  has  not  yet  been  fully  decided  upon,  but  must  be  some- 
where in  the  tropical  monsoon  region. 

When  the  leaves  of  this  palm  are  over  two  years  old  they  are 
turned  to  account.  The  whole  leaf  is  divided  into  narrow  strips, 
from  which  several  articles  are  plaited,  hats  and  ropes  in  particular. 
But  the  dark  brown  fibres  are  principally  used.  These,  as  in 
the  case  of  Chamcerops  humilis  in  the  Mediterranean-region,  come 
out  like  long  lashes  on  the  edges  of  the  leaf-sheaths,  and  surround 
the  base  of  the  leaves  and  blossom-cups.  These  hairy  fibres  (Jap. 
Shuro-no-ki),  a sort  of  Crin  vegetal , much  longer  and  softer  than 
the  so-called  Coir  of  coco-nuts,  are  manufactured  into  ropes,  mats, 
dust-brooms,  and  brushes,  in  Japan  as  well  as  in  China.  In  Tokio 
there  are,  for  example,  whole  families  that  support  themselves  by 
making  Shuro-saiku,  i.e.  fine,  small  (sai)  work  (ku)  made  of  the 
palm  (Shuro),  which  they  sell  in  small  shops. 

12.  Junciis  effusus , L.,  Jap.  I or  I-gusa.  This  is  a rush  which  is 
widely  distributed  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  and  is  gathered  and 
made  into  mats  in  several  other  countries  as  well,  though  it  has 
nowhere  become  as  important  as  in  Japan.  Many  a custom  and 
household  usage  here  is  intimately  associated  with  the  foot-mats, 
and  other  textures  made  from  it.  To  meet  the  great  demand  for 
this  rush,  it  is  regularly  cultivated  in  some  parts  of  the  country, 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


171 


often  to  a large  extent.  Its  mode  of  cultivation  resembles  that  of 
rice,  and  it  is  raised  in  swampy  fields,  where  rice  is  sometimes 
alternated  with  it.  It  is  propagated  by  means  of  rhizoma-cuttings. 
New  plantations  are  set  out  in  early  spring.  The  plants  are  grown 
in  rows.  Harvest  takes  place  in  August.  By  that  time  the  rushes 
are  about  one  meter  high.  They  are  also  called  Goza-gusa  (mat- 
herb).  They  are  cut  off  close  above  the  ground,  dried,  and  put 
under  cover  till  used,  when  they  are  moistened  and  the  epidermis 
is  rubbed  off  with  ashes. 

On  page  415  of  vol.  i.  of  this  work  mention  is  made  of  the  fact 
that  the  size  of  Japanese  rooms,  and  indeed  the  whole  ground- 
plan  of  the  houses,  is  determined  by  the  Tatami,  or  foot-mats. 
These  are  rectangles  of  invariable  dimensions,  being  6 shaku,  or 
Japanese  feet  long  (at  30^3 3 cm.  per  shaku),  3 shaku  wide,  and 
i Shaku  thick.  Rooms  are  built  and  distinguished  as  containing 
4,  6,  8,  10,  12,  and  more  mats.  These  Tatami  are  made  of  Wara, 
or  rice-straw,  closely  bound  and  braided  together,  constituting 
their  Toko,  or  bed  ; they  are  fastened  at  the  borders  with  strips 
of  cloth,  and  covered  and  held  fast  by  beautifully-woven  rush- 
mats  on  the  upper  side  (Omote).  The  Riu-kiu  Islands,  Bungo  and 
other  provinces  of  Kiushiu,  and  above  all  Bingo,  in  the  Sanyddo, 
and  the  neighbouring  provinces  are  celebrated  for  their  rushes  and 
mats.  Bingo-omote  are  valued  most.  They  are  more  beautiful 
and  dearer  than  those  of  Bungo,  but  not  as  strong.  The  rush 
from  which  they  are  made  is  here  called  Tosd,  but  in  Kiushiu 
it  is  called  Riu-kiu-I.  The  cultivation  and  ultization  of  the  rush, 
meanwhile,  are  also  carried  on  in  more  northern  parts  of  the 
country,  as,  for  example,  in  Kaga,  where  the  town  of  Komatzu 
and  several  neighbouring  villages  are  much  occupied  with  this 
work  ; and  also  in  Aidzu-taira,  and  elsewhere.  Besides  the  above- 
mentioned  Omote,  there  are  made  of  these  rushes  the  simple  Goza, 
(“  august  seat  ”)  a word  used  for  matting  which  serves  either  as  a 
seat,  or  as  a cover  from  rain  and  sunshine  ; and  also  the  Seki,  or 
sitting-mats.  From  these  uses  the  reed  is  sometimes  called  Goza- 
gusa  and  Seki-gusa. 

13.  We  have  already  seen  that  rice-straw  is  much  used  in  many 
kinds  of  coarse  fabrics,  such  as  ropes  and  mats.  The  mats  on  which 
peasants  spread  their  grain  and  other  crops  to  dry,  and  dwellers 
by  the  sea  the  various  products  which  they  get  from  the  ocean, 
are  made  of  this  material,  and  called  Mushiro.  Another  kind  of 
twisted  straw,  called  Komo , is  made  mostly  into  sacks  for  carrying 
rice,  and  other  purposes.  Barley-straw  is  employed  in  art-industry, 
to  make  fine  mosaic-clothing. 

Besides  rushes  and  rice-straw,  many  kinds  of  reeds  are  similarly 
employed,  though  no  doubt  far  less  extensively  than  in  ancient 
times.  Chief  among  these  are  the  following  : — 

14.  Typha  japonica,  Miq.,  Jap.  Gama.  Of  this,  soft  mats  are 
made,  called  Gama-mushiro. 


72 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


15.  Scirpus  maritimus , L.,  Jap.  Suge.  Hats  and  waterproof- 
cloaks  have  been  manufactured  from  this  from  the  remotest  times, 
as  well  as  ropes  for  fastening  • rafters  together  in  hut-building. 
The  former  use  was  known  also  to  Kaempfer,  for  he  writes  in 
“ Amcen.  exot,”  p.  900 : “ Setz,  vulgo  Suge.  Herba  palustris,  foliis 
arundinaceis  brevioribus  tensis,  ex  quibus  ad  albedinem  redactis 
construuntur  elegantissimi  pilei,  quibus  teguntur  deambulantes 
fceminse.” 

16.  The  leaves  of  Zoysia  pungens , Willd.,  Jap.  Shiba  and  Iwa- 
shiba,  used  to  be  employed  in  making  the  Mino,  or  old  grass- 
mantles.  The  long  root-leaves  of  this  grass  were  gathered  in  the 
mountain-forests,  taken  home  and  steeped  in  boiling  wTater,  then 
bleached  and  dried  and  beaten  with  mallets,  and  finally  strung 
close  together  with  threads.  Lying  one  above  another  like  shingles 
on  a roof,  these  strings  of  leaves  remind  one  of  the  way  the  Maoris 
of  New  Zealand  prepared  their  clothes  from  the  much  broader 
leaves  of  the  Phormium  tenax.  These  Mino  were  made  from 
various  kinds  of  reed-grass,  too,  and  from  hemp-bast.  They  are 
still  met  with,  occasionally,  in  mountain  districts.  Waterproof 
cloaks  of  oiled  bast-paper,  and  more  especially,  in  recent  times, 
umbrellas,  have  supplanted  them. 

17.  Imperata  arundinacea,  Cyrill.  ( Saccharum  spicatum,  Thunb.), 
Jap.  Chi-kaya  or  Kaya,  now  utilized  similarly,  serving  also  in  olden 
times  as  a thatch,  a use  still  found  in  mountainous  districts. 

18.  P hr agmites  communis,  Trim.  ( Arundo  phragmites,  L.).  This 
is  a species  of  sedge-grass,  which,  together  with  the  related  species 
P.  Roxburgii,  Kunth.,  the  Japanese  call  Yoshi.  It  grows  in  abun- 
dance on  uncultivated,  swampy  spots,  especially  along  the  canals 
that  irrigate  the  rice-fields.  It  is  used  chiefly  for  thatching,  though 
also  for  making  Yoshi-dzu,  or  sedge-mats.  Like  the  species  next 
enumerated,  it  is  planted  here  and  there,  in  wet  soil,  for  these 
purposes. 

19.  Eulalia  japonica , Trim.  ( Erianthus  japonicus , Beauv.,  Sac- 
charum polydactylon , Thunb.),  Jap.  Susuki.  Many  a lover  of  the 
creations  of  Japanese  art  has  noticed  copies  of  this  beautiful 
grass,  with  its  digitate  panicle.  But  in  recent  times  we  have  often 
seen  living  specimens  of  it,  for  it  has  proved  to  be  less  sensitive 
than  South  American  pampas-grass,  though  producing  a precisely 
similar  effect  when  planted  here  and  there  on  a fine,  closely 
shaven  lawn.  Besides  the  simple  normal  form,  it  appears  also 
with  gaily  coloured  leaves,  sometimes  striped  diagonally  ( Eulalia 
jap.  zebrinci).  In  its  habitat  it  is  widely  distributed.  It  grows 
principally  on  the  Hara,  those  extensive  grassy  mountain-slopes, 
but  in  uncultivated  spots  in  swampy  lowlands  too.  Here,  and  in 
the  fields  regularly  planted  with  it,  pheasants  and  snipe  love  to 
hide  in  the  thicket  made  by  its  dead  blades  and  leaves  in  autumn 
and  winter,  just  as  they  do  in  common  sedge. 

20.  Wicker-work  of  more  solid  wooden  material  is  made  of 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


73 


bamboo-cane  (Take),  willows1  (Yanagi),  and  rattan  (To).  The 
first  two  of  these  are  yielded  by  the  land  itself,  but  rattan,  from 
which  the  finest  wicker-ware  is  made,  and  which  even  plays  its 
part  in  artistic  handiwork,  has  to  be  brought  from  the  south,  the 
tropical  monsoon  region.  Of  course,  like  bamboo-cane,  it  must 
first  be  split  and  cut  into  smooth  strips  of  a greater  or  less  thick- 
ness, before  being  thus  used.  To-mushiro  (rattan-mats)  are  made 
and  used  much  less  in  Japan  than  in  China.  On  the  other  hand, 
To,  Yanagi,  and  Take,  serve  in  the  construction  of  a number  of 
other  wicker  wares, — among  which  we  may  only  note  Kori  or 
basket-boxes,  which  are  useful  in  many  ways.  For  example,  the 
Yanagi-gori  (i.e.,  willow-bandbox)  is  an  excellent  substitute  for  a 
trunk,  especially  in  travelling, — like  our  willow  baskets  with  lids. 
The  sides  of  its  lid  overlap  and  reach  to  the  ground  outside  of  the 
lower  part  of  the  basket,  which  is  smaller.  Great  numbers  of 
smaller  Kori  are  made  of  rattan.  They  possess  the  advantage 
over  our  wooden  trunks  of  being  more  elastic,  adaptable,  and 
durable.  Those  stiff  broad-brimmed  hats,  called  Kasa,  which  pro- 
tect the  head  from  sunshine  and  rain,  but  are  far  from  being  com- 
fortable, are  sometimes  woven  of  peeled  willow-wands  and  some- 
times of  rattan  or  bamboo.  And  finally  there  are  whole  hosts  of 
variously  shaped  baskets  constructed  of  these  two  last-named 
materials.  Baskets  from  the  province  of  Tajima  are  especially 
beautiful.  They  are  sent  to  the  baths  at  Arima,  and  further  still 
to  Kobe,  and  also  exported. 


(e)  Dye-plants  and  Tannic-acids,  and  their  Application. 

Japan  has  not  remained  unaffected  by  the  great  advance  in  the 
chemical  production  of  organic  dyes.  Since  the  introduction  of 
artificial  madder  and  aniline-dyes,  some  of  the  native  dye-plants 
formerly  held  in  great  estimation,  both  cultivated  and  wild,  have 
lost  much  of  their  importance.  But  their  interest  for  science  is 
not  therefore  lost.  We  wish  still  to  know  their  manner  of  growth 
and  how  they  were  utilized.  The  information  that  follows  here, 
though  by  no  means  exhaustive,  is  designed  to  supply  this  want 
and  perhaps  furnish  something  new. 

i.  Polygonum  tinctorium , Lour.,  Jap.  Ai,  the  dyer’s  knotweed. 
This  plant  is  cultivated  in  Eastern  Asia.  It  was  first  described  in 
1790,  by  Loureiro,  in  his  “Flora  Cochinchinensis.”  It  has  since 
early  times  furnished  indigo  to  a vast  region  in  Eastern  Asia, 
comprising  especially  China,  Corea,  and  Japan,  and  belongs  to  the 
genus  Persicaria,  like  our  commonest  kinds  of  knotweed.  From  a 
stout  fibre-root,  it  puts  forth  many  round,  leafy  stalks,  30  to  50  cm. 
high,  at  whose  joints  or  nodes  the  oval,  pointed  leaves,  and  after- 

1 Besides  Salix  japonica , Thunb.,  there  are  several  other  species  included 
under  this  head,  which  have  not  yet  been  thoroughly  investigated. 


74 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


wards,  the  blossom-spikes  are  developed.  Its  blossoms  are  odour- 
less, of  a red  colour,  and  very  similar  to  several  other  kinds  of 
Polygonum  in  their  appearance  and  structure.  They  come  forth 
in  August  and  September,  and  the  harvest  generally  takes  place 
before  they  are  fully  developed.  Chemical  investigation  has  shown 
that  the  Indigochromogen,  Indican,  is  confined  to  the  leaf-paren- 
chym,  in  cells,  and  that  the  stems  and  blossoms  are  devoid  of  it.1 2 
The  method  of  cultivating  and  handling  the  plant  is  in  accord- 
ance with  this  fact. 

The  dyer’s  knotweed  is  by  far  the  most  important  Japanese  dye- 
plant.  It  is  from  it  that  the  indigo  is  obtained  which  is  so  generally 
used  for  colouring  cotton  and  hempen  garments.  It  is  cultivated, 
therefore,  over  a wide  stretch  of  territory,  being  found  in  the  plains 
and  valleys  of  nearly  all  districts  south  of  Yezo.  In  planting  it, 
the  seed  is  seldom  sown  directly  in  the  fields,  but  mostly  in  beds, 
from  which  shoots  are  taken  and  set  out  in  rows.  These  young 
plants  are  12  to  15  cm.  high.  If  the  seed  is  sown  in  early  spring, 
and  strong  fertilizers,  such  as  fish-guano  and  oil-cakes,  are  re- 
peatedly applied,  they  attain  this  height  within  two  months,  and 
are  then  ready  to  be  transplanted.  In  60  to  70  days  more— about 
the  end  of  July  or  the  beginning  of  August— the  chief  harvest 
commences,  to  be  followed  by  a second  crop,  as  in  the  case  of 
clover.  And  an  Ai-plantation,  seen  from  a distance,  looks  like  a 
clover-field  before  its  heads  have  burst.  When  the  stalks  are  about 
30  cm.  high  they  are  cut  off  with  the  sickle,  close  above  the  ground. 
Their  upper  parts,  which  have  the  most  leaves,  are  justly  considered 
of  the  greatest  value ; and  these,  with  the  leaves,  are  cut  off  from 
the  lower  stalks,  which  are  dried  and  then  burned  for  the  sake  of 
a highly-prized  kind  of  ashes  (Ai-no-hai)  thus  obtained.  The 
leaves,  however,  are  spread  in  the  sun  to  dry  before  the  house, 
frequently  on  the  bare  ground,  so  that  the  dust  of  the  streets  is 
not  excluded.  They  become  thus  a dull,  dark  green,  and  in  this 
condition  are  put  away  in  straw-rope  sacks  for  further  treatment. 
This  takes  70  to  80  days,  differing  very  considerably  in  this 
and  other  respects  from  the  short  soaking-processes  by  which 
indigo  is  obtained  elsewhere  from  other  plants.  It  is  a sort  of 
fermentation,  and  has  to  be  conducted  with  great  attention  and 
skill.  The  leaves,  after  being  sprinkled  with  a certain  quantity 
of  water,  and  thoroughly  mixed  with  it,  are  spread  out  and  left 
3 to  5 days,  under  a cover  of  mats.  The  process  is  repeated  19  to 
20  times  altogether,  and  finally  the  leaves  are  put  into  a wooden 
mortar.  Here  in  two  day’s  time  they  are  worked  into  a doughy 
mass  of  a dark  blue  colour.  From  this  balls  are  made,  from  the 

1 S chunk : “On  Indian  Blue  from  Polygonum  tinctorium  and  other  Plants.” 
“Memoirs  of  the  Lit.  and  Phil.  Soc.,  Manchester.”  Vol.  vi.  (3  Series),  pp.  218- 

234- 

See  also  Fliickiger’s  Report  in  the  “ Botanisches  Jahresbericht  of  Just,”  VII. 
2,  p.  343.  1879. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


J75 


size  of  billiard  balls  upwards,  and  in  this  shape  the  article  appears 
in  domestic  trade.  This  is  indigo,  with  many  impurities,  as  it  is 
universally  used  for  blue  dye.  Ruri-kon,  a dark  indigo-brown, 
inclining  to  violet  or  brown,  is  prepared  from  Ai  with  the  addition 
of  lime  and  Aku,  the  ashes  of  indigo- refuse.  Ten  years  ago,  with 
the  aid  of  the  government,  attempts  were  made  by  means  of  sul- 
phuric acid  to  separate  indigo-blue  from  these  Ai-tame  (indigo- 
balls),  and  to  produce  an  exportable  article.  But  they  failed 
because  of  the  expense  of  the  process.  The  most  valuable  Japanese 
indigo  is  yielded  by  the  province  of  Awa,  in  the  island  of  Shikoku, 
on  the  Linschoten  Strait. 

In  the  year  1776  knotweed-indigo  was  introduced  from  China 
into  England,  where  dyers  learned  to  use  it  under  the  name  of 
Persicaria.  But  its  importation  ceased  later  on  when,  owing  to  the 
increasing  cultivation  of  Indigofera  Anil  and  other  species,  a better 
article  was  furnished  at  reasonable  prices  from  Bengal  and  Java. 

In  1826  Saint  Hilaire,  in  France,  directed  attention  to  the 
dyer’s  knotweed.  Ten  years  later  great  numbers  of  these  plants 
were  grown  in  the  botanical  gardens  at  Montpellier  and  Paris, 
from  which  fresh  material  was  obtained  for  the  numerous  experi- 
ments undertaken  between  1838  and  1840.  Botanists,  chemists, 
agriculturists,  and  manufacturers  emulated  one  another  in  study- 
ing its  properties.1  Their  object  was  to  test  the  plant  and  its 
product  for  agriculture  and  dyeing.  They  hoped  to  introduce 
into  the  country  a new  useful  plant,  through  which  its  demand 
for  indigo  might  be  supplied.  This  hope  has  not  been  fulfilled. 
Of  the  prominent  savans  who  took  part  at  that  time  in  this 
indigo  question,  may  be  mentioned  Saint  Hilaire,  Vilmorin,  Delile, 
Chevreul,  Turpin,  Joly,  Baudrimont,  Pelletier,  and  Robiquet. 

From  the  thorough  treatise  of  our  countryman,  Dr.  E.  Schunk 
of  Manchester,  already  cited,  I take  finally  the  following  memo- 
randa on  this  subject : 

Schunk  received  from  Paris  some  seeds  of  Polygonum  tinctorium, 
which  he  sowed  in  a hot-bed,  transplanting  afterwards  into  soil  in 
the  open  air.  Towards  the  end  of  summer  he  got  beautiful  pink 
blossom-spikes,  but  no  ripe  seeds.  When  injured  by  insects  or 
otherwise,  the  pretty,  bright,  oval  leaves  did  show  blue  spots,  it  is 
true,  but  otherwise,  even  under  the  microscope,  only  chlorophyll, 
and  no  other  colour,  was  to  be  seen. 

A handful  of  leaves  being  chopped  up  and  rubbed  fine  in  a 
mortar  with  a little  water,  and  then  pressed  out,  a green,  slimy 
fluid  is  produced,  from  which  a green,  flaky  precipitate  is  separated 
by  a solution  of  acetate  of  lead.  This  precipitate  consists  of  chlo- 
rophyll, albumin,  and  other  substances.  The  fluid  thus  filtered  is 
clear  and  yellow.  On  being  mixed  with  hydrochloric  or  sulphuric 

1 See,  among  others,  Turpm : “ Etudes  microscopiques  sur  le  gisement  de 
la  matiere  bleue  dans  les  feuilles  du  Polygonum  tinctorium,”  etc.  Comptes 
Rendus  VII.,  pp.  806-824  (1838). 


76 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


acid,  it  gives  a rich  deposit  of  almost  pure  indigo-blue.  More 
colouring-matter  is  obtained  by  this  method  than  with  an  equal 
amount  of  woad-leaves,  or  pastil-leaves  (from  Isatis  tinctoria ). 

Indican , Indigo-chromogen,  was  produced  by  Schunk  as  follows: 
The  alcoholic  extract  from  dried  and  pulverized  Polygonum-leaves 
was  allowed  to  evaporate  till  only  a brown  fluid  remained.  This 
he  poured  off  from  its  sediment  and  mixed  with  a solution  of  sugar 
of  lead.  This  gave  him  a muddy  yellow  precipitate  of  chlorophyll, 
and  other  impurities,  and  after  filtration  a clear  yellow  fluid,  to 
which  he  added  basic  acetate  of  lead — lead-vinegar.  The  pale 
yellow  deposit  thus  produced  was  separated  by  filtration  from  the 
fluid,  edulcorated  with  water  and  spirits,  and  dissolved  in  an- 
hydrous alcohol,  and  then  a stream  of  carbonic  acid  directed 
through  it.  The  fluid  after  a short  time  became  yellow,  and 
white-lead  was  separated  from  it.  Then  followed  filtration  and 
the  addition  of  sulphide  of  hydrogen,  to  cause  a further  precipi- 
tation of  lead.  After  another  filtration  Schunk  allowed  it  to 
evaporate,  and  there  remained  a syrup,  which,  when  treated  with 
ether,  yielded  indigo. 

The  qualitative  reactions  of  this  indigo-producing  stuff  are 
exactly  the  same  as  those  of  Indican  from  leaves  of  Isatis  tinctoria. 
It  is  a yellow,  transparent  syrup,  which  displays  little  inclination 
toward  crystallization,  and  is  soluble  in  water,  alcohol,  and  ether. 
Its  aqueous  solution  has  a more  or  less  acid  reaction,  takes  on  a 
deep  yellow  colour  with  caustic  alkali,  and  gives  a light  yellow 
precipitate  with  basic  acetate  of  lead.  When  the  aqueous  solution 
is  mixed  with  a little  sulphuric  or  hydrochloric  acid  and  allowed 
to  stand  quiet,  indigo  after  a time  separates,  sinking  to  the  bottom 
and  forming  a scum  on  the  surface,  as  is  also  the  case  with  Indican 
from  Isatis  tinctoria. 

Schunk  proved  by  these  investigations  that  neither  free  indigo 
nor  its  hydrate  (reduced  indigo,  indigo-white),  but  only  indican  are 
present  in  dyer’s  knotweed,  thus  disposing  of  Joly’s  assumption  of 
the  contrary. 

2.  Carthamus  tinctorius,  L.,  Jap.  Beni,  Beni-no-hana,  common 
saw-wort,  or  the  safflower.  This  is  an  annual.  In  its  stiff  stalk, 
branching  upwards,  and  its  big,  round,  yellow  blossoms,  it  resembles 
Inula  ; in  its  stemless  prickly  leaves  it  resembles  thistles,  belong- 
ing, like  both  of  them,  to  the  great  family  of  the  composites,  and 
following  Centaurea  in  system.  The  plant  attains  a height  of  50  to 
100  cm.  and  yields  in  its  blossoms  (separated  from  the  calyx)  the 
well-known  safflower,  or  Spanish  red,  besides  a yellow  dye-stuff. 
India  (which  is  thought  to  be  its  original  home)  and  Persia  and 
Egypt  have  been  distinguished  in  its  cultivation  from  of  old,  and 
to  this  day  they  supply  the  world  with  the  greater  portion  of  its 
safflower.  We  know  now  for  certain  that  the  saw-wort  was  raised 
in  Egypt  more  than  3,500  years  ago,  since  Schweinfurth  recognised 
it  in  the  garland  which  Brugsch  and  Maspero,  in  i88r,  found  in 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


1 77 


the  newly-discovered  graves  of  the  Pharaohs  at  Thebes,  on  the 
breast  of  Ahmes  II.,  the  conqueror  of  Hycsos. 

From  these  three  countries  its  cultivation  spread  over  many 
others,  both  tropical  and  temperate  climates,  even  to  Germany  ; 
but  in  this  century  it  has  declined  almost  everywhere,  and  in  many 
parts  has  vanished  altogether.  The  safflower  has  been  supplanted 
by  cochineal  and  lac-dye  especially,  and  recently,  to  a much 
greater  extent,  by  the  aniline  dyes. 

Japan  received  it  from  China.  But  Southern  China  and  India 
began  to  put  on  the  market,  and  at  low  prices,  a better  article 
than  that  produced  at  home,  and  since  then  the  plant  has  been 
cultivated  less  and  less,  until  now  it  is  hardly  worth  mentioning. 
In  all  my  journeyings  in  Japan  in  every  direction,  I only  met 
with  it  two  or  three  times.  It  grew  in  small  beds.  The  object 
of  raising  it  was  to  obtain  Beni,  the  favourite  cosmetic  of  the 
Japanese  girls.  This  is  pure  Carthamin  (C14  H16  07),  and  a com- 
parison of  its  mode  of  preparation  with  our  method  may  be  made 
from  my  remarks  at  the  end  of  this  chapter,  on  dyeing  with  saf- 
flower. It  has  a metallic,  gold-green  lustre,  reminding  one  of 
certain  aniline  dyes  and  the  sheath-wings  of  several  species  of 
Cetonia  and  other  beetles.  The  Japanese  girls  dissolve  it  in  water 
for  reddening  their  lips.  In  Kioto  they  often  put  it  on  so  strong 
and  concentrated  that  the  green  metallic  lustre  appears  instead  of 
the  red  colour. 

3.  Rubia  cor  difolia,  L.  (R.  cordala,  Thunb.,  R.  munjista,  Roxb.), 
Jap.  Akane  or  Beni-kadzura.  This  is  the  old  Indian  madder,  which 
seems  to  be  widely  distributed  in  the  eastern  monsoon-region,  as 
well  as  in  the  Himalayan  valleys.  I have  found  it  repeatedly  in 
Japan,  and  always  wild,  like  the  following  species. 

4.  Rubia  chinensis,  Reg.,  Jap.  O-kinuta-so. 

5.  Lithospermum  erythrorhizon,  S.  and  Z.  (JL.  officinale,  var.  ja- 
ponica,  Miq.,  L.  officinale  /3  erythrorhizon,  Maxim.),  Jap.  Murasaki 
and  Murasaki-kusa.  The  roots,  called  Shikon,  of  this  stone-crop, 
which  grows  all  over  Japan,  used  to  serve  for  violet  and  red  pig- 
ments, as  in  China. 

6.  Myrica  rubra,  S.  and  Z.,  Jap.  Yama-momo.  Its  bark,  which  is 
called  Shibuki,  contains  an  astringent  pigment,  which  is  used  to 
colour  and  make  durable  fish-hooks  and  nets. 

7.  Perilla  arguta,  Benth.,  Jap.  Aka-shiso.  We  have  already 
noticed  the  application  of  the  red  pigment  of  this  plant  in  house- 
keeping. 

8.  Ccesalpinia  Sappan,  L.,  Jap.  Suwo.  Sapan-wood  is  not  found 
in  Japan,  but  was  formerly  largely  imported  by  Chinese  as  a red  dye. 

Cochineal,  lac-dye,  fuchsine,  and  similar  dyes  have  diminished 
the  value  and  use  of  the  above-mentioned  red  pigments  in  Japan. 
In  like  manner  auramin  and  flavaniline,  with  their  excellent 
qualities  and  cheap  prices,  have  begun  to  supplant  the  remaining 
yellow  pigments. 

II. 


N 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


i?S 


9.  Gardenia  florida , L.  The  name  Kuchi-nashi  is  applied  both 
to  the  plant  and  to  its  fruits.  The  plant  is  a small  evergreen  shrub 
grown  here  and  there  for  decorative  purposes ; but  it  is  no  doubt 
indigenous  to  Southern  and  Central  Japan,  and  not  merely  run 
wild.1  The  prismatic  six-edged  and  six-pointed  green  calyx  grows 
in  together  with  the  germ.  Its  large  white  corona  stands  up  like 
a salver.  Six  stamens  grow  on  the  lower  edge  of  the  corona  cor- 
responding to  its  six  tips.  When  ripe,  the  berry  is  of  an  orange- 
yellow  colour,  and  as  large  as  our  common  long  acorns.  It  is 
surrounded  by  the  close-fitting,  wrinkled,  yellowish  calyx,  which 
dries  upon  it  and  accompanies  it  to  market.  The  yellow  pigment 
which  the  berry  contains  is  said  to  be  identical  with  the  crocin 
(C32  H36  012)  of  the  saffron.2 

10.  Evodia  glauca  Miq.,  Jap.  Kiwada  and  Obaku,  a tall  tree  of  the 
Rutaceas  family  (Xanthoxylaceae  group),  with  a smooth  bark,  and 
resembling  an  ash,  in  its  feathered  leaves  and  its  whole  aspect. 
It  still  occurs  pretty  often  in  the  remoter  mountain-forests  of  Cen- 
tral and  Northern  Hondo,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  it  is  much  sought 
after  in  summer.  Its  bark  is  torn  off  in  great  strips  and  sent  to 
the  dying  establishments  in  the  great  cities.  In  travelling  through 
mountainous  regions,  e.g.  through  the  peninsula  of  Yamato  and  the 
district  of  Aidzu,  about  the  Inawashiro  Lake,  one  often  meets 
carriers  or  pack-horses  with  loads  of  this  bark,  air-dried,  and  in 
pieces  as  long  as  one’s  arm.  With  the  exception  of  its  thin  epi- 
dermis, which  is  of  a brownish  colour  with  light  grey  spots,  it  is  all 
yellow,  like  grated  gamboge.  The  Ki-iro,  or  yellow  of  silk-stuffs, 
used  to  be  obtained  from  this  bark.  At  my  instance,  Herr  Dr. 
F.  Noll  junior,  while  a student  at  Marburg,  made  a number  of 
experiments  with  it,  of  which  I give  here  the  chief  results. 

a.  Of  the  various  solvents  that  were  used,  water  took  up  the  pig- 
ment immediately  in  great  quantity,  becoming  a deep  yellow.  With 
alcohol,  the  solution  was  much  weaker.  With  ether  it  was  weakest. 
The  ether  remained  clear  a long  time,  showing  a yellow  tinge  but 
slowly.  From  this  it  follows  that  the  pigment  is  not  of  a resinous 
nature. 

b.  The  solution  in  cold  water  is  much  purer  and  a more  beauti- 
ful yellow  than  in  boiling  water,  which  receives  a brownish  tinge 
from  foreign  substances,  such  as  mucilage,  etc.,  that  are  also 
present. 

c.  The  extract  obtained  through  cold  water,  and  also  the  hot 
extract,  have  a neutral  reaction. 

d.  The  strong  solution  of  the  yellow  pigment  which  is  brought 
about  by  pouring  on  water  at  normal  temperature,  shows  no 

1 For  example,  I found  it  in  abundance  on  gravelly  soil,  in  a thin,  shrubby 
forest  in  Mino,  and  that  too  on  the  road  leading  from  Gifu  to  Atami  via  Hino 
(2  ri)  and  Kuchinashi,  and  on  hills ; so  there  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  its  being 
met  with  in  a wild  state. 

2 Fliickiger,  “ Pharmakognosie.”  Aufl.  2,  p.  735. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


79 


change  in  the  amount  of  its  yellow  on  the  addition  of  caustic 
hydrate  of  soda,  chloride  of  lime,  or  sulphurous  acid. 

e.  Silk  and  wool,  after  their  degraissage , take  up  the  yellow  pig- 
ment easily,  becoming  a beautiful  yellow,  and  the  dye  holds  fast  in 
them  when  they  are  washed  with  soap  and  cold  water.  It  holds, 
too,  against  cold  diluted  lye,  solution  of  chloride  of  lime,  and 
sulphurous  acid,  while  hot  soda-lye  or  solution  of  soap  deprives 
these  textures  of  this  colour  immediately.  Vegetable  fibre  is  not 
so  receptive  of  the  pigment,  which  is  partly  washed  out  at  once 
with  water. 

Considering  the  great  quantity  of  beautiful  pigment  contained 
in  Kiwada  bark,  it  would  be  well  worth  while  to  perform  some 
more  thorough  experiments  with  it.  These  should  be  directed 
to  ascertaining  its  nature,  and  to  answering  the  question,  whether 
the  staying  power  of  the  beautiful  yellow  colour  might  not  be 
increased  by  using  more  suitable  mordants. 

11.  Pyrus ? Jap.  Dzumi.  The  bark  of  this  tree,  with  which 

I am  not  well  acquainted,  is  also  said  to  yield  a beautiful  yellow. 

12.  Curcuma  longa,  L.,  Jap.  Ukon.  The  rhizomas  of  this  plant, 
or  rather  the  yellow  dye  prepared  from  them,  are  imported  from 
India  and  China. 

13.  Prunus  Mume,  S.  and  Z.  The  bark,  called  Ume-kawa,  yields 
a light  brown  colour,  the  Shira-cha. 

14.  Amygdalus  Persica,  L.,  Jap.  Momo-kawa,  the  bark  of  the 
peach-tree,  serves  in  cloth-dyeing  to  produce  the  Cha-iro,  the  tea- 
colour. 

15.  To  produce  Kuro-iro , black  colours,  ferrous  acetate  and 
ferrous  sulphate  are  employed  in  connection  with  one  of  the  many 
bodies  containing  tannic  acid.  Among  these  must  be  enumerated 
the  galls,  or  Fushi,  of  Rhus  semialata,  Murr.  the  fruits  of  species  of 
alder,  Han-no-ki  or  Hari-no-ki  ( A'lnus  maritinia , Nutt.,  A.  incana, 
Wiild.,  A.  firma,  S.  and  Z.),  the  green  fruit-hulls  of  the  Kuri  ( Cas - 
tanea  vulgaris,  Lamk.)  and  Tochi  {JEsculus  turbinata,  Blume),  Shibu, 
the  juice  of  Diospyros  kaki  (L.  and  D.,  Lotos,  L.),  Kawa,  the  bark 
of  several  different  trees,  particularly  the  Kashiwa  ( Quercus  dentata, 
Thunb.),  Kunugi  ( L . serrata,  Th.).  The  Budo-nedzumi,  a dark 
violet  colour,  is  obtained  by  means  of  Fushi  and  O-haguro  (ferrous 
acetate).  If  the  latter  is  concentrated,  the  result  is  a black.  Kobi- 
cha,  a grey-brown  cloth-dye,  is  obtained  from  O-haguro  and 
Momo-kawa  ; Hiwa,  grass-green,  from  indigo  and  Kiwada-bark. 
A decoction  of  Kariyasu  ( Calamagrostis  Hakonensis,  Fr.  and  Sav.) 
yields  a yellow-green  colour. 

Tannic  Acids. 

Leather  {Kawa)  was  formerly  little  used  in  Japan,  so-called 
leather-paper  taking  its  place  in  most  cases.  Its  manufacture  and 
manipulation,  moreover,  belonging  to  the  unclean  despised  occupa- 


8o 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


tions  which  fell  to  the  lot  of  the  Etas,  were  accordingly  not 
characterized  by  great  results,  and  tannic  acids  had  less  con- 
sideration as  such  than  as  agents  for  producing  black  in  dyeing. 
Of  recent  years,  European  habits  of  dress  and  systems  of  arma- 
ment, in  military  and  official  circles  and  elsewhere,  have  brought 
about  a change  in  this  respect.  Both  tanning  and  shoemaking 
developed  rapidly,  and  gained  an  honourable  position  in  public 
opinion.  Side  by  side  with  this  arose  a demand  for  tanning 
materials,  in  which  the  country  abounds.  This  is  now  met  in 
great  part  by  oak-bark,  particularly  that  of  the  Kashi wa  ( Quercus 
dentata,  Thunb.),  though  that  of  the  Yama-momo  ( Myrica  rubra , 
S.  and  Z.)  is  also  highly  prized. 

Two  other  Japanese  tanning  principles,  however,  are  of  much 
greater  interest  and  very  peculiar.  These  are  universally  known 
by  the  names  Fushi  and  Shibu,  and  are  much  used. 

By  Fushi  or  Gobaishi  are*  meant  the  peculiar  galls,  rich  in 
tannin,  of  Rhus  semi-alata  Murr.  ( R . Osbechii , D.  C.,  R.  javanica, 
L.).  This  beautifully-leafed  sumach  is  called  Narude,  Fushi-no-ki, 
Kachi-ki,  or  Yenbuju.  It  forms  a good-sized  shrub  or  small  tree 
3 to  8 m.  high,  which  is  widely  spread  in  the  mountain-forests  of 
Japan,  as  of  East  Asia  in  general.  The  galls  are  produced  in  the 
form  of  large  blisters,  of  many  shapes  and  sizes,  averaging  4 to  5 gr. 
in  weight,  4 to  6 cm.  in  length,  and  2 to  4 cm.  in  circumference  at 
the  thickest  part.  They  are  very  irregularly  shaped,  possess  knobs 
and  horns,  and  as  a rule  hang  close  to  the  leaf-stems  (seldom  to 
young  twigs)  with  a horn  that  runs  to  a point,  like  the  hanging 
chrysalis  of  many  diurnal  butterflies.  The  ground-colour  is  brown, 
though  it  is  visible  only  in  the  protuberances,  while  the  rest  is 
covered  with  a short,  dense,  felt-like  hairs.  Stripes  are  plainly 
visible  about  the  narrowing  basis,  gradually  fading  away  towards 
the  thicker  parts,  especially  on  the  convex  side  of  these  singular, 
many-shaped  galls.  Their  walls  are  generally  about  0'5  mm.  thick, 
though  in  exceptional  cases  3 to  4 times  thicker.  They  are  very 
brittle,  translucent,  and  horny. 

These  peculiar  formations  are  said  to  be  occasioned  by  the  sting 
of  a leaf-louse  ( Aphis  chinensis),  like  Chinese  gall-nuts.  They  are 
indisputably  of  all  galls  the  richest  in  tannic  acid  and  the  most 
valuable,  containing  as  they  do  65  to  78  per  cent,  of  tannin.1 

The  Fushi-no-ki  (gall-apple  tree)  I have  seen  very  often  in 
Japan,  but  only  occasionally  its  galls.  The  best  come  from  Shi- 
nano.  Nasu  in  Shimotsuke,  Chichibu  in  Musashi,  and  the  provinces 
of  Bingo,  Iyo,  Idzu,  and  Kii  were  mentioned  as  further  sources 
of  supply.  The  amount  sent  to  market,  however,  does  not  greatly 

1 For  a more  detailed  account  see  under  Galla;  chinensis,  pp.  246-249  in 
Fliickiger’s  “ Pharmakognosie  des  Pflanzenreichs,”  Aufl.  2.  A good  picture  of 
the  plant  with  a gall  is  given  in  part  2 of  the  eight-volume  Japanese  work,  “ K6 
yeki  koku  san  koA”  (Thoughts  concerning  the  distribution  of  useful  products  of 
the  country),  by  Okura  (Nagatsune),  Osaka,  1844. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


: 8 1 


exceed  the  home  demand,  while  no  less  than  20,409  piculs,  or 
about  1,234,000  kg.  were  exported  from  China  in  the  year  1878. 

A former  national  custom  in  Japan — which  of  late  has  been 
rapidly  dying  out — required  married  women,  and  maidens  who 
had  got  past  a certain  age  and  with  it  the  hope  of  finding  a 
husband,  and  besides  these  the  Kuge  (the  court-nobility  in  Kioto), 
to  blacken  their  teeth.  This  was  done  with  a sort  of  ink,  made  on 
the  teeth  themselves,  and  called  Ohaguro,1  Haguro,  or  Kane.  For 
this  purpose  they  used  pulverized  galls  (Fushi-no-ko)  and  ferrous 
acetate,  made  by  pouring  diluted  Sake  boiling-hot  over  ingots  or 
nails  of  iron.  They  brushed  their  teeth  with  this  solution  of  iron, 
and  then  rubbed  them  with  some  of  the  white  gall-apple  powder, 
thus  really  making  ink,  which,  of  course,  had  to  be  renewed  from 
time  to  time. 

Shibu  or  Kaki-no-shibu.  This  is  the  astringent  juice  of  unripe 
Kaki — that  is,  of  certain  sorts,  called  Shibu-gaki.  In  the  “Trans- 
actions of  the  Asiatic  Society,”  vol.  ix.  p.  36,  Ishikawa  gives  the 
following  description  of  it : 

The  fruits  of  Shibu-gaki — that  is  to  say,  Kaki  species — preserve 
their  astringent  character  even  till  the  time  of  ripeness.  Early  in 
summer  they  are  stamped  in  iron  mortars  ; then  the  pasty  mass  is 
transferred  to  wooden  tubs,  covered  with  water,  and  allowed  to 
stand  half  a day.  Then  it  is  all  put  into  bags  woven  out  of  straw- 
rope  ; and  a milky  juice  is  pressed  out  under  a simple  angle-press. 
This  juice  yields  the  best  Shibu,  especially  if  the  small  fruit  of  the 
Shinano-gaki  ( Diospyros  Lotus , L.)  is  used. 

By  soaking  what  remains  and  pressing  it  again,  a second  quality 
is  obtained.  The  milky  juice  soon  takes  on  a darker  colour  through 
exposure  to  the  air,  and  its  surface  quickly  becomes  covered  with 
a thin  scum.  Shibu  as  known  to  commerce  is  a light  or  dark 
grey  fluid,  in  which  numerous  fine  hard  particles  are  suspended. 
It  exhibits  an  acid  reaction  on  litmus  paper,  and  in  a solution  of 
gelatine  gives  off  a great  quantity  of  the  usual  flaky  precipitate 
of  tannic  acid.  Its  odour  is  singularly  disagreeable. 

This  fluid  is  used  in  many  ways.  It  gives  toughness  to  wood, 
paper,  fish-nets,  and  other  objects,  increasing  their  resisting  power 
against  many  injurious  influences.  In  some  Shibu  tested  by 
Ishikawa  there  were  64^4  grammes  per  liter  of  solid  matter,  more 
than  half  of  which  was  tannin. 

Paper  soaked  in  Shibu  receives  from  it  qualities  different 
from  those  imparted  by  other  tannic  acids.  The  effect  (greater 
firmness,  dark  colour)  is  therefore  not  attributable  to  the  presence 
of  albumin  and  the  formation  of  a sort  of  leather.  But  during 
the  experiments  the  following  facts  were  brought  to  light,  which 
indicate  an  explanation  : 

(1)  Shibu  turns  black  only  when  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  air, 
being  like  Japanese  lacquer  in  this  respect. 


O,  a prefix  of  respect ; ha,  teeth  ; guro  = kuro,  black. 


1 82 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


(2)  When  exposed  to  the  air  in  fiat  vessels  a tough  skin  is  formed 
over  it,  almost  insoluble  in  water  and  alcohol. 

(3)  The  first  skin  being  taken  off,  a new  one  comes,  but  much 
more  slowly  and  weaker,  and  so  on. 

(4)  Of  the  substances  in  suspension,  the  coarser  portion  sinks 
to  the  bottom,  the  rest  remains  diffused  in  the  solution.  They 
appear  to  be,  therefore,  a sort  of  Gummi  resinae ; and  to  this  are 
attributable  the  formation  of  a skin  and  the  dark  brown  colour 
which  articles  treated  with  Shibu  always  take  on,  and  which  seems 
to  come  from  the  oxidation  of  the  gum.  The  disagreeable  odour 
of  Shibu  probably  proceeds,  on  the  other  hand,  from  butyric  acid. 

In  conclusion  we  will  add  to  the  foregoing  remarks  on  Japanese 
dye-stuffs  a few  words  on  the  application  of  the  Safflower,  and  on 
certain  additional  contrivances  used  in  dyeing. 

Of  the  two  colours  which  the  petals  of  safflower  blossoms  con- 
tain when  dried  and  pressed'  into  little  cakes,  the  yellow  is  not 
used,  but  the  red  is  highly  prized  on  account  of  its  beauty  and  the 
numerous  shades  that  can  be  produced  by  it,  especially  in  the 
Japanese  silk-dyeing  establishments.  In  Europe  safflower  is  every- 
where considered  a fugitive  colour ; so  I was  astonished  to  hear 
the  Japanese  boasting  not  only  of  its  beauty,  but  of  its  dura- 
bility as  well.  But  I soon  found  abundant  opportunities  for  con- 
vincing myself  of  the  latter  too,  and  of  learning  the  process 
employed  in  one  of  the  largest  dyeing  establishments  of  Kioto. 
Apart  from  mere  external  arrangements,  it  was  as  follows  : 

The  small,  thin  safflower-cakes  of  commerce,  were  covered  at 
evening  with  as  much  water  as  they  could  take  up,  and  left  stand- 
ing for  a night.  Next  morning  the  mass  thus  soaked  was  poured 
into  a tub  and  some  rice-chaff  was  added  to  prevent  its  sticking 
together.  Then  it  was  trampled  upon  until  kneaded  into  a stiff 
paste.  This  was  put  into  bags  made  of  palm-rope  (from  Chamae- 
rops  excelsa),  and  subjected  to  the  pressure  of  a heavy  angle-press. 
There  flowed  off  a yellowish,  muddy  fluid,  which  contained  the 
safflower-yellow— which  was  not  used. 

The  residuum  was  now  poured  into  a tub,  mixed  with  wood-ash 
lye  and  water,  and  once  more  left  standing  for  a night.  Next 
morning  this  mixture  was  again  put  into  sacks,  and  a brown-red 
fluid  was  squeezed  out  under  the  same  angle-press.  This  contained 
the  safflower-red,  or  Carthamin  (C14  HJ6  07).  It  was  precipitated 
by  means  of  Ume-dzu  (plum-vinegar,  see  p.  86),  and  the  muddy 
fluid  above  was  decanted  off.  Then  the  Carthamin  was  dissolved 
in  hot  water  and  vinegar,  and  the  solution  applied  directly  in 
making  a beautiful  Momo-iro  (peach-blossom  red)  in  silk.  By 
the  addition  of  Ukon  (Curcuma)  powder  to  the  solution,  the 
gorgeous  Aka  is  produced — Turkish-red  in  various  shades — which 
has  so  often  excited  the  admiration  of  critics,  in  Japanese  and 
Chinese  silks.  The  aqueous  solution  of  Kiwada  bark  is  also  used, 

instead  of  the  Curcuma,  to  get  certain  beautiful  tones,  and  stuff 

¥■ 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


i§3 


that  has  been  dyed  red  in  the  Aka-solution  is  drawn  through  this, 
while  still  wet. 

From  these  remarks  it  will  be  seen  that  the  method  of  obtaining 
and  applying  safflower-red  agrees  in  the  main  with  our  own ; and 
it  is  to  slight  variations,  at  any  rate,  that  the  better  result  is  to  be 
attributed. 

The  Katas,  or  matrices  for  impressing  the  stuffs  with  figures,  are 
cut  in  relief  out  of  Honoki  or  Sakura  (see  Woods).  In  order  to  keep 
certain  parts  white — such  as  the  letters  of  a name,  etc.1 — various 
plans  are  resorted  to  in  dyeing.  The  most  common  is  to  cover 
with  Nori  (starch- paste)  the  spots  which  are  not  to  be  coloured,  this 
Nori  having  been  mixed  with  Nuka  (rice-bran),  and  then  dry  the 
piece  in  the  air  before  dipping  it  into  the  dye.  According  to  an- 
other plan,  thin  pieces  of  wood,  such  as  shavings,  are  coated  on  their 
under-side  with  Funori  (sea-weed  glue,  of  Gleopeltis  cotiformis , 
Harv.,  and  other  species),  and  on  their  upper-side  with  paper,  and 
then  sewed  fast  to  the  spots  that  are  to  be  left  uncoloured. 

And  in  the  art,  much  practised  in  Kibto,  of  painting  flowers  and 
other  objects  on  prepared  silk  fabrics,  the  plain  part  is  covered  with 
Nori,  after  the  picture  has  been  outlined,  to  prevent  the  dyes  from 
overflowing  in  consequence  of  hygroscopic  or  capillary  attraction. 


4.  Cattle-raising  and  Silk-growing. 

(a)  Cattle-raising. 

It  will  suffice  if  we  here  add  a few  supplementary  remarks  to  the 
scattered  opinions  already  given  in  preceding  sections,  as  to  the 
slight  importance  in  Japanese  agriculture  of  cattle-raising  on  a 
large  scale. 

The  Japanese  horse,  or  Uma  (pronounced  M’ma),  belongs  to  the 
Mongolian  breed,  is  of  small  stature,  with  thick  head  and  belly, 
trots  loosely,  and  gets  in  a sweat  quickly,  but  shows  considerable 
endurance  otherwise.  It  seldom  receives  careful  attention.  It 
stands  in  its  stall  with  its  head  toward  the  entrance,  and  is  tied  with 
cords  to  the  corner  posts  right  and  left,  so  close  that  it  can  scarcely 
move,  and,  above  all,  cannot  lie  down.  There  are  no  mangers 
or  other  fixed  arrangements  for  feeding.  On  the  other  hand,  its 
quarters  are  kept  very  clean.  Its  feed  consists,  as  a rule,  of  coarse 
hay,  damped,  and  mixed  with  a little  bran  or  groats,  and  given 
it  in  a feed-box,  which  is  usually  tied  to  it  while  it  eats.  Besides 
this  it  gets  barley,  and,  as  a tit-bit,  perhaps  a handful  of  beans. 

The  hay  here  spoken  of  is  Ma-gusa,  i.e.,  horse-plant  dried.  It  is 
made  from  the  grass  of  the  Hara  ; preferably,  however,  from  two 
papilionaceous  shrubs  that  grow  there — the  Hagi  ( Lespedeza  cyrto- 

1 The  peasant,  for  instance,  wears  his  name  in  white  on  a blue  blouse ; and 
the  Samurai,  his  name  or  coat  of  arms  on  the  back  and  sleeves  of  his  garment. 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


botrya,  Miq.,  and  other  species)  and  the  Kudzu  ( Pueraria  Thun- 
bergiana,  Benth.).  It  is  mown  with  the  sickle — enough  for  the 
slight  demand— and  brought  home  on  the  backs  of  men  and 
horses,  and  then  spread  out  before  the  house  to  dry  in  the  sun. 
It  is  turned  with  sickles  or  poles,  but  never  with  rakes. 

The  horse  has  hitherto  been  used  mostly  as  a beast  of  burden, 
and  only  secondarily  for  riding.  As  a draught-animal  it  has  had 
no  place  at  all,  except  in  ploughing  ; for  the  few  heavy  Kuruma,  or 
wagons  that  existed,  e.g.,  in  Kidto,  for  the  Mikado  and  the  Kuge, 
or  for  the  goods-traffic  between  Kioto  and  Otzu,  have  been  drawn 
by  oxen  since  far-distant  times. 

Marion  in  his  day  remarked  that  he  saw  only  stallions  in  Yedo, 
Yokohama,  and  Nagasaki.  If  he  had  penetrated  farther  into  the 
country,  he  would  have  found  districts  where  only  mares  were  used 
as  beasts  of  burden.  This  was  because  there  was  no  castration, 
and  stallions  are  so  liable  to  become  unmanageable  in  the  presence 
of  mares  ; so  the  old  regulations  arose,  separating  pack-horses  and 
riding-horses  according  to  sexes  and  by  districts. 

Asses  and  mules  were  unknown. 

Cattle,  Jap.  Ushi  (O-ushi  or  Kotoi,  the  bull  ; Me-ushi,  the  cow; 
Ko-ushi,  the  calf),  were  formerly  kept  only  for  carrying  burdens, 
drawing  the  plough  and  the  few  wagons  in  use,  but  never  for  their 
milk  and  flesh.  The  breed  is  large,  well-built,  and  capable  of  being 
fattened,  with  high  withers,  tapering  back,  and  predominant  black 
colour,  with  a shimmer  of  brown — a colour  like  that  of  the  Hun- 
garian and  Podolian  cattle  of  the  Steppes.  The  cows,  as  with  that 
race  too,  have  small  udders,  and  resemble  it  also  in  that  their  milk 
belongs  exclusively  to  the  sucking  calf,  and  dries  up  as  soon  as  the 
calf  is  weaned. 

Goats  (Hitsuji  in  the  Chinese  zodiac)  and  sheep  (Rashamen  and 
Menyo)  were  formerly  quite  unknown.  They  are  said  to  have 
been  brought  into  the  country  at  different  times  and  mostly  by 
the  Portuguese  and  Dutch,  but  have  not  spread.  I do  not  know 
whether  the  attempt  on  the  part  of  the  government,  in  the  last  ten 
years,  to  introduce  sheep-raising,  has  met  with  much  better  success. 
However,  I must  not  fail  to  mention  that  Gaertner  expressed  the 
opinion  that  the  soil  and  climate  of  Japan  were  ill-adapted  to  sheep- 
raising, because  the  fodder  they  produce  is  too  long  and  juicy,  and 
that  all  attempts  hitherto  made  to  domesticate  sheep  have  failed 
for  this  reason.  As  to  the  unfitness  of  the  soil,  I have  my  doubts. 
But  in  view  of  the  fact  that  sheep-raising  succeeds  best  in  countries 
with  a dry  climate,  the  chief  obstacle  to  it  in  Japan  is  more  likely 
to  be  in  the  damp  atmosphere  and  frequent  summer  rains. 

Swine  (Buta),  so  highly  esteemed  by  the  Chinese,  and  brought 
by  them  to  Japan,  were  not  bred  much  here  before  the  opening  up 
of  the  country  and  the  increased  demand  for  their  flesh  on  the  part 
of  foreigners  ; and  even  still  they  are  found  only  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  larger  towns.  Formerly  the  inhabitant  of  the  country  districts 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


185 


got  a roast  now  and  then  by  the  chase,  and  in  that  way  alone, — 
except  when  he  caught  wild  birds,  such  as  ducks  and  pheasants, 
or  even  jays  and  ravens — the  game  being  mostly  wild  swine,  which 
were  plenty  ( Sus  leucomystox , Tern.,  Jap.  I),  stags  ( Cervus  Sika, 
Tern.,  Jap.  Shika),  bears  ( Ursus  japonicus,  Schl.,  Jap.  Kuma),  apes 
{Inuus  speciosus,  Jap.  Sarn),  and  several  other  animals.  Apart 
from  this  his  animal  food  was  limited  to  the  products  of  domestic 
fishery,  and  a few  eggs.1 

The  domestic  fowl  (Tori,  i.e.,  bird  ; On-dori,  the  cock  ; Men-dori, 
the  hen)  is  the  only  poultry  to  whose  breeding  the  Japanese  are 
universally  devoted,  and  of  this  they  raise  various  breeds.  The 
tame  duck  (Ahiru),  on  the  other  hand,  is  as  scarce  as  in  Germany, 
and  the  goose  is  unknown. 

Dogs,  cats,  rabbits,  white  and  coloured  mice  (and  also  rats),  which 
must  be  counted  among  the  domestic  animals  of  Japan,  are  kept 
almost  exclusively  as  pets.  The  cultivation  of  honey-bees  (mitzu- 
bachi)  is  very  limited  and  conducted  with  little  care.  A substitute 
for  their  wax,  as  we  have  already  seen,  is  the  vegetable  tallow  from 
the  fruits  of  two  species  of  sumach. 

I turn  finally  to  that  one  of  the  domestic  animals  of  the  Japanese 
which  although  more  helpless  and  insignificant  than  all  the  others, 
is  yet  more  important  and  valuable  than  these  all  put  together — 
the  silkworm.  For,  farming  excepted,  it  is  of  the  very  greatest 
importance  for  the  prosperity  of  many  millions  of  the  land’s  in- 
habitants. Hence,  in  the  following  pages,  we  give  it  and  its 
product  the  more  detailed  consideration  which  their  importance 
demands. 


(b)  Silk-groiving. 

Of  all  the  articles  which  China  and  Japan  export  to  other 
countries,  raw  silk  and  silken  fabrics  are  in  many  respects  of  first 
importance.  Not  only  do  they  represent  the  highest  money  value, 
and  contribute  most  toward  increasing  the  prosperity  of  these  two 
nations,  but  the  trade  in  them  dates  farthest  back,  and  has  steadily 
increased  in  extent,  despite  many  changes,  ever  since  Roman  mer- 
chants2 opened  it  overland,  and  Portuguese  1,500  years  later  by  sea. 
And  to  all  appearances  this  great  eminence  will  be  maintained  by 
silk  in  the  future  also,  against  all  the  competition  of  wool  on  the 
one  hand  and  cotton  on  the  other.  The  production  of  raw  silk  and 
of  silken  yarns  and  fabrics  forms  one  of  the  corner-stones  of  the 
national  well-being  of  great  empires  and  of  existence  itself  for 

1 Details  on  this  subject,  as  well  as  concerning  the  Japanese  fauna  in  general, 
are  to  be  found  in  the  first  volume  of  this  work,  pp.  17  5-2 10. 

2 Silk  undoubtedly  found  its  way  into  West  Asia  many  centuries  earlier,  for 
it  was  the  material  of  the  Persian  and  Median  garments,  so  often  celebrated  by 
Greek  authors.  Yet  Roman  merchants  were  the  first  Europeans  that  penetrated 
into  Central  Asia  on  the  so-called  silk-roads,  at  the  time  of  the  Empire,  to  make 
better  roads  for  this  much-prized  article. 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


1 86 


millions  of  their  inhabitants,  not  only  in  East  Asia,  but  in  Europe 
also. 

If  strength  and  fineness  combined  are  desired  in  a thread,  we  re- 
sort to  silk,  and  if  warmth  is  desired  for  any  part  of  the  body,  silken 
cloth  comes  into  play,  since  it  does  not  offend  through  coarseness 
nor  become  a burden  by  its  thickness.  Yarns  and  cloths  made  ot 
silk  are  at  once  glossy  and  smooth,  fine,  firm  and  lasting,  healthy, 
warm  and  light.  Because  of  these  numerous  advantages  the  use 
of  them  has  spread  more  and  more  in  all  classes  of  society,  as  their 
price  has  fallen  and  general  prosperity  increased.  The  yearning 
for  a silk  dress  has  become  a common  desire  of  the  female  sex, 
and  whoever  cannot  satisfy  it,  rejoices  at  least  in  a silk  ribbon, 
to  which,  as  to  the  dress,  an  added  brilliancy  is  given  by  the 
aniline  dyes  of  modern  times. 

History  tells  us  that  at  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Aurelian  (270 
A.D.)  silk  was  worth  its  weight  in  gold,  and  that  James  I.  of  Scot- 
land, in  1406,  borrowed  a pair  of  stockings,  so  as  to  receive  the 
English  ambassador  with  proper  dignity.  This  shows,  on  the  one 
hand,  that  this  noble  stuff  was  held  in  due  honour  many  centuries 
ago  and  at  different  periods,  long  before  there  was  any  thought  in 
Europe  of  raising  its  old  Asiatic  companion,  cotton,  to  such  an 
influential  position.  On  the  other  hand,  however,  we  may  conclude 
that  the  carriage  of  silk  from  East  Asia  was  very  expensive,  and 
that  its  culture  in  Europe,  for  a long  period,  made  but  slow  progress. 
For  it  had  to  contend  with  difficulties  of  a peculiar  nature.  The 
other  textile  fabrics — wool,  cotton,  flax, .hemp,  etc. — are  products  of 
larger  animals,  or  of  plants  whose  character  is  easily  studied,  which 
do  not  demand  very  laborious  attention,  and  from  which  one  is 
sure  of  a crop  in  a few  months.  For  silk,  however,  we  are  indebted 
to  a little  insect,  which  depends  for  its  life  upon  a definite  genus  of 
plant.  Two  organisms  must  here  be  brought  into  harmony,  one  of 
which,  the  plant,  requires  a development  of  several  years,  at  least, 
before  the  other,  the  silkworm,  can  begin  its  life-work;  therein 
differing  widely  from  our  other  domesticated  creatures.  The 
silkworm  is  exceedingly  choice  in  its  diet,  and  yet  has  not  the 
means,  while  in  captivity,  of  making  its  own  selection.  It  pos- 
sesses no  voice  to  tell  when  it  is  hungry,  or  cold,  or  otherwise 
in  need,  and  yet  it  succumbs  very  quickly  to  deleterious  influences, 
for  its  life  is  short  and  therefore  delicate.  To  learn  what  is  advan- 
tageous for  it,  and  to  shun  all , injurious  influences,  demands  close 
observation,  and  much  circumspection,  care,  industry,  and  experience. 
A single  oversight  in  its  cultivation,  .neglect  of  the  task  for  but  a 
few  hours,  sometimes  robs  the  silk  grower  of  the  reward  of  all  his 
previous  trouble  and  labour. 

Not  only  the  silkworm  ( Bombyx  mori ),  but  also  its  food-plant, 
the  white  mulberry  {Morns  alba , L.),  had  to  be  brought  from  East 
Asia.  Under  such  circumstances  it  is  easy  to  understand  why 
silk-culture  advanced  but  slowly  in  Europe,  from  east  to  west,  and 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


187 


northward  from  the  Mediterranean — the  more  so  as  every  innova- 
tion has  to  contend  against  prejudices,  especially  on  the  part  of 
a conservative  peasantry.  Even  such  a clear-sighted  man  as  the 
minister  Sully,  for  example,  could  not  comprehend  how  such 
an  insignificant  insect  as  the  silkworm  could  really  be  of  any  use 
to  France,  and  it  was  not  without  reluctance,  therefore,  that  he 
carried  out  the  commands  of  Henry  IV.  to  provide  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  silk-culture. 

The  cultivation  of  silk,  as  of  tea,  had  its  rise  in  China,  and 
spread  from  thence  to  Japan.  But  it  has  undoubtedly  a far  greater 
antiquity,  for  it  is  referred  to  in  ancient  Chinese  records,  as  well  as 
in  the  Old  Testament  and  in  the  Greek  classics,1  from  Herodotus. 
W.  Williams 2 states  that  according  to  the  oldest  mythological 
accounts  silk-culture  began  about  2600  B.C.  At  that  time,  they 
say,  the  Empress  Lui  Tsu,  in  Shan-tung,  began  to  raise  silkworms 
and  make  fabrics  out  of  their  webs.  She  was  afterwards  wor- 
shipped as  the  goddess  of  silk,  under  the  name  of  Yuenfi,  and  in 
the  palace  at  Pekin  a temple  was  dedicated  to  her,  in  which  to  this 
day  the  Empress  of  China,  as  protectress  of  silk-culture,  annually 
offers  homage  to  her,  and  brings  certain  sacrifices  in  April,  at  the 
beginning  of  the  year’s  breeding. 

“ The  word  by  which  the  Chinese  designated  silk,  migrated  with 
the  article,  and  we  find  it  mentioned  at  a very  early  date  by  this 
name  or  others  derived  from  it  ” (Von  Richthofen).  The  Corean 
sir,  the  Greek  crrjp,  and  our  various  expressions,  are  derived  from 
sz’  (also  ssu,  see , and  sse),  the  Chinese  term  for  silk,  and  the  affix 
orr  (V).  The  Serian  (?)  stuffs  come  from  the  Serians,  in  the  land 
of  Sera,  from  which  also  originated  the  word  Serica,  as  a name  for 
China.  According  to  Von  Richthofen,  the  present  city  of  Khotan 
represents  the  Issedon  Serica  of  Ptolemaeus.  Thither  in  former 
times  silk  culture  had  been  transplanted  from  the  Chinese  Orient. 
And  by  Sera  metropolis  he  meant  the  Chinese  city  of  Hsi-ngan-fu. 
Tshang-ye,  the  present  Kan-tshou  was  the  great  silk  emporium  of 
more  recent  times,  when,  according  to  Procopius,  two  monks 
(Nestorians)  brought  silkworm  eggs  to  the  Greek  emperor  Justinian 
from  the  land  of  “ Serida.”  From  time  immemorial  the  minister 
Yu  (later  Emperor  Yan)  is  mentioned  as  the  most  prominent 
promoter  of  silk-culture.  He  planted  the  hill-country  of  Shansi 
with  mulberries. 

Silk  is  now  produced  in  every  province  in  China,  particularly  in 
Che-kiang,  Kwang-tung,  Sz’tshwan,  Honan,  Kiang-su,  and  Kwei- 
tshou.  The  best  silk  comes  from  the  province  of  Che-kiang, 
especially  its  north-west  .corner,  though  even  this  does  not  equal 
Italian  or  Cevennes  silk.  It  appears  from  the  statistical  table  that 
China  still  stands  first  amongst  the  silk-producing  countries  of  the 

1 See  in  particular  the  interesting  remarks  on  this  subject  in  v.  Richthofen’s 
“ China,”  i.  443,  and  Yule’s  “ Cathay,”  159. 

2 “ The  Middle  Kingdom,”  ii.  p.  39. 


88 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


earth,  and  the  amount  exported  annually  from  it  to  Europe,  North 
America,  and  Bombay  is  between  52,000  and  85,000  bales  (of  100 

kg-)- 

The  introduction  of  silk-culture  into  Japan  is  recorded  as  taking 
place  in  the  second  half  of  the  third  century  (289),  and  is  attributed 
to  Corean  and  Chinese  immigrants.  It  found  a footing  and  ex- 
tended contemporaneously  with  Buddhism.  Several  legends,  how- 
ever, assign  quite  another  origin,  giving  a much  earlier  date.  The 
best  known  of  these  informs  us  that  an  Indian  Princess  was  com- 
mitted to  the  waves  of  the  ocean  in  the  hollowed  trunk  of  a mul- 
berry tree  by  her  cruel  step-mother,  who  had  already  made  several 
attempts  to  get  rid  of  her  ; and  the  waves  washed  her  to  Toyoura 
on  the  coast  of  Hitachi.  Here  she  was  kindly  treated  by  the  in- 
habitants, and  in  gratitude*  for  their  treatment  was  transformed 
into  a silkworm  after  her  death. 

For  the  planting  of  mulberry-trees  and  silk-culture  generally, 
the  Japanese  are  especially  indebted  to  the  twenty-first  Mikado, 
Yuriaku  Tenno  (457-479  A.D.),  and  also  to  his  Empress,  who  gave 
in  this  respect  a good  example  to  court  and  people.  And  from 
that  time,  too,  foreign  immigrants  had  to  pay  their  duties  in  silk. 
But  it  was  not  until  the  second  half  of  the  sixth  century  and 
thereafter  that  silk-culture  became  fairly  established  and  extended 
as  a national  branch  of  industry. 

It  has  retained  the  attention  and  interest  of  the  rulers  of  Japan, 
even  in  the  altered  circumstances  of  modern  times.  The  reigning 
Mikado  on  more  than  one  occasion  has  attested  his  fondness  for 
silk-culture  and  the  products  of  silk-weaving  ; and  this  explains 
the  fact  that  the  Japanese  court  chooses  for  presents  chiefly  home- 
made silk  stuffs. 

Silk-culture,  like  tea-growing,  has  experienced  a revival  in  the 
last  thirty  years.  The  chief  cause  of  this  was  the  high  prices 
which  were  paid  for  raw  silk  and  silkworm  eggs,  in  consequence  of 
the  silkworm  disease  raging  in  Europe.  Though  these  prices  have 
sunk  again,  the  increased  exportation  of  the  former  still  continues. 
Silk  will  probably  remain  in  future  the  principal  article  of  com- 
merce of  Japan,  and  more  than  any  other  afford  support  and  labour 
to  many  a poor  valley. 

As  compared  with  China  and  Japan,  the  other  Asiatic  silk-raising 
countries  play  no  great  part.  In  India  the  production  of  silk,  if  it 
has  not  fallen  off,  has  at  any  rate  remained  stationary  ; and  the 
general  decay  in  Persian  and  Turkish  countries  has  already,  to  a 
great  extent,  embraced  also  the  principal  industry  of  many  districts, 
silk-culture.  Nowhere  in  the  silk-producing  countries  of  Europe 
did  it  receive  from  the  above  mentioned  state  of  affairs  that  new 
impulse  which  was  so  effective  in  Japan. 

In  Europe,  the  Greeks  first  became  closely  acquainted  with  silk- 
through  the  expedition  of  Alexander  the  Great  through  Persia  to 
India.  His  general  Nearchos,  according  to  Arrian,  clothed  him- 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


189 


self  in  this  costly  material,  and  Alexander  sent  silk-worms  to  his 
teacher,  Aristotle,  who  is  the  first  to  describe  them.  But  the 
introduction  of  silk-culture  was  reserved  for  a much  later  time. 
Every  school-boy  knows  the  story.  Two  Nestorian  monks,  as  Pro- 
copius relates,  brought  some  eggs  of  the  silk-spinner  from  Khotan 
to  the  court  of  Justinian  (550  A.D.)  in  their  hollow  staves;  the 
caterpillars  produced  from  these  were  then  fed  with  leaves  of  the 
black  mulberry  tree  ( Morns  nigra , L.),  which,  though  unknown  in 
East  Asia,  had  long  been  grown  in  Western  Asia,  its  probable 
home,  on  account  of  its  fruit. 

Italy,  for  a long  time  the  foremost  silk-producing  country  of 
Europe,  was  comparatively  late  in  learning  to  cultivate  the  silk- 
worm. It  was  introduced  in  1130  A.D.  through  King  Roger  II. 
of  Sicily.  He  brought  it  from  Greece  after  a glorious  campaign 
against  the  Byzantine  emperor  Emanuel,  and  with  it  Greek  silk- 
worm breeders,  spinners  and  weavers,  whom  he  compelled  to  settle 
in  Palermo  and  benefit  his  subjects  by  teaching  them  their  art. 
From  Sicily  silk-culture  spread  to  Calabria  and  northward  over 
all  Italy,  but  so  slowly  that  it  was  not  introduced  into  Milan  till 
the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Lombardy  is  now  the  chief 
seat  of  the  Italian  silk-culture.  Of  the  40,000,000  kg.  of  cocoons 
(equal  to  100,000  cwt.  of  raw  silk),  valued  at  170,000,000  lire,  which 
Italy  produced  in  1857,  Lombardy  alone  yielded  15,000,000  kg. 
equal  to  37,500  cwt  of  raw  silk. 

The  Iberian  peninsula  became  acquainted  with  silk-culture  long 
before  Italy,  in  the  eighth  century,  through  the  Arabs. 

Its  introduction  here  and  from  Greece  into  Italy  is  attributable 
to  wars  of  conquest,  and  in  like  manner  France  owes  to  a war 
her  first  mulberry-trees  and  silk-worms.  After  the  conquest  of 
Naples  by  Charles  VIII.  in  the  year  1440,  some  French  noblemen 
brought  them  home  with  them.  But  in  France,  too,  silk-culture 
developed  so  slowly  that  the  Lombard  weavers,  whom  Louis  IX. 
and  Francis  I.  imported  for  the  establishment  of  the  silk  industry 
in  France,  had  to  obtain  their  raw  material  from  Italy  and  Spain. 
Under  Charles  IX.  the  mulberry  plantations  became  more  and 
more  extensive ; but  the  silk  industry  and  silkworm  breeding  did 
not  find  a really  firm  footing  till  Henri  IV.  took  a lively  personal 
interest  in  them,  giving  his  subjects  a notable  example  of  cir- 
cumspection and  perseverance  in  this  matter.  The  luxury  dis- 
played by  the  court  of  Louis  XIV.  together  with  the  high  honours 
which  were  held  out  to  successful  silk  manufactures,  on  Colbert’s 
suggestion,  were  powerful  means  for  the  stimulation  of  the 
silk  industry ; and  yet  at  that  very  time  silk-culture  suffered  a 
visible  decline  and  was  only  able  to  furnish  a fifth  part  of  the  6,000 
cwt.  of  raw  silk  which  the  French  industry  then  consumed.  It 
experienced  a revival  under  Louis  XVI.  ; before  the  Great  Re- 
volution the  annual  crop  was  6,500,000  kg.  of  cocoons  (about 
1,500,000  kg.  of  silk).  The  Revolution  reduced  this  to  3,600,000 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


190 


kg.  of  cocoons,  but  after  that  the  amount  rose  and  the  cultivation 
spread  pretty  steadily  till  the  year  1853,  when  it  reached  the 
maximum  yield  of  26,000,000  kg.  of  cocoons.  In  the  period  be- 
tween 1840  and  i860  the  annual  production  of  raw  silk  in  twenty- 
eight  departments  of  Southern  and  Central  France  is  estimated  to 
have  been  on  an  average,  40,000  cwt,  worth  100,000,000  francs. 
Then  came  the  devastating  silk-worm  disease,  and  reduced  the 
yield  in  the  year  1865,  to  34,000,000  francs,  and  in  the  Cevennes 
even  to  one-twentieth  of  former  harvests.  The  effect  of  this  dis- 
ease on  the  prosperity  of  the  people  and  the  value  of  land  was 
especially  marked  here,  where,  for  example  in  the  Departement  du 
Gard,  the  best  raw  silk  is  made,  for  the  strongest  links  of  fine 
textures,  and  a Hectare  planted  with  mulberry  trees  was  worth 
20,000  francs,  with  a yearly  yield  of  1,200  francs. 

We  must  regard  the  Alps  as  the  northern  boundary  of  successful 
and  important  silk  culture  in  Europe.  All  attempts  and  efforts  on 
the  part  of  princes,  private  persons,  and  associations  to  extend  it 
over  the  countries  of  central  Europe  have  not  yet  sufficed,  in  spite 
of  small  successes,  to  secure  for  it  a footing  there.  There  are  plenty 
of  old,  moss-covered  mulberry  trees  here  and  there  throughout 
Germany,  and  mulberry  hedges  along  railway  embankments  and 
elsewhere— the  marks  of  these  vain  endeavours.  These  experi- 
ments began  in  Brandenburg,  when  the  Huguenot  immigrants 
introduced  silk-weaving.  Frederick  the  Great  encouraged  it,  and 
sought  to  promote  silk  culture  by  setting  out  millions  of  mulberry 
trees.  In  the  year  1784  there  were  14,000  pounds  of  raw  silk 
produced  in  his  land — an  amount  which  has  never  been  reached 
again  in  all  Germany.  Although  Germany  now  possesses  a 
flourishing  silk  industry,  all  the  raw  material,  as  in  the  case  of 
Switzerland,  England,  and  North  America,  is  obtained  directly  or 
indirectly  from  abroad,  from  Italy  and  the  Orient. 

Having  taken  this  short  historical  and  geographical  glance  at 
the  extension  of  silk  culture,  let  us  return  to  Japan,  to  the  land 
whose  industry  and  commercial  conditions  it  is  the  object  of  this 
excursus  to  illustrate  from  every  point  of  view,  and  which,  as  a 
silk  producer  stands  second  only  to  China  and  Italy  in  importance 
for  our  European  industry.  But  before  taking  up  its  silk  culture 
in  detail,  we  must,  of  course,  first  consider  briefly  its  fundamental 
elements — the  mulberry  tree  and  the  silkworm. 

The  white  mulberry  tree  ( Moms  alba,  L.)  Japan.  Kuwa,  like  the 
silk-spinner  ( Bombyx  mori , L.)  which  feeds  upon  its  leaves,  has 
been  divided  by  a high  cultivation  into  many  sub-species.  But 
notwithstanding  many  assertions  to  the  contrary,  it  has  never  yet 
been  discovered  in  a state  of  primitive  wildness.1  It  may  be  taken 

1 Even  good  botanists  sometimes  are  in  doubt,  when  they  find  cultivated 
plants  that  have  run  wild,  whether  they  have  not  discovered  an  original  home 
and  the  pure,  natural  form  of  the  plant.  How  much  more  liable  to  err,  then,  is 
the  tyro.  Therefore,  although  Oppert,  in  his  book  on  Corea,  states  that  the 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


19: 


for  granted  that  its  general  botanical  character  is  already  known. 
But  in  refutation  of  one  widespread  error,  it  is  well  to  remark 
here  that  some  varieties  of  this  “ white  mulberry  ” bear  black  fruit, 
but  are  always  to  be  distinguished  from  Morus  nigra , L.,  by  their 
leaves,  which  are  a lighter  green,  and  thinner  and  more  delicate. 

The  tree  accommodates  itself  to  different  climates  and  soils,  and 
on  this  account,  and  for  its  importance  in  silk-culture,  is  widely 
distributed.  Thus  we  meet  with  it  in  Europe,  from  the  shores  of 
-the  North  Sea  and  the  Baltic  to  those  of  the  Mediterranean,  some- 
times only  singly,  and  again  in  greater  numbers,  the  last  more 
frequently  in  proportion  as  the  use  of  its  foliage  has  become  im- 
portant. 

Reproduction  can  take  place  by  means  of  seeds,  cuttings,  and 
shoots,  though  one  of  the  last-named  methods  is  chosen  as  a rule. 
Melioration  by  grafting,  or  budding,  does  not  take  place.  The 
plant  has  a rapid  growth,  and  if  it  is  headed  after  the  manner  of 
willows,  puts  forth  every  year  thickly  foliaged  stout  shoots  more 
than  a meter  long.  In  any  one  of  its  usual  forms  it  attains  an 
age  of  40  to  60  years,  but  is  generally  renewed  in  30  to  40  years. 
In  sub-tropical  countries,  as  in  Syria  and  Andalusia,  the  new 
leaves  come  out  in  March  ; in  Provence  and  Northern  Italy,  and 
also  in  Japan,  in  April ; in  Germany,  not  till  May.  Of  the  various 
sub-species  I found  in  Japan  : 

(a)  M.  alba  lacmiata , Hort.,  with  which  must  be  placed  a vulgaris 
indica , D.C.  (Prodromus  XVII.  p.  238,  ff).  It  has  deep-lobed 
leaves,  is  called  T6-kuwa,  and  found  principally  in  the  higher 
valleys. 

[b)  M.  alba  macrophylla,  Hort. 

(e)  M.  alba  Morettiana , Hort.  with  large,  bright,  smooth  leaves, 
which  are  heart-shaped,  pointed,  and  sharply  dentated,  and  less 
frequently  lobed.  This,  as  is  well  known,  is  the  principal  species 
in  Southern  Europe. 

id)  M.  multicaulis , Perr.  (M.  Constantinopolitana,  Lam.)  with 
large  heart-shaped  leaves,  somewhat  hairy  on  their  under-side  ; is 
planted  principally  in  the  plain  and  hilly  country  of  Japan,  and 
treated  mostly  as  a bush. 

As  regards  treatment,  three  kinds  of  cultivated  mulberry-trees 
are  found  in  Japan  : 

1.  The  shrubby  (Hiku-kabu,  i.e.  low  stump).  This  is  the  kind 
most  carefully  and  extensively  cultivated,  and  predominates  in  the 
more  level  parts  of  the  great  silk  districts.  The  mulberry  shoots 
are  set  out  in  soil  that  has  been  thoroughly  and  deeply  worked, 
two-thirds  of  a meter  apart,  in  rows  I meter  apart.  Every  year 
they  are  cut  down  nearly,  to  the  ground,  like  osiers.  The  head 
or  stump  thus  formed  puts  forth  annually  a great  number  of  shoots 

mulberry  tree  and  the  tea-shrub  also,  grow  wild  in  that  country,  the  statement 
still  needs  to  be  verified  by  some  one  qualified  to  speak  on  the  matter. 


192 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


(whence,  probably,  the  name  M.  multicaulis,  Perr.)  with  large, 
strong  leaves,  which  are  stripped  from  the  switches  either  on  the 
spot  or  at  home.  The  latter  is  usually  the  case.  At  a little 
distance  these  plantations  do  not  look  unlike  a vineyard  in  level 
country,  especially  in  the  Mediterranean  region,  without  supports 
for  the  vines. 

2.  The  limited  tree-shaped  (Taka-kabu,  i.e.  high  stump).  In  this 
branch  of  the  industry  actual  stems  are  obtained,  as  in  raising 
willows  for  barrel  hoops  ; but  these  trunks  are  headed  at  a height 
of  i to  2 meters.  This  is  mulberry-culture  as  practised,  for 
example,  in  Northern  Italy  and  Spain  particularly  (with  Moras 
alba,  L.,  a,  vulgaris  Morettiana , Jacq.).  In  Japan  it  is  especially 
common  in  hilly  regions,  but  does  not  afford  so  fine  an  appearance 
as  in  Northern  Italy,  where  it  is  carried  out  with  more  regularity 
and  attention.  As  we  see  here,  it  admits  of  other  plants  being 
raised  alongside  of  it,  and  this  is  also  the  case  in  Japan  if  the 
trees,  as  is  commonly  the  case,  are  placed  wide  apart,  or  on  the 
borders  of  the  fields. 

3.  The  free  tree-shaped  (Taka-gi,  i.e.  high  tree).  As  already 
remarked,  this  is  most  frequently  M.  alba , L.,  indica , and  is  most 
frequent  in  valleys,  or  rather  on  their  slopes.  Owing  partly  to 
their  situation,  and  the  poverty  of  their  owners,  these  trees  look 
somewhat  neglected.  They  seldom  become  more  than  30  to  40 
years  old,  and  rarely  exhibit  a finely  shaped  crown.  Manure,  of 
which  they  require  more  than  the  better  situated  trees  and  shrubs 
in  the  plain,  is  seldom  applied  to  them. 

All  silk,  Jap.  Kinu,  originates  in  the  cocoons  or  pupa  coverings 
of  a group  of  moths  which  are  designated  by  the  name  of  Bomby- 
cides,  or  spinners.  Of  these,  the  Bombyx  mori,  L.,  the  mulberry- 
spinner,  is  the  best  known  and  by  far  the  most  important.  To  it 
all  the  foregoing  observations  directly  apply,  and,  as  a rule,  this 
is  true  of  all  remarks  on  silk  and  silk-culture.  As  in  the  case  of 
our  other  domestic  animals,  and  many  cultivated  plants,  their 
culture,  lasting  for  thousands  of  years,  has  gradually  resulted  in 
the  production  of  a large  number  of  species.  These  differ  from  one 
another  in  all  their  stages  of  development,  as  eggs,  caterpillars, 
cocoons  (pupae),  and  butterflies,  but  especially  as  to  the  length  of 
life,  size,  and  form  of  the  caterpillars,  and  also  the  size,  form,  and 
colour  of  the  cocoons.  Almost  all  of  them  are  characterized,  in 
the  caterpillar  stage,  by  a lazy,  sociable  life,  four  castings,  and  the 
fact  that  they  feed  on  fresh  leaves  of  Morus  alba,  L.  They  are 
thus  grouped : — 

(a)  Season-spinner  breed,  Ital.  Annuali,  Jap.  Haru-ko,  i.e.  spring- 
children.  They  breed  only  once,  in  spring  and  early  summer,  and 
produce  by  far  the  greatest  quantity  and  best  silk. 

( b ) Breeds  that  fly  repeatedly,  Zwei  und  Dreispinner,  Ital.  Bivol- 
tini  and  Trivoltini,  Jap.  Natsu-go,  i.e.,  summer-children,  with  several 
changes  of  breeding  in  one  summer.  They  are  not  much  valued, 
and  but  seldom  cultivated. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


193 


In  both  of  these  chief  breeds  there  are,  again,  a number  of  sub- 
divisions, distinguished,  according  to  the  colour  of  the  cocoons,  as 
white-spinners  (Jap.  Shiro-ko,  white  children),  green-spinners  (of  a 
yellow- green  colour,  Jap.  Kin-ko,  i.e.  gold-children),  and  yellow- 
spinners.  White  and  green  spinners  are  the  favourite  Japanese 
breeds,  one  being  preferred  in  one  part  of  the  country,  the  other  in 
another.  Their  cocoons,  Jap.  Mayu,  are  smaller  than  the  European 
and  Levantine.  There  are  850  of  the  white  Japanese  in  a kilo- 
gram, and  550  of  those  raised  in  Asia  Minor  ; while  of  the  beau- 
tiful yellow  cocoons  of  the  North  Italian  Brianza  breed  it  takes 
only  500  to  a kilogram. 

In  their  other  stages  of  development  as  well,  the  Japanese  white 
and  green-spinners  are  distinguished  by  several  features  from  our 
European  breeds.  The  eggs,  Jap.  Tane,  seeds,  French  graines,  have 
for  example,  very  fragile  shells.  For  this  reason  the  butterflies  are 
made  to  deposit  them  on  boards  (tane-gami)  made  of  bast  paper. 
These  are  usually  35  cm.  long  and  22  cm.  broad,  and  are  covered 
with  about  25  grammes  i.e.  45,000  separate  eggs.  These  stick 
fast,  and  from  them  the  young  grubs  creep  out  on  the  cardboard. 
The  peculiar  character  of  these  grubs  is  not  shown  till  after  the 
third  casting : yellow  eyes,  with  black  arches,  and  plain  distinct, 
dark  sickles  or  half-moons  on  the  back.  After  the  fourth  casting 
they  grow  very  fast,  acquiring  at  this  point  the  appearance  of  our 
old  breeds,  though  they  remain  one-fourth  smaller  than  our  yellow- 
spinners.  And  the  Kaiko  or  Japanese  silk- worms  are  less  active, 
and  have  a strong  inclination  to  spin  themselves  in  on  the  spot 
where  they  lie.  Until  the  second  or  third  casting,  they  must  be 
fed  on  chopped  leaves,  which  are  given  them,  as  a rule,  four  times 
a day.  In  fewer  cases  it  is  customary  to  feed  them  five  or  six 
times,  especially  in  the  first  two  of  the  five  periods  into  which  the 
caterpillar’s  life  falls,  on  account  of  its  four  changes  of  skin. 

The  silkworm,  to  develop  well  and  strong,  needs  a clean,  dry 
room,  free  from  draughts,  and  with  fresh,  healthy  air, — not  much 
exceeding  the  limits  of  10-30°  C., — besides  protection  from  direct 
sunlight,  and  clean,  fresh  food,  free  from  dust,  yet  dry.  The 
skilled  breeder  must  industriously  study  all  these  life-conditions 
in  connection  with  a number  of  other  smaller,  but  no  less  import- 
ant, circumstances — among  them  the  cleanliness  of  the  attendant 
— and,  through  no  lack  of  attention  or  care,  fail  to  fulfil  them.  In 
Japan  most  of  the  work  falls  to  the  women.  The  breeding  (of 
Haru-ko,  or  spring-children)  depends,  of  course,  upon  the  appear- 
ance of  new  foliage  on  the  food-plant,  and  commences,  in  the 
plain  and  the  warmer  hill-country,  at  the  beginning  of  May,  but  in 
the  valleys  not  till  the  middle  or  end  of  the  month.  It  lasts,  on 
an  average,  34  days,  with  natural  warmth,  i.e.  a temperature  vary- 
ing between  8°  and  28°  in  the  shade.  In  the  breeding  room,  how- 
ever, an  average  of  10-20°  C.  is  maintained. 

The  artificial  temperature  of  20-25°  C.  maintained  at  most 


:94 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


breeding  places  in  Europe  shortens  the  time  of  the  Japanese 
breeds  to  32  days,  and  that  of  the  Brianza  to  even  25  days. 

Silk-culture  in  Japan  is  confined  to  Hondo,  the  largest  of  the 
islands.  It  constitutes  here  the  most  widespread  and  important 
home  industry,  in  most  cases  being  carried  on  in  connection  with 
other  agricultural  employments  ; but  as  a rule  it  is  the  inhabitants’ 
chief  source  of  income.  Where  it  is  carried  out  to  a large  extent, 
one  perceives  from  the  large,  clean  houses,  and  their  beautiful  mats, 
how  it  has  improved  the  condition  of  the  people.  No  other  branch 
of  agricultural  industry  gives  evidence  of  an  equally  beneficial 
influence.  In  such  districts  there  are,  as  might  be  supposed, 
particular  places  in  which  the  caterpillars  are  raised  in  larger 
quantities.  In  sorime  narrow  valleys  people  even  give  up  the 
ordinary  one-storied  style  of  house,  and  added  another  storey 
to  the  dwelling  below,  so  as  to  have  plenty  of  dry,  airy  rooms 
for  the  silk-culture.  I have  noticed  this,  among  other  places,  in 
the  province  of  Kaga,  near  Ushikubi.  Wherever,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  breeder,  through  poverty  or  neglect,  does  not  give  his 
silk-worms  a room  by  themselves, — wherever  at  my  entrance  I 
met  an  offensive  odour  and  a swarm  of  flies,  as  in  many  of  our 
cattle  stalls,  there  I also  observed  signs  of  ruinous  disease  (the 
Pebrine  not  excepted).  Thus,  at  a single  change  of  bed,  hun- 
dreds of  dead  silk-worms  had  to  be  cast  into  the  water  that  ran 
past — -as,  for  example,  in  the  northern  part  of  Mino.  Like  the 
hatching  rooms,  also  the  storage  arrangements  are  varied  and 
suited  to  the  means  at  command — from  the  simple  frame  or  sieve, 
to  the  solid  structure  of  a high  stand  with  compartments.  This 
may  be  compared,  as  a rule,  to  two  ladders  standing  vertically 
opposite  each  other,  across  the  rounds  of  which,  at  intervals  of 
25  to  40  cm.,  are  placed  the  horizontal  hurdles  or  beds,  consisting 
either  of  parallel  laths  or  bamboo  sticks,  laid  from  1 to  3 cm. 
apart,  and  covered  with  thin  straw  mats. 

When  the  time  of  hatching  draws  near,  the  paper  boards  are 
brought  into  the  hatching  room,  or  to  a shady  spot  in  the  open  air, 
with  the  eggs,  which  have  been  kept  up  to  this  time  in  a dry  place, 
wrapped  in  paper  and  protected  from  mice.  Here  the  silkworm  is 
developed  in  the  egg  gradually,  as  the  warmth  increases.  Exact 
observations  in  Europe  have  shown  that  this  development  begins  at 
a temperature  of  io°  C.,  requiring  from  that  point  onwards  a total 
heat  of  about  400°  C,  which  is  divided  over  24  to  30  days  of 
April  and  early  May,  according  to  their  temperature.  It  is  mani- 
fest, therefore,  that  hatching  is  hastened  by  artificial  heat,  increased 
gradually,  but  not  above  25°  C.  When  the  worms  appear,  they 
are  from  time  to  time  and  in  various  ways,  transferred  to  the  beds, 
which  have  been  covered  with  delicate  chopped  leaves.  This 
removal  is  performed  either  by  gently  striking  the  under-side  of 
the  cards,  or  stroking  with  a feather,  or  by  laying  over  the  eggs 
a sheet  of  paper,  punctured  here  and  there,  and  bestrewn  on  the 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


!9S 


top  side  with  tender  mulberry  leaves.  The  worms  that  have 
crawled  out,  get  to  the  food  through  the  holes  in  the  paper,  and 
can  easily  be  carried  off  with  it  the  hurdles. 

If  the  breeding  is  carefully  conducted,  the  bed  must  be  cleaned 
daily,  except  during  the  times  of  casting,  The  cleaning  is  done 
before  a fresh  supply  of  food  is  given,  and,  as  a rule,  in  the  following 
way.  Above  the  bed  is  stretched  a thin  net  (Ami)  of  hemp-yarn. 
On  this  fresh  leaves  are  laid,  to  which  the  worms  crawl  over. 
Then  the  straw  mat  beneath,  with  its  remnants  of  food,  droppings, 
and  possibly  dead  worms,  is  withdrawn  and  cleaned,  or  replaced 
directly  by  another  with  fresh  food.  I also  saw  people  carry  with 
their  fingers  to  the  new  bed  the  inert  worms  which  had  remained 
behind  ; but  it  is  better  to  place  them  on  special  hurdles  and  tend 
them  there,  for  their  languor  is  often  only  the  first  sign  of  sickness, 
and  it  is  therefore  important  that  they  should  be  separated  from 
the  healthy  worms  as  soon  as  possible.  And  it  is  a point  in  careful 
breeding  to  keep  together  worms  of  the  same  age  and  condition, 
which  go  through  their  castings  simultaneously,  and  finally  spin 
themselves  in  and  go  into  the  chrysalis  stage  at  pretty  much  the 
same  time.  On  this  account  worms  that  are  hatched  a day  earlier 
or  later  than  the  great  majority,  are  separated  from  these  and 
tended  on  special  beds. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  often  happens  that  a breeder  begins  with  a 
second  or  even  third  series  of  worms  a week  or  two  after  the  breed- 
ing has  begun,  if  he  still  has  seed  and  plenty  of  food  at  hand. 
After  the  third,  and  especially  after  the  fourth  casting,  the  worms 
grow  rapidly,  and  must  be  separated  and  put  on  more  beds,  so  as 
not  to  lie  too  close  together,  or  perhaps  even  on  top  of  one  another. 
This  is  best  done  at  the  last  bed-cleaning  before  the  castings,  so  that 
after  the  third  casting  there  shall  be  80  to  ioo  worms  to  a square 
foot  of  bed.  When  the  change  of  skin  (Jap.  Neoki-tsuru ; French 
mue)  is  drawing  near,  the  worm  stops  feeding,  and  becomes  some- 
what brighter  and  smoother,  and  translucent  ; its  head  swells  ; it 
raises  itself  up  with  its  head  on  high  like  a sphinx,  in  this  position 
falling  into  a sick  lethargic  state,  a sleep  in  which  it  must  not  be 
disturbed  till  the  casting  is  over.  When  its  development  is  healthy 
and  normal,  this  lasts  one  day.  Then  the  worm  turns  to  its  food 
with  new  and  strengthened  appetite,  its  capacity  being  much  in- 
creased. With  the  Japanese  breeds  the  first  and  fifth  period  of  age 
are  the  longest,  each  of  them  lasting  eight  days,  and  each  of  the 
others  averaging  six  days.  Of  300  kg.  of  food,  which  20,000  worms 
require  for  their  development,  more  than  three-fourths  is  devoured 
between  the  fourth  casting  and  going  into  the  chrysalis  state. 
Their  growth  and  increase  in  weight  correspond  to  this  astonishing 
requirement  of  food.  Nitrogen  alone  has  formed  14  per  cent,  of 
a worm’s  weight. 

The  following  table  will  give  some  information  as  to  the  relative 
weight  of  the  worm  at  the  end  of  its  separate  periods  of  existence, 
and  also  of  its  transformations. 


■96 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY 


The  quantitative  changes  of  the  live  and  dry  weight  of  the  silk- 
worm during  its  development } 

1000  specimens  of  the  Japanese  white-spinner  gave  :• — 


Live  weight 

Dry  weight 

g- 

Relation  of 
the  Live 
Weight. 

Relation  of 
the  Dry 
Weight. 

The  weight  of  the  worm 
when  just  hatched  = i. 

Just  hatched 

1.  Period,  after  175  hours.  . 

2.  Period,  „ 159  „ . . 

3.  Period,  „ 150  „ . . 

4.  Period,  „ 165  „ . . 

5.  period,  „ 177  „ . . 

Empty  cocoon 

Pupa  alone 

Cocoon  with  pupa  .... 
Butterfly 

0414 

4734 

2S‘57 

114-05 

514-17 

2,220-99 

140-00 

1,030-00 

1,170-00 

503'56 

0-098 

0752 

3-662 

14-92 

62-69 

436-85 

X22'50 

217-41 

339-91 

H2-I7 

II  "4 

61 -8 
275-5 
1,241-9 

5,364-7 

2,826-1 

1,215-0 

7'7 

37"4 

152-2 

639-7 

4,4577 

3,468-5 
i,45o-7  (?) 

The  increase  in  the  weight  of  the  silkworms  is  thus  quite  enor- 
mous, especially  after  the  fourth  casting.  When  ready  to  spin,  they 
have  increased  their  live  weight  nearly  5,400-fold,  and  that  too 
within  34  days  10  hours,  the  total  period  of  development.  Whereas 
it  takes  2,415  of  the  newly  hatched  grubs  to  make  a gramme,  a 
single  one  ready  to  spin  weighs  2’22  gr. 

Before  it  begins  to  spin,  the  silkworm  loses  its  appetite,  crawls 
about  restlessly,  often  raising  its  body  like  a sphinx,  empties  itself 
of  excrements,  and  becomes  noticeably  translucent.  The  greatest 
change,  however,  is  internal.  The  two  spinning-glands — long, 
coiled  conduits,  lying  on  either  side  of  the  alimentary  canal — 
have  become  gradually  filled  with  transparent,  thick,  fluid  silk- 
stuff,  which  comes  forth  from  them,  when  the  silkworm  begins 
to  spin,  through  the  so-called  spinning-teats  in  its  head,  stiffening 
in  two  separate  threads.  These  threads,  however,  become  instantly 
cemented  together  in  a double  thread  in  the  short  duct  common 
to  both,  in  consequence  of  their  coating  of  glue.  The  length  of 
this  double  thread  varies  between  350  and  650  meters  in  different 
breeds  and  cocoons,  according  to  their  abundance  of  silk.1 2 

1 After  Kellner,  in  “ Landwirthschaftl.  Versuchsstationen  von  Nobbe.”  Bd. 
XXX.,  p.  75,  1884. 

2 Strong  silk-threads  with  the  appearance  of  violin-strings  are  known  in 
commerce  by  the  Japanese  name  Tengusu ; English,  silkworm-gut ; French,  fide 
Florence.  In  China  they  are  made  directly  from  the  spinning-glands  of  full- 
grown  silkworms,  and  have  for  some  time  been  used  with  us  for  surgical 
sewing-thread,  and  also  in  large  quantity  for  fishing-lines.  (See  also  Caligula 
japonica , ButL) 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


'97 


When  it  begins  to  spin,  the  silkworm  chooses  a corner,  the  fork 
of  a twig,  or  some  such  retaining-point  for  its  first  thread.  The 
breeder  assists  it  in  this  inclination,  employing  various  measures  to 
promote  the  formation  of  cocoons.  One  of  the  simplest  and  most 
practical,  is  to  spread  rape-stalks  over  the  bed  of  the  caterpillars 
about  to  spin,  the  numerous  light  branches  of  which  offer  them 
facilities  for  fastening  their  first  thread.  In  other  places  in  Japan, 
small  loose  fagots  of  thickly  branching  brush,  as  long  as  the  bed  is 
wide,  are  bound  up  and  laid  across  it.  I observed  still  another 
method,  quite  different  from  these,  at  Nagahama,  on  the  Biwa  Lake. 
Little  cornets  of  straw  were  spread  over  the  bed,  which  the  cater- 
pillars easily  reached  and  used  quite  readily  for  going  into  the 
chrysalis  state. 

It  takes  the  caterpillar  three  or  four  days  to  change  into  a chry- 
salis. First  it  makes  a loose,  ellipsoidal  case,  and  then,  supported 
by  this, — meanwhile  twisting  and  bending  its  body,  which  is  all  the 
time  getting  shorter,  it  forms  the  cocoon.  This  consists  of  a single 
thread,  averaging  400  to  500  meters  long,  and  becoming  thinner 
and  weaker  towards  the  centre  (in  the  proportion  of  3 to  4).  The 
external,  loose  web,  the  floss-silk,  German  Flockseide,  Japanese 
Noshi  and  Mawata,  French  bourre , consists  of  many  thin,  and  on 
that  account  alone  much  less  valuable,  threads.  A cross-section  of 
a cocoon  wall  shows,  when  magnified,  from  5 to  10  layers  of  silk, 
adhering  tightly  or  loosely.  The  thread  which  forms  them  was 
deposited  by  the  caterpillar  in  continuous  backward  turns  one  on 
another  and  sticks  fast  to  the  one  adjoining.  If  the  layers  of  thread 
lie  close  together,  the  cocoon-wall  has  the  appearance  of  parchment, 
with  a thickness  of  scarcely  0*3  mm.  Otherwise,  the  structure  is 
leafy,  and  rough,  like  felt,  and  the  wall  is  1 mm.  thick.  The  weights 
in  grammes  of  floss-silk,  firm  silk-web,  and  pupa,  bear  to  each  other 
the  following  relation,  according  to  Haberland,  taking  100  Japanese 
cocoons  of  Italian  breeding : — 

Floss-silk.  Firm  silk.  Pupa.  Together. 

Green-spinners  0*52  i6*oo  io8to  12452 

White-spinners  0*48  1 5 *34  106*20  122*02 

from  which  it  appears  that  green-spinners  have  13*26  per  cent.,  and 
white  spinners  12*69  Per  cent,  of  silk  in  the  total  weight  of  the 
cocoon. 

From  seven  to  nine  days  after  the  caterpillars  have  spun,  the 
cocoons  are  taken  from  their  resting-places  and  separated  from  the 
floss-silk  that  surrounds  them.  The  best  are  chosen  for  breeding, 
and  the  pupae  of  the  remainder  are  killed  by  being  exposed  to  the 
sun,  or  by  steam  or  heated  air.  The  cocoons  are  then  dried  and 
put  away  to  be  wound  off,  or  sold  to  large  factories  or  reeling-estab- 
lishments— filandas.  A cocoon  is  well-shaped  or  normal  when  it 
has  full  walls  and  a sharply  accentuated  form,  a fine,  close  web, 
and  firmness,  especially  at  the  ends.  As  a rule  they  are  ellipsoidal, 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


198 


though  the  male  cocoons  almost  always  have  a saddle-shaped  de- 
pression in  the  middle,  and  are  smaller,  but  harder  than  the  female. 
The  so-called  double-cocoons,  Jap.  Tama-ito,  French  doztppions,  are 
suited  neither  for  reeling-off  nor  for  breeding.  They  originate  from 
two  or  even,  possibly,  three  caterpillars  choosing  the  same  nook 
and  crossing  and  tangling  their  threads  when  spinning.  They  are 
much  larger  and  generally  somewhat  otherwise  formed  than  the 
simple  normal  ones.  But  their  quantity  of  silk  is  less  than  it  would 
be  if  the  caterpillars  had  spun  themselves  in  separately.  As  a rule, 
none  of  the  enclosed  pupae  develops  into  a butterfly.  They  die 
soon  after  their  work  in  common.  An  attentive  silk-raiser  will 
for  these  reasons  seek  to  prevent  the  formation  of  double-cocoons 
wherever  he  sees' they  are  imminent,  by  inserting  a splinter  of 
wood  or  a stiff  piece  of  paper  between  the  caterpillars.  In  Europe, 
special  apparatus  have  been  devised  for  this  purpose,  “ Appareil 
cellulaire  isolateur,”  etc.,  which  were  to  be  seen  at  the  great  in- 
dustrial exhibitions  in  Paris.  The  pointed  cocoons  also  ( cocons 
pointus)  are  hard  to  reel-off,  and  so  are  the  very  large  loose  ones 
( 'cocalons ).  Chaquettes  and  cocons  calcines  also  are  of  little  value, 
especially  those  in  which  the  insect  died  before  completing  the 
thread.  Finally  there  are  the  cocons  pence s or  pierced  cocoons.  To 
this  class  belong  first  of  all  those  from  which  the  butterflies  have 
escaped.  They  dissolve  the  thread  at  one  end  of  the  cocoon’s 
long  axis  by  means  of  a caustic  liquid,  and  then  make  a hole 
through.  But  we  must  add  to  these  the  cocoons  which  are  pierced 
by  parasites — as  in  Japan  by  the  larvae  of  the  Uchi-fly ; for  such 
cocoons  likewise  cannot  be  wound  off.  They  can  only  be  worked 
into  floret-silk,  like  double-cocoons  and  the  bourne. 

Seventeen  or  eighteen  days  after  the  caterpillars  began  to 
spin,  the  butterflies  (Jap.  Chocho)  creep  out  of  their  cocoons,  at 
about  8 a.m.  They  have  broken  through  at  one  end  of  the  long 
axis  by  means  of  a corrosive  liquid,  and  now  sit  just  outside,  with 
their  heads  turned  upward.  The  unmistakable  marks  of  the  females, 
are  greater  size,  a thicker  body  behind,  plain  antennae,  and  ex- 
treme inertness,  while  the  males  or  cocks  are  characterized  by  the 
vigorous  flapping  of  their  wings.  Pairing  begins  immediately,  and 
is  over  in  6 to  8 hours,  whereupon  the  males  are  thrown  away,  and 
the  females  set  for  laying  their  250-400  eggs  on  the  cards  arranged 
for  that  purpose.  Within  24  hours  they  have  performed  this  task, 
and  are  now  also  cast  aside  as  of  no  further  use. 

The  round  eggs  or  gratnes,  which  at  first  are  straw-colour,  be- 
come a slaty-grey  within  a fortnight,  their  fructification  being 
indicated  by  the  change.  As  already  mentioned,  they  are  wrapped 
in  paper  and  put  into  a dry,  cool  room,  to  be  kept  till  the 
next  breeding-time  in  the  following  spring  ; or  they  are  sold  to 
Italian  and  French  dealers  for  breeding  in  Europe,  of  which  details 
are  given  further  on.  In  view  of  the  small  part  played  by  the 
Bivoltini  (Natsu-go,  or  summer  children)  in  Japanese  silk-cul- 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


199 


ture,1  a very  few  observations  in  connection  with  the  foregoing  will 
suffice.  We  learn  from  the  well-known  and  already  quoted  work 
of  Richthofen,  that  in  China  in  olden  times  it  was  strictly  forbidden 
to  gather  two  silk-harvests  in  one  year,  or  as  we  should  say,  rather, 
to  cultivate  Bivoltini.  In  other  silk-raising  countries  this  species 
was  held  in  those  days  in  the  same  small  esteem.  It  would 
seem  that  their  cocoons  are  light  and  the  thread  weak.  According 
to  Haberland,  the  Japanese  Bivoltini  (white  and  green-spinner) 
contain  only  9' 18  grammes,  or  11  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  silk 
of  the  cocoon.  The  worms  form  their  cocoons  thirty  days  after 
hatching  ; fifteen  days  later  the  butterfly  appears.  Their  eggs  are 
smaller  than  those  of  other  species,  are  red  in  colour  and  oblong 
in  shape.  Ten  days  after  they  are  laid,  the  worm  is  hatched,  and 
begins  a second  breeding  on  the  same  plan  as  the  first.  The 
cocoons  are  usually  of  a long  egg  shape,  pointed  at  one  end. 

Besides  the  various  diseases  common  to  silkworms,  Japanese  silk- 
culture  suffers  most  from  a parasitical  insect,  the  larva  of  the 
Udschi  fly  ( Udschimya  sericaria,  Rond).  According  to  C.  Sasaki,2 
this  fly  lays  its  small  oval  eggs  about  the  beginning  of  May 
along  the  ribs  of  the  under-side  of  the  young  mulberry  leaves.  The 
silkworm  feeding  on  these  leaves,  many  of  the  eggs  are  conveyed 
to  the  alimentary  canal,  where  a thin  white  worm  is  hatched,  which 
by  means  of  its  sharp  mandibles,  furnished  with  small  bristles, 
bores  through  the  walls  of  the  canal  and  reaches  the  ganglia,  where 
it  feeds  upon  nerve  cells.  Later  it  enters  the  trachea  and  fleshy 
substance,  and  here  it  attains  its  maturity,  coming  finally  forth 
upon  the  outside  surface  a full-grown  insect.  Very  often  it  begins 
its  course  later  on  in  the  life  of  the  worm,  and  continues  its  develop- 
ment in  the  chrysalis.  The  light-weight  cocoon  which  results  from 
its  depredation  is  at  last  made  quite  useless  by  the  piercing  through 
of  the  full-grown  fly.  Killing  the  cocoon  as  soon  as  quite  formed 
hinders  the  complete  destruction  of  such  as  still  conceal  the  living 
parasite  within. 

Greeven,3  some  ten  years  since,  called  attention  to  these  insects 
and  their  great  depredations.  He  states  that  sometimes  80  per  cent, 
of  the  cocoons  reserved  for  breeding  have  been  found  to  be  infested 
by  them.  Bavier  also,  in  his  book  upon  the  silk  industry  of  Japan, 
devotes  some  space  to  the  subject,  and  notes  that  an  average  of 
forty  per  cent,  of  the  worms  in  Sinshiu  (Shinano),  and  in  Musashi 
and  Joshiu  (Kotsuke)  50  per  cent,  are  injured  by  these  parasites. 

In  view  of  this  pest,  the  various  diseases  which  have  up  to 
this  time  interfered  with  the  silk  culture  in  Japan  have  seemed 

1 Until  now  the  white  Bivoltini  have  been  cultivated  only  in  the  neighbour- 
hood oT  Miharu,  Province  Iwaki. 

2 Udschimya  sej'icaria,  Rond.  “A  Fly  Parasite  on  the  Silkworm.”  Nature, 
Sept.  4,  1884. 

3 “ Mittheilungen  der  Deutschen  Gesellschaft  Ostasiens.”  Heft.  7,  pp.  20  and 


200 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


comparatively  insignificant,  and  received  but  little  attention.  As 
far  as  has  been  discoverable,  however,  in  late  years,  the  Japan 
silk-raiser  has  to  meet  all  the  diseases  common  to  the  silkworm 
in  European  countries.  His  foe,  Hoshii,  is  our  Muscardine,  his 
Fushi-kaiko  appears  to  be  what  is  known  among  us  as  Schlafifsucht 
and  in  his  Koshari  may  be  recognised  the  somewhat  less  frequent 
but  equally  feared  Pebrine,  or  Corpuscula  disease.  As  the  course 
of  this  fatal  Pebrine  epidemic  in  Europe  has  had  a most  power- 
ful reaction  upon  silk  culture  in  Japan,  a few  more  particular 
details  may  be  given  here.  In  the  years  1845-6  there  appeared 
in  three  of  our  most  important  industries — the  culture  of  the 
potato,  grape,  and  silkworm — diseases  which  were  so  peculiar  in 
their  character,  and'  so  widely  extending,  that  they  exercised  a 
powerful  and  lasting  influence  upon  our  social  life,  particularly  upon 
trade  and  manufactures.  Chemistry  speedily  furnished  successful 
remedies  for  the  grape  disease,  and  the  potato  disease  after  a long 
period  disappeared  as  gradually  as  it  came.  But  the  mortality 
among  silkworms  reached  at  this  time,  viz.,  between  1860-1870,  its 
highest  point,  and  continued  with  greater  persistence  and  severity. 
Its  nature  differed  essentially  from  all  the  diseases  hitherto  known 
to  silk  culture.  It  was  known  as  Pebrine,  Spot  or  Corpuscula 
disease. 

It  appeared  first  in  the  French  districts  along  the  Mediterranean, 
spreading  from  the  banks  of  the  Herault,  like  the  grape  disease, 
along  the  waterways,  over  the  valleys  of  the  Clain,  the  Boivre,  the 
Durance  and  Rhone  with  still  greater  rapidity,  till  in  1851  all  the 
silk-raising  Departments  of  France  were  infected.  In  the  year  1854 
it  was  first  noticed  in  Italy,  and  its  worst  ravages  occurred  in  1856, 
when  in  many  places  the  silk  harvest  fell  off  25  per  cent.  A 
calamity  which  bore  so  heavily  on  the  national  welfare  of  France, 
Italy,  and  other  countries,  naturally  excited  the  attention  of 
governments  and  scientists.  Numerous  remedies  were  proposed 
and  tried,  but  none  succeeded.  Silk-raisers  betook  themselves  to 
the  East,  the  lower  Danube,  to  Greece  and  Asia  Minor,  in  order 
to  check  the  evil  by  the  introduction  of  other  and  apparently 
healthier  species.  But  it  seemed  as  if  they  carried  the  disease  east- 
ward with  them,  for  it  spread  more  and  more  widely,  till  it  showed 
itself  in  the  Crimea,  in  Trans-Caucasus  and  Persia,  and  at  last  even 
in  India  and  China.  Only  one  country,  and  that  Japan,  remained 
unvisited  by  the  pestilence,  and  towards  Japan  all  eyes  were  turned 
for  the  longed-for  deliverance.  A new  industry,  the  export  of  silk- 
worm eggs,  was  thus  developed  in  this  country;  one  which  soon 
assumed  significant  size,  and  had  a powerful  effect  upon  Japanese 
silk-culture  at  home.  Before  following  this  further,  a few  observa- 
tions on  the  disease  itself  are  in  place.  The  existence  of  the  Cor- 
puscula disease  shows  itself  at  the  outset  in  a noticeable  dwarfing 
of  the  growth  of  some  of  the  worms.  These  diminutive  worms 
manifest  little  appetite,  and  crawl  lazily  and  slowly  about.  The 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


201 


casting  comes  on  later  than  with  the  healthy  specimens,  in  the  fourth 
making  a difference  of  from  eight  to  fourteen  days,  and  the  larger 
proportion  of  the  worms  die  before  reaching  the  spinning  age.  The 
body  becomes  soft,  assumes  a dirty  yellow  colour,  with  peculiar 
spots  appearing  first  on  the  hairy  parts.  These  seem  at  first  scarcely 
darker  than  the  skin,  but  grow  gradually  larger  and  more  noticeable 
in  shade,  run  together  in  irregular  shapes,  and  are  finally  pitch- 
black  and  shining.  The  excretions  are  more  liquid  than  in  a 
healthy  state,  and  covered  with  yellow  slime,  which  hardens  on 
exposure  to  air,  flows  of  itself,  becomes  black,  and  often  obstructs 
the  passage.  When  dead  the  worm  soons  dissolves  into  a sickening 
black  slime.  The  disease  often  appears  first  toward  the  end  of  the 
development  of  the  silkworm,  but  carries  on  its  work  in  the  chry- 
salis, so  that  the  ravages  of  the  plague  are  plainly  to  be  observed  in 
the  forthcoming  butterfly.  Much  more  important  than  these  out- 
ward indications  and  symptoms  are  the  workings  of  the  disease  in 
the  body  of  the  insect.  After  a most  careful  study  of  these,  it  has 
been  found  that  the  surest  sign  of  the  Pebrine  is  the  presence  of  cer- 
tain small  egg-shaped,  ellipsoidal  or  cylindrical  bodies,  o,oo5-o,oo2 
mm.  in  length,  rounded  at  both  ends,  which  look  like  oil  drops  when 
brought  to  the  light.  These  “Corpusculs  vibrants”  were  first  in- 
vestigated and  described  by  Prof.  Cornalia  of  Milan,  and  are  known 
in  consequence  as  the  Cornalian  corpuscles.  The  nature  of  these 
organisms,  Nosema  bombycis , Naegl.,  was  stated  much  later.  They 
are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  diseased  worm,  in  the  excretions  also, 
and  propagate  themselves  from  generation  to  generation.  The 
healthy  butterfly  has  none  of  them,  but  they  reappear  in  its  eggs. 
Upon  this  fact,  following  the  teaching  of  the  celebrated  physiolo- 
gist, Pasteur,  has  been  founded  the  only  successful  remedy,  or, 
rather,  the  means  of  controlling  and  removing  the  disease,  which, 
consistently  employed,  has  wrought  the  best  results.  It  consists 
in  a careful  microscopic  test  of  those  butterflies  reserved  for  breed- 
ing, and  of  their  eggs,  and  the  separation  of  every  suspicious  insect 
and  particle,  the  special  directions  and  prescriptions  for  which 
would  take  up  too  much  time  and  space.  It  must  be  mentioned 
in  this  connection  that  the  notion  of  Liebig  and  others  of  his  time, 
that  mulberry  culture  works  a gradual  weakening  and  chemical 
change  of  food  through  exhaustion  of  the  soil,  and  thus  largely 
causes  the  disease,  was  entirely  erroneous,  as  I showed  some 
eighteen  years  since.1 

The  summers  of  1856,  1862  and  1865  were  the  worst  seasons 
known  to  silk-culture  in  modern  times.  They  were  all  marked  in 
Southern  Europe  by  sultry  temperatures  and  long  continuing  rains 
throughout  the  breeding  period.  This  abnormal  and  unfavourable 
weather,  without  doubt,  largely  increased  the  ravages  of  the  disease. 
In  Italy  the  cocoon  harvest,  which  yielded  in  1857  forty  million  kg. 

1 Rein:  “ Der  gegenwartige  Stand  des  Seidenbaues.”  Frankfurt  a/M.  1868 
pp.  22-24. 


202 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


in  all,  was  reduced  in  1865  to  less  than  half  this  amount.  The 
same  year  in  France,  the  harvest  fell  from  one  hundred  million  to 
thirty-four  million  francs,  and  from  this  sum  a deduction  of  ten 
million  francs  should  be  made  for  the  cost  of  foreign  eggs  or 
graines.  Where  the  French  grciines  had  cost  from  four  to  six 
francs  the  ounce,  the  imported  article  cost  from  fifteen  to  twenty. 
Under  such  circumstances  the  welfare  of  the  silk  districts  sank 
rapidly.  Large  mulberry  plantations  which  before  yielded  large 
income,  could  not  find  purchasers,  as  was  stated  in  the  French 
Senate  in  1865,  by  the  late  celebrated  chemist  Dumas.  Since  then 
the  conditions  have  improved  gradually,  but  to  the  present  time  no 
European  country  has  reached  its  former  grade  of  silk  production. 
France  furnishes  now  perhaps  one-half,  and  Italy  two-thirds  of  its 
former  yield  of  the  raw  material.  The  country  which  had  the 
advantage  over  all  others  was  as  has  been  said  before,  Japan. 
To  its  export  of  raw  silk,  which  greatly  increased  in  amount  and 
price,  was  now  added  the  exportation  of  silkworm-eggs,  and  their 
production  for  foreign  markets  became  an  important  element  in 
the  silk-culture  of  the  land.  Every  summer  a number  of  strangers, 
principally  Italians,  appeared  to  execute  commissions  for  foreign 
companies,  merchants  mainly,  who  travelled  by  permission  of  the 
Japanese  authorities  into  the  silk  districts  of  the  interior,  purchased 
what  they  required  of  the  graines,  and  returned  to  Europe,  where 
their  speculating  principals  speedily  found  a market  for  them. 
These  “ Bivoltini,”  as  they  were  humorously  named,  thus  made 
for  themselves  a regular  business,  to  the  no  small  vexation  of  the 
Italian  embassy  and  the  Japanese  government,  both  of  which 
considered  their  burdensome  agency  as  entirely  superfluous,  since 
the  purchasing  and  exporting  of  eggs  might  have  been  carried  on 
quite  as  well  by  the  regular  foreign  merchants  of  Japan. 

The  export  of  silk  seeds,  or  graines,  in  boxes,  began  in  i860,  but 
must  have  been  conducted  somewhat  secretly  until  1865,  as  up  to 
that  time  an  old  law  existed,  forbidding  the  same  under  penalty  of 
death.  The  experiments  made  in  Italy  in  i860  and  1861  with  the 
Japanese  white  and  green-spinners  proved  very  successful  in  those 
years  and  still  later ; nevertheless,  a noticeable  weakening  of  the 
species  became  evident  in  the  second  and  third  generation.  Mean- 
while the  Japanese  exports  of  graines  increased  rapidly,  amounting 
in  1863  to  30,000  boxes,  in  1864  to  300,000,  and  in  1865  to 
2,500,000.  This  immense  sale  and  enormous  profit,  which  chiefly 
enriched  Japanese  merchants,  led  to  cheats  and  counterfeits  of 
various  kinds,  not  only  by  the  admixture  of  eggs  of  an  inferior 
breed,  but  also  of  Bivoltini,  so  that  complaints  increased.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  enlarged  exportation  was  not  without  disadvan- 
tage to  silk-culture  at  home,  and  the  government  was  obliged  to 
seek  a remedy.  This  was  found  in  the  control  and  regulation  of 
production  by  the  government,  leaving  the  export  of  silk  seeds  free 
as  before.  It  was  discovered  after  a while  that  the  eggs  of  high 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


altitudes  hatched  a better  species  of  worm  than  those  of  the  lower 
countries,  where  the  breeding  was  more  active ; consequently  the 
breeders  of  the  province  of  Joshiu,  where  the  silk  industry  specially 
flourished,  brought  their  eggs  from  Shinano.  The  government 
now  permitted  only  those  breeders  living  in  high  localities  to  pro- 
duce eggs  for  seed,  controlled  the  breeding,  and  stamped  the  boxes 
with  the  official  seal  before  they  were  forwarded  to  treaty-ports.  This 
regulation  had  little  effect  for  good  upon  either  the  home  industry 
or  the  export,  which  underwent  many  vicissitudes  of  quantity  and 
price,  and  which  in  modern  times  has  greatly  decreased.  The  price 
reached  the  highest  limit  in  1873,  when  the  average  worth  of  a box 
was  2‘I5  yen,  or  about  eight  shillings  and  sixpence,  while  in  1877 
it  had  fallen  to  0^29  yen,  or  one  shilling  and  twopence  the  box.  In 
1868  there  were  exported  1,886,325  boxes,  worth  3,782,351  yen,  or 
about  £727,912  ; in  1877,  1,167,502  boxes,  worth  341,467  yen,  or  a 
little  more  than  £66,954. 

The  silk-culture  of  Japan  is,  as  has  been  before  remarked, 
limited  to  the  principal  island  of  Hondo.  Of  the  various  silk  pro- 
ducts of  this  island  (Japanese  Kinu  or  Ito  in  the  most  general  sig- 
nificance) which  are  sent  to  Europe  and  the  United  States  from 
Yokohama,  the  most  important  is  reel-silk  (Japanese,  Sage  Ito; 
French, grlge  ; English,  hanks),  which  is  only  excelled  in  quality 
by  the  French  and  Italian.  Besides  this,  there  is  the  silk  waste  of 
all  kinds  (French , dechets),  which  serves  for  spun  silk  or  flurt,  and 
which  includes  especially  the  refuse  that  occurs  in  the  course  of 
cultivation.  This  consists  of  flock  silk  (French,  blaze),  or  the  loose 
web  of  the  silkworm,  inside  of  which  it  forms  its  cocoon,  the 
Tama-mayu,  or  double  cocoons  (French,  douppions),  the  Degara 
(French,  cocons  perces ),  i.e.  cocoons  from  which  the  butterflies  have 
crawled  out,  and  also  imperfect  cocoons.  The  Japanese  uses  all 
those  varieties  of  cocoons  which  are  unsuitable  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  grege  for  his  Ma-wata,  or  silk  fleece,  after  they  have  been 
softened  in  a weak  lye  of  wood  or  straw  ashes,  then  cut  up  and  the 
dead  chrysalis  thrown  away.  The  silk  is  then  picked  off  from  the 
cocoon  with  the  fingers,  and  fastened  to  the  ends  of  small  sticks 
in  order  to  keep  it  straight,  the  fleece  from  twenty  to  sixty  cocoons 
lying  piled  in  this  way  together.  When  dry,  this  is  used  as  lining 
for  clothes  and  bed  quilts,  or  is  spun  as  wool  is  with  us,  or  is 
shipped  and  sold  with  other  silk  waste.  Another  kind  of  refuse 
comes  from  the  unwinding  of  the  cocoons.  This  takes  in  especi- 
ally the  outermost  web  of  the  cocoon,  which,  after  soaking  in  warm 
water,  is  beaten  by  a small  hand-broom.  Some  silk  necessarily 
clings  to  the  broom  before  the  proper  thread  is  found,  and  these 
ragged  bits  are  called  in  Japanese,  Kawa-muki  (bark  silk),  Noshi-ito, 
and  Shike-ito,  in  French,  frisons.  To  these  are  added  the  threads 
broken  in  reeling,  as  well  as  the  imperfect  cocoons. 

The  silkworm  eggs  (Jap.,  Tane  ; French,  graines),  form  another 
article  of  export,  the  importance  of  which  has  been  already  noted  ; 


204 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


and  lastly  we  have  the  woven  fabrics  brought  to  the  foreign 
markets. 

The  three  geographical  silk  zones  of  Hondo  are  distinguished 
by  the  dealers  in  Yokohama  according  to  the  quality  of  the  reel  or 
raw  silks  and  their  “ make-up,”  i.e.  the  manner  in  which  the  skeins 
are  laid  together  in  packing. 

a.  The  northern  district  yields  the  Oshiu  silk,  so  called  from  the 
province  Oshiu,  which  furnishes  about  20  per  cent,  of  the  entire 
production,  and  exports  25  per  cent,  of  the  seed  or  graines.  The 
city  of  Fukushima,  on  the^  Abukuma-gawa,  is  the  centre  of  the 
most  active  silk  culture  in  Oshiu.  The  district  embraces  that  sec- 
tion of  country  lying  between  370  and  385°  N.  lat.  and  140°  and 
14 1 0 E.  long.  To  it  belongs — 

(a)  The  province  Iwashiro,  watered  chiefly  by  the  Abukuma- 
gawa,  with  its  cities  Fukushima,  Yanagawa,  Nihonmatsu,  Moto- 
miya,  Moriyama,  and  Sukagawa,  as  well  as  other  well-known  silk- 
raising localities. 

(/3)  The  province  Uzen,  north-west  from  Iwashiro,  and  north  of 
the  Aidzu-taira,  with  the  cities  of  Yamagata,  Kaminoyama,  and 
Yonezawa.  The  neighbourhood  of  this  last  named  city,  with  the 
localities  Koide  and  Narita,  furnishes  a large  quantity  of  specially 
prized  Tane  to  commerce. 

(7)  Iwaki,  whose  largest  silk  market  is  the  city  of  Miharu.  The 
more  northerly  provinces,  from  Sendai  to  Echigo,  lying  in  the 
western  part  along  the  Japan  Sea,  are  far  behind  these  three  in 
the  worth  and  quantity  of  their  Oshiu  silk. 

b.  The  central  district  joins  the  foregoing  on  the  north,  stretch- 
ing toward  the  south-west  from  about  3 70  to  35^°  N.  lat.,  and  be- 
tween 1 370  and  139^°  E.  long.,  westerly  and  north-westerly  from 
Tokio.  This  district  embraces  the  provinces  of  Kddzuke  (Joshiu), 
Shinano  (Sinshiu),  and  Kai  (Koshiu),  besides  joining  Sinshiu,  the 
provinces  of  Hida,  Kaga  and  Echiu,  in  which  silk-culture  falls  far 
behind  the  first-named  three ; and  finally  east  of  Koshiu  and 
Joshiu  the  western  and  hilly  Musashi,  as  well  as  Shimodzuke  and 
Hitachi,  which  furnish  only  a small  amount  of  silk. 

This  central  zone  of  Japanese  silk-culture  takes  prominent  place 
inasmuch  as  it  produces  65  per  cent,  of  all  the  Japanese  silk  in  the 
market,  and  70  per  cent,  of  the  seeds  or  graines.  From  Jdshiu 
comes  30  per  cent,  of  silk  and  15  per  cent,  of  the  graines.  From 
Sinshiu,  27  per  cent,  silk  and  60  per  cent,  graines , and  from  Mu- 
sashi about  15  per  cent,  of  silk  only.  It  appears,  therefore,  that 
Joshiu  is  the  most  productive  of  all  the  silk  fields  of  Japan.  The 
country  surrounding,  Mayebashi,  Takasaki,  and  Numata,  is  speci- 
ally noted  for  silk  production  ; and  Mayebashi  hanks,  or  Maye- 
bashi grappes,  lead  the  price  all  the  Japanese  reel  silk.  In  the 
high-lying  province  of  Shinano  also,  there  is  great  activity  in  silk- 
culture,  which  excels  all  other  occupations  as  a source  of  livelihood 
and  gain.  Its  production  also  is  highly  prized  in  the  market,  and  is 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


205 


confined  largely  to  the  environs  of  Uyeda  on  the  Chikuma-gawa, 
of  Nagato  and  Ida. 

c.  The  southern  silk  district  joins  the  central  towards  the  south- 
west, and  comprises  the  provinces  Mino,  Omi,  Echizen,  as  well  as 
Tamba,  Tango,  Tajima.  Besides  these,  the  remainder  of  south- 
western Hondo  has  little  to  boast  in  the  way  of  silk-culture.  This 
is  also  true  of  the  provinces  of  Tdkaido,  with  the  exception  of 
Koshiu  and  Musashi,  already  mentioned,  and  in  Gokinai,  Sanyodo 
and  San-in-do  in  the  west.  It  is  furthest  developed  in  Mino,  prin- 
cipally about  Hachiman,  and  in  Goshiu  or  Omi,  east  of  the  Biwa 
Lake,  where  Nagahama  is  especially  distinguished  for  the  amount 
of  territory  devoted  to  the  industry.  This  third  silk  zone  supplies 
to  the  remainder  of  the  Japanese  silk  product  15  per  cent,  of  raw 
silk,  and  5 per  cent,  of  seed  cartons,  and  falls  far  behind  the  middle 
and  northern  sections  in  importance. 

The  export  of  Japanese  raw  silk  began  in  1859.  The  high  price 
received  in  consequence  of  the  diseases  prevalent  among  the  silk- 
worms in  Europe  proved  a great  stimulus  to  wider  culture  and 
production.  The  falling  off  in  consequence  of  the  growing  trade 
in  graines  was  found  to  be  but  temporary.  A noticeable  improve- 
ment in  the  exported  grege  took  place,  as  in  1872  the  government 
built  at  Tomioka,  in  Musashi,  a great  reeling  establishment,  or 
Filanda,  in  which  the  cocoons  were  unwound  in  a fine  even  thread 
under  Brunat’s  skilful  direction.  The  high  price  of  this  raw  silk 
from  Tomioka  has  caused  a great  deal  of  emulation,  and  a large 
number  of  Filandas  have  sprung  up  in  silk-raising  centres  and 
silk-markets,  generally  at  the  suggestion  and  expense  of  the 
government.  In  this  way  the  quantity,  relative  value,  and  total 
amount  of  the  exported  silk  products  of  Japan  have  greatly  in- 
creased, notwithstanding  many  disturbances  and  fluctuations.  In 
1883  it  reached  the  highest  figures  yet  known,  viz.,  56,432  Piculs 
at  60,128  kg.;  but  the  value  fell  some  350,000  yen  behind  that 
of  the  previous  year,  when  for  52,021  Piculs  the  sum  of  18,638,984 
yen  (nearly  ^3,654,703)  was  realized. 


The  Breeding  and  Importance  of  the  Yama-Mayn,  or  Oak  spinner — 
Antheria  ( Bombyx ) Yama-mai  Guer.-Menev.  in  Japan. 

The  effort  to  find  some  substitute  for  European  silkworms  de- 
cimated by  the  Pebrine  (Nosema  bombycis , Naeg.)  has  led  not  only 
to  the  introduction  of  Japanese  white  and  green  spinners,  but  has 
attracted  attention  to  other  Bombycides,  and  caused  numerous  ex- 
periments. The  most  encouraging  attempt^  at  new  breeds  have 
been  made  with  Japanese  and  Chinese  Oak  spinners  ( Antheria 
Yama-mai  and  Anth.  Pernyi ),  the  former  from  Japan,  and  the 
latter  from  the  Chinese  provinces  Shantung  and  Sze  Chuen,  chiefly  ; 
also  with  the  Ailanthus  spinner  ( Saturina  Cynthia ) which  is  much 


206 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


cultivated  in  Shantung,  and  which  furnishes  the  so-called  Pongee 
silk  of  China  ; with  the  East  Indian  Ricinus  spinner  ( Satumia 
Arindid)  and  the  Indian  Oak  spinner  (Satumia  My litta)  from  which 
is  made  the  Tussah  silk  of  Assam  and  Bengal.  But  the  results 
have  not  justified  the  hopes  built  upon  the  efforts.  The  evidence 
has  been  convincing  that  no  other  can  take  the  place  of  the  Mul- 
berry spinner,  and  that  in  future  it  will  be  the  most  important 
silk  producer. 

The  attempts  made  with  the  Japanese  Oak  spinner  (Antheria 
Yama-mai , G.  M.)  aroused  the  liveliest  interest  of  all.  In  its 
various  developments  of  egg,  worm,  chrysalis  and  butterfly,  it 
furnished  very  much  that  was  instructive,  besides  surprising  size 
and  beauty.  The  strong,  shiny  silk  thread  of  its  yellowish  green 
cocoons  reels  off  like  that  of  the  Mulberry  spinners,  and  furnishes 
a durable  web.  As  the  Oak  spinner  feeds  on  the  green  summer 
foliage  of  the  oak,  and  also  likes  the  leaves  of  our  common  oak- 
trees,  and  was  reported  as  being  much  cultivated  in  Japan  and  its 
silk  highly  prized  there,  the  great  expectations  aroused  by  the 
experiments  are  easy  to  understand. 

Several  governments  interested  themselves  in  the  attempt  and 
encouraged  it,  as  Switzerland,  which  in  1865  ordered  through  her 
consul  in  Yokohama,  6 kg.  of  eggs,  and  three  years  later  a larger 
amount.  Samples  were  sent  me  from  both  packages,  for  testing, 
and  I made  breeding  experiments  with  both,  as  well  as  with  the 
eggs  which  Herr  Baumann,  Postmaster  of  Bamberg,  had  obtained. 
The  reports  published  regarding  the  results  of  the  experiments  on 
the  part  of  others  were  very  unfavourable  and  agreed  entirely  with 
my  own  experiences.  The  great  activity  of  the  young  worms, 
their  lack  of  quiet  association  with  each  other  at  all  ages,  great 
mortality  even  after  the  fourth  casting,  and  the  length  of  time 
necessary  for  their  development,  were  the  principal  objections  which 
the  investigation  brought  to  light. 

At  the  time  of  the  Paris  Exhibition  of  1867,  it  was  evident  that 
the  hopes  built  upon  Yama-mai'  were  vain.  In  the  Jardin  de 
l’Acclimatation,  w'here  in  1861  the  first  worms  of  this  species  were 
cultivated,  and  their  peculiarities  studied  by  Guerin-Meneville,  the 
effort  was  abandoned.  The  favourable  results  obtained  by  Camille 
Personnat  in  Laval,  and  his  endeavours  during  the  Exhibition  to 
awaken  interest  for  the  new  breed,  had  no  more  effect  to  stimulate 
the  waning  hope  than  had  other  single  and  individual  efforts  in 
Germany  and  Austria.  During  my  stay  in  Japan  I tried  to 
become  accurately  acquainted  with  the  preparation  and  uses  of 
Yama-mai  silk.  I was  moderately  successful  on  the  remote  moun- 
tain slopes  where  the  cultivation  is  most  thorough,  and  among  the 
weavers  and  dyers  in  several  cities  in  the  interior  of  Hondo  where 
this  silk  is  manufactured,  and  where  I could,  by  personal  observation, 
arrive  at  some  certain  opinion  on  the  subject.  In  this  way,  I came 
to  the  conviction  that  the  importance  of  Yama-mai  silk  has  been 


A GRICUL  RURAL  IND  US  TRIES. 


20  7 


greatly  over-estimated,  both  in  Japanese  writings,  some  of  which 
have  reached  us  in  translations,  and  in  the  Consul’s  reports,  which 
have  been  made  from  oral  testimony  of  not  very  reliable  character. 
Von  Scherzer, 1 too,  must  have  been  falsely  informed  when  he 
wrote,  “ In  Japan  itself,  this  product,  mixed  sometimes  with  cotton 
and  at  others  with  common  silk,  is  much  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  clothing  material.” 

The  Japanese  designation  Yama-ma'i,  better  Yama-mayu,  signifies 
mountain  (yama)  or  wild  cocoon  (mayu)  ; the  worm  is  called 
correspondingly  Yama-ko.  According  to  old  statements,  at  the 
time  of  the  conquest  of  Hachijo-shima  (pronounced  Hatchijo- 
shima)2  by  the  Japanese  in  1487,  this  species  of  silkworm  became 
widely  diffused  over  the  island,  and  its  silk  product  greatly  prized. 
Its  introduction  into  the  chief  island,  where  it  was  probably  never 
native,  and  certainly  is  nowhere  found  wild,  took  place  consider- 
ably later.3 

The  localities  which  seem  most  favourable  to  the  Oak  spinners 
in  Japan  lie,  as  a rule,  in  the  usual  silk  districts  and  generally  on 
the  mountain  slopes.  This  is  specially  true  in  the  province  of 
Shinano,  which  furnishes  the  largest  quantity  of  Yama-ma'i  silk. 
I know  of  four  districts  in  this  province  where  the  Oak  spinner  is 
bred  more  extensively  than  elsewhere,  viz. : the  country  about 
Uyeda  on  the  Chikuma-gawa,  Iida  on  the  Tenriu-gawa,  Ikada, 
and  Matsumoto  in  the  valley  of  the  Sai-gawa. 

The  Matsumoto  district  spreads  ten  or  fifteen  miles  westward  to 
the  spurs  of  the  Shinano-Hida  Snowy  Mountains  and  some  thirty 
miles  in  the  same  direction  from  Yokohama.  The  Matsumoto- 
Gumi  is  a company  (Gumi)  which  works  in  fifteen  communities 
of  the  district,  and  has  for  its  object  the  production  and  manu- 
facture of  the  Yama-ma'i  silk.  There  are,  however,  small  establish 
ments  in  and  near  Matsumoto  itself. 

The  worms  are  chiefly  raised  in  the  open  air,  the  leaves  of  Qiiercas 
serrata , Thunb.  (Jap.  Kunu-gi  or  Kunugi-nara)  4 serving  as  food. 
This  tree  grows  to  a considerable  height,  even  in  dense  groves,  and 
is  common  in  the  north  of  Hondo.  Its  leaves  remind  one  of  those 
of  the  edible  chestnut,  and  like  them,  appear  late  in  spring. 
The  young  seedlings  after  one  year’s  growth  are  planted  in  rows  in 
a sheltered  place,  and  after  three  or  four  years  and  frequent  cutting 
back,  grow  to  bushes  two  meters  high,  with  plenty  of  room  between 
them  for  passage  and  free  circulation  of  air.  When  the  plantation 

1 K.  von  Scherzer  : “ Die  Oesterreichisch-Ungarische  Expedition  nach 
Ostasien.”  Stuttgart,  1872. 

2 Hachijo-shima  lies  south  of  Shichi-to,  330  8'  N.  Lat.  and  139°  50'  E.  Long. 
On  the  map  it  is  often  put  down  under  the  old  orthography  Fatsicio  and  Fatsi- 
syo. 

3 I saw  in  the  British  Museum  Antheria  Hazina,  Butl.,  and  Anlheria  Morosa, 
Butl.,  from  Japan,  which  I took  for  varieties  of  this  species. 

4 The  leaves  of  Quercus  dentata , Qu.  acuta  and  Qu.  glaitca  are  also  some- 
times used. 


208 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


is  thus  prepared,  the  eggs  are  deposited  on  the  branches  about  the 
beginning  of  May,  when  the  young  leaves  are  making  their  appear- 
ance. About  20  to  30  eggs  are  pasted  on  strips  of  paper  which 
are  bound  to  the  branches,  so  that  the  young  worms  when  hatched 
may  find  food  and  protection  from  the  sun.  Against  rain  they 
protect  themselves  by  creeping  with  wonderful  quickness  to  the 
under-side  of  the  leaves,  whereas  the  old  and  heavy  worms  often 
suffer  in  violent  storms.  Their  numerous  enemies  in  the  open  air 
are,  besides  insects  (particularly  ants),  tree  toads,  rats  and  birds, 
chiefly  ravens.  These  are  kept  off,  partly  by  painting  the  lower 
parts  of  the  trunk  with  a sticky  substance,  such  as  the  root-slime 
of  Hibiscus  Manihot — partly  by  scarecrows  and  rattles  which  hang 
on  a rope  extending  across  the  whole  plantation,  and  are  kept  in 
motion  by  a person  who  sits  on  a high  roofed  seat  in  the  middle, 
and  watches  over  all. 

The  development  of  the  worm  up  to  time  of  spinning  takes  about 
sixty-four  days.  It  is  divided  into  five  periods,  the  first  two  of  ten 
days  each,  the  third  and  fourth  of  thirteen  days,  and  the  fifth  and 
last  eighteen  days.  This  time  however  is  subject  to  modifications 
of  many  kinds.  With  a high  even  temperature  and  rich  food,  it 
can  be  reduced  to  fifty  days,  and  contrariwise  lengthened  to  eighty. 
Each  casting  is  preceded  by  a two  or  three  days’  sleep,  during 
which  the  worm  sits  motionless,  holding  fast  by  its  hind  feet  and 
raising  its  fore  parts  after  the  manner  of  the  sphinx. 

The  young  worms,  at  hatching  7 mm.  long,  with  reddish  brown 
feet,  but  otherwise  yellowish  green  in  colour  with  two  long  black 
stripes,  after  the  fourth  casting  have  a length  of  7 cm.,  and  are  2 cm. 
in  circumference.  They  are  then  of  a fine  green  colour,  well 
ringed,  and  on  the  back  have  two  rows  of  warts,  each  of  which 
is  furnished  with  blackish  brown  hairs.  Gold-yellow  stripes  on 
each  side,  on  each  of  which  are  five  silvery  spots,  breathing  places, 
separate  the  back  from  the  belly. 

When  the  worm  is  ready  to  spin,  a light  brown  liquid  exudes, 
and  it  becomes  restless,  does  not  raise  itself  up  however,  but  draws 
one  or  more  oak  leaves  about  it,  spins  them  together  over  its  head, 
and  fastens  its  cocoon  to  them.  In  making  the  cocoon,  it  first 
weaves  about  itself  a transparent  net  of  fine  yellow-green  silk, 
through  which  it  can  be  seen  industriously  spinning.  After  about 
six  hours  the  net  is  no  longer  transparent,  and  after  six  or  eight 
days  the  cocoon  is  completed.  Meanwhile  the  green  of  the  inner 
web  has  lost  its  intensity  and  become  only  a greenish  yellow  on  the 
outside.  The  cocoons  are  firm  and  of  a beautiful  ellipsoidal  form, 
without  shrinkage  in  the  middle,  and  about  three  cm.  long,  and  of 
7 grammes  weight.  Without  the  chrysalis  its  weight  is  from  70  to 
80  eg.,  while  an  empty  cocoon  of  the  Bombyx  Mori  is  not  half  so 
heavy.  Ten  pounds  of  cocoons  yield  about  1 kg.  of  reeled  silk. 
The  top  layer  has  a coarse  thread  of  greenish  yellow,  but  the 
underneath  has  a fine  greenish  white  silk  which,  after  soaking  in 


SILKWORMS  ON  QUERCUS  SERRATA. 


{Page  246, 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


209 


hot  water,  is  reeled  off  almost  as  easily  as  from  the  B.  Mori. 
About  fifteen  days  after  the  metamorphosis  has  taken  place,  the 
cocoons  are  taken  from  the  leaves  and  tested.  Those  which  are 
to  be  reeled,  are  placed  in  the  warm  sun  or  the  regulated  heat  of 
an  oven,  to  kill  the  chrysalis.  The  best  are  set  aside  for  breeding, 
and  after  from  20  to  25  days  the  butterflies  come  forth.  In  order 
to  prevent  them  from  flying  away  before  propagation,  they  are  kept 
in  pairs  in  bell-shaped  baskets,  woven  from  bamboo  and  suspended 


FEMALE  OF  THE  ANTHEREA  YAMA-MAI  GUERIN-MENEVILLE, 
HALF  THE  NATURAL  SIZE. 


MALE  OF  THE  ANTHEREA  YAMA-MAI  GUERIN-MENEVILLE, 
HALF  THE  NATURAL  SIZE. 


on  poles.  After  the  female  has  laid  her  eggs  on  the  inner  wall  of 
the  basket,  they  are  carefully  collected  in  bags  and  placed  in  a dry, 
cool  and  airy  place  till  the  time  for  the  new  breeding. 

The  eggs  of  the  Yama-mai'  are  nine  times  as  heavy  as  those  of 
the  Bombyx  Mori,  although  it  takes  from  130  to  140  of  them 
to  a gramme.  They  are  spheroidal,  i.e.  depressed  at  the  ends 
after  the  manner  of  a Mandarin  orange.  Their  dark  brown  colour, 
with  black  spots  and  stripes,  is  due  to  a sticky  coating,  which  dis- 
appears when  they  are  washed  in  water  or  a solution  of  soda,  show- 

II.  P 


210 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


ing  the  egg  white,  as  with  some  is  really  the  case  from  the  first.  On 
breaking  the  egg  one  is  surprised  to  find  no  yolk,  but  instead  a 
well  developed  little  worm  lying  curled  up  till  awakened  by  a certain 
degree  of  warmth.  Then  they  break  the  parchment-like  shell  at 
the  point  where  the  head  lies,  generally  during  the  morning  hours, 
and  creep  out,  already  so  rapidly  grown  that  they  measure  some 
seven  or  eight  millimeters,  or  about  four  times  as  long  as  the 
diameter  of  the  egg. 

Yama-mal  silk  is  more  expensive  than  other  varieties.  In  1875 
at  Matsumoto  25  momme  (c.  9375  grammes)  of  reel  silk  of  this 
kind  cost  one  yen,  while  for  the  same  price  could  be  purchased  35 
momme  of  ordinary  silk.  The  relative  price  of  the  two  is  about  as 
7 : 5,  which  is  due  as  much  to  the  difficulty  of  raising  the  Oak 
spinners  as  to  the  quality  of  the  product.  From  these  statements 
a Picul  of  Yama-mai  silk  may  be  reckoned  as  costing  640  dollars  ; 
this  agrees  with  the  testimony  of  Bavier,1  according  to  whom  a 
Picul  varies  in  price  according  to  quality,  from  four  to  eight 
hundred  dollars,  or  from  27  to  54  shillings  the  kilogramme.  He 
also  states  that  the  total  Japanese  production  of  Yama-mal  silk 
amounts  to  about  100  bales,  each  75  lbs.  English  in  weight,  and 
amounting  to  about  3,400  kg.  It  was  not  possible  for  me  to  prove 
the  correctness  of  this  statement  for  which  Bavier  does  not  make 
himself  responsible ; but  it  seemed  to  me  that  the  estimate  was 
over  rather  than  under  the  real  yield  of  the  harvest,  since  the 
Yama-mai  silk  is  kept  in  the  home  market  and  can  only  be  used 
there  in  a limited  quantity.  (See  Art  Industry  : Textile  Industry.) 

The  Chestnut  spinner  ( Caligula  japonica , Butl.)  is  the  only  one 
of  the  wild  Bombycides  in  Japan  whose  cocoons  or  worms  are 
sometimes  gathered  and  used.  It  is  called  Sukari,  the  worms 
Genziki-mushi  (camphor-spinners)  and  also  Shiraga-mushi  (grey- 
haired worms).2  Hilgendorf  in  an  article  entitled,  “ The  Camphor 
Spinner  (Genziki-mushi),”3  first  called  attention  to  this  insect  and 
its  most  important  features,  which  he  had  learned  mainly  from 
Japanese  sources. 

This  species  of  worm  feeds  upon  the  leaves  of  the  chestnut, 
walnut,  different  varieties  of  oak  and  sumach  trees,  and  in  Southern 
Japan  upon  the  camphor-laurel  also.  I found  it  often  in  my 
travels  in  Japan,  and  became  convinced  that  its  favourite  food  is 
the  Kuri  ( Castanea  vulgaris , Lamk.).  The  large  worms  feed  upon 
chestnut  trees  standing  alone,  till  they  are  often  quite  bare,  and 
strip  even  whole  groves  of  these  trees,  while  they  generally  avoid 
other  kinds  of  trees  standing  near.  Moreover,  as  the  worm  and  the 
tree  seem  scattered  together  alike  over  the  whole  country,  I prefer 
to  call  it  the  Chestnut  spinner,  as  that  is  the  only  really  fitting 
designation.  The  belly  of  this  great  worm  is  light  green,  the  back 

1 “Japan’s  Seidensucht,"  by  E.  von  Bavier,  p.  99. 

8 “Official  Catalogue,  Japan  section.”  Philadelphia,  1876,  p.  120. 

3 “ Mitth.  d.  deutscher  Ges.”  etc.  9 Heft.  Yokahama,  1876. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


21  t 


a greyish  white.  A row  of  beautiful  blue  spots  on  each  side  marks 
its  breathing  places  or  tracheae.  Silky  grey-white  hairs  a centi- 
meter long  cover  its  surface,  and  in  connection  with  the  light 
colour  of  the  insect  itself,  make  it  resemble  the  catkins  of  the  tree 
which  furnishes  its  food. 

The  Chestnut  spinner  does  not  weave  a perfectly  closed  cocoon, 
but  a rather  coarse  net-like  web  of  brown  colour,  whose  thread  is 
hard  to  unwind  and  can  only  be  used  as  woof  in  coarse  fabrics.  It 
seems  that  in  earlier  times  the  worms,  when  ready  to  spin,  were 
used  more  often  than  nowadays  for  the  so-called  Tengusu  (Silk- 
worm guts)  ; it  was  laid  in  vinegar,  the  spinning-glands  opened  care- 
fully, and  the  silk  drawn  out  in  threads  several  feet  long.  But  now  as 
a finer  and  much  cheaper  material  for  this  purpose  comes  from  China, 
even  Japanese  anglers  give  it  the  preference.  (See  note,  p.  196). 

5.  Forestry. 

Relation  of  Japanese  Forests  {Hay  as  hi)  to  Cultivation  in  general  and 
to  Waste  Land. — Distinction  Between  Cultivated  and  Natural  or 
Mountain  Forests. — Character,  Extent  and  Value  of  both.-— In- 
fluence upon  Climate. 

According  to  a previous  summary  of  the  land  economy  and 
classification  of  Old  Japan  (pp.  11  and  12),  which  was  founded  upon 
official  statistics  of  the  year  1879,  of  the  entire  area,  amounting  to 
28,356,945  cho,  17,356,945  cho  consisted  of  mountain  forests  and 
desert  land  without  cultivation,  and  5,240,570  cho  of  cultivated 
forests.  Recently,  however,  the  section  now  under  consideration, 
between  Tsugaru  and  Colnet  Straits,  has  been  reckoned  as  much 
larger,  viz.,  at  28,842,011  ch6,  as  is  given  in  the  report  of  the 
Japanese  section  of  the  Forestry  Exhibition  in  Edinburgh,  1884. 
The  entire  amount  of  woodland  is  estimated  in  this  publication  at 
1 1,866,625  ch6,  of  which  5,259,182  cho  is  government,  and  6,607,443 
cho  private,  property. 

The  distribution  of  both  classes  of  forest  in  the  three  principal 
islands  and  their  smaller  dependencies  is  shown  in  the  following 
table  : 


Who’.e. 

Area. 

Forest. 

Government 

Woodland. 

Private 

Woodland. 

Honshiu  . . . 

Shikoku  .... 
Kiushiu  .... 

22,846,603 

1,837,344 

4,158,464 

9,993,021 

1,175,700 

696,922 

4,226,803 

358,381 

374,017 

5,466,218 

817,319 

322,905 

Old  Japan  . . . 

28,842,411 

11,865,643 

5,259,201 

6,606,442 

212 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


It  follows  from  this  that  the  forests  of  Japan  Proper  form  41  per 
cent,  of  its  entire  area  ; in  Honshiu,  44  per  cent.  ; in  Shikoku,  64 
per  cent.  ; and  in  Kiushiu,  17  per  cent.  The  relative  proportion  is 
still  further  reckoned,  in  the  work  cited,  per  capita,  eg.  to  every 
inhabitant  of  Japan,  3^25  tan  of  woodland  ; in  Honshiu,  3^529  tan 
to  each  person  ; in  Shikoku,  4^4  tan  ; and  in  Kiushiu,  i'32  tan. 
As  a tan  may  be  estimated  at  about  10  Ares,  the  proportions  may 
be  carried  out  at  32'5,  35‘25,  44,  and  132  Ares  respectively.  In 
Honshiu,  the  principal  island,  the  south-western  portion,  or  Chiu- 
goku  (Sanyodo  and  Sanindo),  is  the  least  wooded.  There  are  no 
high  mountains  in  this  part  of  the  island,  and  mining  has  in  many 
places,  especially  in  the  country  surrounding  Ikuno  in  Mimasaka, 
wrought  such  desolation  of  the  timber  lands  as  to  cause  a dearth 
of  wood. 

The  following  more  exact  classification  of  the  acreage  of  Japan 
is  made  up  from  facts  given  in  the  before-mentioned  report,  pp. 

11,  12. 


(a)  Desert  land 

(1 h ) Mountain  forests 

(c)  Cultivated  forests 

( d ) Farming  land  (Ta  and  Hata)  . 

\e)  Other  Cultivation,  including  im 

proved  Hara,  about  . . . 

(/)  Building  ground  and  roads 

In  all  . . 


Cho. 

10,730,890 

6,626,050 

5,240,570 

4,280,000 

1,364,900 

600,000 


Per  cent  of 
total  area, 
or  37 
„ 23 
„ 18 
„ IS 

„ 5 

..  2 


28,842,410  100 


,Of  these  figures  only  those  under  ( e ) and  (/)  rest  upon  taxation 
and  are  uncertain,  but  these,  as  well  as  those  under  (d),  regarding 
agricultural  lands,  do  not  concern  the  present  topic. 

The  desert  lands  consist  for  the  most  part  of  the  almost  worth- 
less Hara,  grassy  surfaces  which  spread  around  the  base  of  high 
volcanoes,  and,  as  a rule,  surround  the  mountain  timber  lands.  I 
have  treated  of  the  particular  character  of  these  forms  of  vegeta- 
tion in  vol.  i.  of  this  work.  It  is  almost  beyond  doubt  that  the 
Hara  would  be  for  the  most  part  gradually  transformed  into  forest, 
if  it  were  not  for  the  devastating  autumn  fires,  which  not  only 
eat  up  dried  and  dead  vegetation,  but  the  self-sown  seedlings  of 
wood-growth  as  well.  It  is  only  in  ravines  and  other  protected 
places  where  it  is  possible  for  such  plantations  to  grow  and 
flourish. 

A larger  portion  of  desert  land  consists  of  bare  ridges  of  hill 
country  and  mountain  sides  which  often  alternate  with  the  wooded 
slopes,  and  justify  the  opinion  that  they,  too,  were  once  covered 
with  forests.  After  they  were  denuded  of  these, — whether  to  satisfy 
the  demands  of  mining  carried  on  in  the  neighbourhood,  or  to 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


213 


allow  the  brake-fern  to  spring  up  better  after  a bush  fire,  or  for 
whatever  purpose  it  may  have  been, — the  heavy  rains  had  free 
course,  robbed  them  of  their  compost  matter,  and  made  it  difficult 
for  natural  or  cultivated  forests  to  re-appear  upon  these  slopes. 

A third  portion  of  the  woodless  and  cultureless  surface  is  to  be 
found  on  the  peaks  of  the  higher  mountains  beyond  the  forest 
limits,  where  either  the  violence  of  the  wind  and  roughness  of 
climate  in  general,  or  a lack  of  proper  qualities  in  the  soil, 
account  for  the  barrenness.  It  is  well  known  that  volcanic  erup- 
tions, even  if  they  are  but  the  after-fumes  of  violent  outbreaks  in 
the  form  of  Solfatara,  destroy  vegetation  in  a wide  extent  of 
country.  The  Solfataras  operate  in  the  same  manner  here  as 
sulphuric  acid  in  the  reduction  of  sulphuretted  ores.  And,  finally, 
we  must  reckon  with  the  desert  country  the  sand-hills  of  the  coast, 
which  may  yet  become  partly  amenable  to  arboriculture,  but  of 
which  survey  has  yet  to  be  made. 

The  desert  and  forest  lands  of  Japan  Proper  together  make  up 
nearly  four-fifths  of  its  entire  surface,  as  will  be  readily  seen  from 
the  figures  given  above.  Of  this,  more  than  half  is  forest  land.  It 
forms  consequently  the  most  extensive  and  marked  feature  of 
vegetation  in  the  landscape.  Its  percentage  (41)  of  the  whole  area 
is  larger  than  in  those  European  countries  which  are  richest  in 
timber  land.  It  is  also  a highly  important  factor  in  the  natural 
economy  of  Japan,  even  though  but  a small  portion  has  as  yet 
been  properly  subjected  to  cultivation. 

The  attentive  traveller  easily  recognises  the  great  difference 
in  the  forests  of  Japan,  according  as  they  belong  to  the  hardly 
accessible  mountains  or  to  their  slopes,  to  the  hilly,  or  the  level 
country.  In  fact,  it  is  according  to  the  use  which  can  be  made 
of  them  that  they  are  distinguished  as  cultivated  and  natural,  or 
mountain  forests  ; and  this  also  is  largely  dependent  on  their 
situation.  The  lack  of  good  roads  and  other  conditions  of  traffic 
have  allowed  the  latter  to  preserve  more  or  less  of  their  original 
character,  because  of  the  difficulty  of  access.  The  need  of  wood, 
especially  such  as  is  available  for  building  purposes,  and  such 
as  the  Coniferae  best  furnish,  gave  rise  to  the  cultivated  forests. 
These  accordingly  appear  as  dense  and  more  or  less  monotonous 
pinewoods,  while  the  mountain  forests,  as  already  remarked  in  the 
first  volume  of  this  work,1  are  notable  for  the  multiplicity  of  species 
mixed  together.  The  largest  part  of  the  cultivated  forest  land  is 
private  property,  while  the  mountain  forests  belong  to  the  State. 

The  cultivated  woodland  serves  principally,  as  already  indicated, 
to  supply  the  necessary  building  material.  For  ages,  dwelling 
houses  have  been  made  of  wood,  light  and  airy  structures  lack- 
ing solidity,  for  the  Japanese  carpenters  have  no  idea  of  the  use  of 
retaining  arches  in  any  kind  of  framework,  nor  the  necessity  of 


Under  “Forests  (Hayashi).’ 


214 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


support  on  any  solid  foundation.  In  this  way  the  Japanese  house 
affords,  even  during  the  hot  summer  months,  a cool  dwelling.  In 
winter,  however,  when  the  rough  winds  blow,  their  cold  blast 
rushes  in  at  every  joint.  Warm  clothing  then  furnishes  the  only 
piotection  against  cold,  as  the  heating  arrangements  are  by 
no  means  adequate.  The  houses  are  roofed  with  straw  in  the 
country,  and  in  cities  with  shingles  or  tiles.  The  shingled  roofs 
have  bands  of  bamboo-cane  crossing  each  other  at  right  angles 
and  fastened  with  wires,  so  as  to  hold  the  shingles  in  their  places 
in  case  of  violent  winds.  In  high  localities  the  roofs  are  still 
further  protected  by  stones,  as  is  done  in  European  mountainous 
countries. 

The  light  wood  framework,  the  lack  of  chimneys  and  proper 
heating  apparatus  generally,  as  well  as  the  custom  of  building  the 
houses  close  together  in  cities  and  large  towns,  greatly  increase  the 
danger  from  fires.  Fearful  conflagrations  are  frequent,  particularly 
in  Tokio,  with  its  great  sea  of  houses.  These  materially  increase 
the  need  of  arboriculture,  and  form  the  chief  reason  why  for 
years  a systematic  laying  out  of  forests  has  been  carried  on.  For 
while  the  great  superfluity  of  wood  in  the  mountains  has  been 
unavoidable,  because  of  the  lack  of  proper  roads  and  conveyance, 
and  much  timber  must  inevitably  go  to  waste,  the  lack  of  wood  in 
settled  localities  for  centuries  could  only  be  met  by  forest  cultiva- 
tion. Under  such  conditions  it  is  quite  probable  that  the  Japanese 
tradition  concerning  the  planting  of  forests  1,200  years  ago  in  Dai- 
Nippon  is  well  founded.  This  could  not  have  been  a systematic, 
well-aimed  and  State  effort  however,  as  its  sole  purpose  was,  as 
has  been  said,  simply  to  supply  the  need  for  wood.  It  is  only  in 
later  years  that  the  Japanese  have  learned  that  the  utterly  neglected 
mountain  forest  is  a main  source  of  prosperity  for  the  country,  and 
that  not  only  in  its  wood  supply,  but  in  its  climatic  influences. 
From  this  time  we  see  the  energy  with  which  scientific  forestry 
has  been  developed,  as  appeared  in  the  Japanese  section  of  the 
Edinburgh  Exhibition  in  1884. 

The  best  building  timber,  at  the  same  time  hard,  tough,  and 
durable,  is  the  Keyaki  (. Zelkowa  Keaki,  Sieb.),  but  in  consequence  of 
the  high  price,  it  is  used  mostly  for  joiner-work.  For  the  same 
reason  the  greatly  prized  pinewoods  also,  like  Hinoki  ( Chamce - 
cyparis  obtusa,  Endl.),  and  its  kindred,  Tsuga  (Abies  Tsuga,  S.  and 
Z.),  Kara-matsu  (Larix  leptolepis , Gord.),  Ichii  (Taxus  cuspidata,  S. 
and  Z.),  are  not  used  in  house  building,  as  their  excellence  would 
warrant,  but  serve  the  purposes  of  decoration  in  the  more  expensive 
dwellings.  The  usual  building-wood  for  houses  is  furnished  by  the 
quick-growing  Sugi  (Cryptomeria  japonica , Don.),  also  the  Momi 
( Abies firma,  S.  and  Z.),  and  a still  cheaper  and  much  prized  wood 
having  many  varieties,  the  Matsu  ( Pitius  densijlora,  S.  and  Z.,  and 
P.  Massonia,  Lamb.),  used  also  largely  in  bridge  building,  for  which 
the  more  brittle  Sugi  wood  is  less  adapted. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


215 


It  will  be  seen  from  the  foregoing  why  so  much  attention  is 
given  to  the  culture  of  Sugi  and  Matsu.  It  is  highly  probable  that 
all  these  pine  forests  and  also  those  of  the  cypress  family  ( Chamce - 
cyparis  and  Thujopsis ) are  of  artificial  cultivation,  since  experience 
has  shown  that  their  self-propagation,  like  most  Coniferae,  is  diffi- 
cult, and  wherever  a pine  forest  disappears,  its  place  is  usually 
filled  by  blackberry  bushes,  wild  roses,  and  other  almost  worthless 
deciduous  growths. 

For  fuel,  in  the  dwelling  houses,  the  charcoal  of  the  various  Cupu- 
lifera  is  used  universally,  especially  that  of  the  chestnut  or  Kuri 
( Castanea  vulgaris , Lamk.)  and  of  several  deciduous  oaks,  such  as 
Kashiwa,  Kunugi,  and  Nara  ( Quercus  dentata,  Q.  serrata,  and  Q. 
crispula).  As  this  wood  is  used  for  several  other  purposes  also,  it 
is  very  much  cultivated,  and  found  in  plantations  devoted  entirely 
to  it,  although  they  are  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  mountain 
forests. 

The  same  is  true  of  the  evergreen  Shii-no-ki  ( Quercus  cuspidata ) 
which  is  confined  to  the  warm  south,  and  is  also  cultivated  on  ac- 
count of  its  valuable  wood. 

All  the  above-mentioned  forest  trees,  and  some  others  less  wide- 
spread— the  Koya-maki  or  screen  fir  ( Sciadopitys  verticillata ) 
among  them — are  raised  from  the  seed  in  nurseries,  as  with  us,  and 
the  seedlings  transplanted  after  two  years’  growth.  The  cultivation 
of  the  plants  during  these  two  years,  as  well  as  the  laying  out  of 
the  plantation,  is  very  carefully  managed  and  based  on  all  the 
teachings  of  past  experience.  There  is  also  no  lack  of  printed 
instructions  with  all  necessary  illustrations. 

The  ground  chosen  for  such  a plantation  is  prepared  as  tho- 
roughly as  for  a fruit-tree  nursery  or  a tea-garden,  and  is  well  en- 
closed with  a light  and  pretty  bamboo  hedge,  from  one  to  two 
meters  high,  which  does  not  hinder  light  and  air.  In  snowy 
districts  a further  protection  is  provided  in  winter  in  the  shape  of  a 
straw  roof,  known  as  the  Yuki-oi  ; and  in  case  it  becomes  neces- 
sary to  shelter  the  young  plants  from  the  cold,  as  eg.,  with  the 
Ko-kuri  or  young  chestnut,  straw  fastened  to  a bamboo  framework 
is  spread  over  them. 

The  greatest  care  is  also  observed  in  taking  up  the  Naye  or 
young  seedlings,  cutting  back  their  perpendicular  roots,  making 
ready  the  plant  holes  with  the  hoe,  and  planting  again  in  the 
ground  laid  out  for  the  new  forest.  I did  not  find,  however,  that 
our  system  of  planting  in  rows  was  very  much  adhered  to  ; much 
more  regard  was  had  to  the  nature  of  the  ground,  and  to  the  pecu- 
liar taste  which  has  a dislike  for  systematic  regularity  on  a wide 
scale,  except  where  it  may  be  necessary,  as  in  agriculture. 

The  cultivated  forests  of  Japan  are  seldom  very  large.  Poor 
gravelly  soil,  fixed  dunes  and  other  sandy  districts  are,  as  a 
rule,  devoted  to  the  above  mentioned  pine  trees,  just  as  in  the 
Departement  des  Landes,  the  Pinus  Pinaster  Solander  (the  pine  of 


216 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


the  country)  is  cultivated.  The  other  species  of  cultivated  conifers 
need  a deeper  and  better  soil,  which  is  to  be  found  only  in  the 
plains. 

They  are  sometimes  found  however,  as  the  Chamtecyparis  and 
Thujopsis,  on  the  lower  gentle  slopes  of  mountains.  In  case  the 
soil  here  is  too  stony  and  unfruitful,  the  chestnut  is  planted, 
while  the  oak  is  better  adapted  to  the  saddles  and  hollows.  It  is 
seldom  however  that  forest  cultivation  of  any  kind  goes  higher  than 
iooo  meters.  In  Yezo,  according  to  Bohmer,1  the  only  forest  tree 
that  is  cultivated  by  Japanese  immigrants,  on  account  of  its  wood, 
is  the  Cryptomeria. 

In  comparison  with  the  numerous  forests  and  groves  of  Sugi  and 
of  pines  (. Pinus  densijlora,  or  Aka-matsu,  and  P.  Massoniana,  or 
Kuromatsu)  distributed  over  all  the  provinces,  the  solitary  groves 
of  other  cultivated  coniferous  trees  sink  into  insignificance.  Those 
of  the  Cypress  family,  viz.,  Hinoki,  Sawara  and  Hiba  ( Chamcecyparis 
obtusa,  Ch.  pisifera,  and  Thujopsis  dolabrata ),  are  found  more  ex- 
tensive and  in  a finer  development  in  the  middle  portion  of  Hondo 
on  the  peninsula  of  Yamato  and  in  the  district  of  the  upper  Kiso- 
gawa.  Previous  to  the  restoration  of  Mikado-rule  they  belonged 
mostly  to  the  two  powerful  Daimios  of  Kishiu  (Kii)  and  Bishiu 
(Owari).  Iyeyasu,  by  a special  law,  had  made  it  the  duty  of  the 
rulers  of  these  provinces  to  provide  the  necessary  Hi-no-ki  wood 
for  the  building  and  renewing,  every  twenty-one  years,  of  the 
national  sanctuary  in  Ise  (temple  of  the  Sun-goddess  Amaterasu), 
and  to  give  their  constant  attention  to  the  forests  of  this  tree, 
releasing  them  at  the  same  time  from  all  other  general  tribute. 
In  explanation  of  this  it  ought  to  be  said  that  Hi-no-ki  and 
Sakaki  ( Cleyera  jap07iicd)  were  and  still  are  the  holy  plants  of  the 
sun-goddess,  and  also  of  the  Shinto  or  ancestry-worship.  And  all 
temples  so  dedicated,  as  well  as  the  former  residence  of  the  Mikado 
in  Kioto,  were  built  of  the  wood  of  the  Hi-no-ki.2 

Of  all  the  pine-woods  of  Japan  which  form  a part  of  its  arbori- 
culture the  beautiful  screen  fir  ( Sciadopitys  verticillata , S.  and  Z.) 
is  certainly  the  least  propagated.  It  is  found  in  large  planta- 
tions only  on  the  mountain  slopes  around  Koya-san  in  Kishiu 
(hence  called  K6ya-maki).  Dr.  Yaroku  Nakamuro  gives  also  Podo- 
carpus  Nageia , and  P.  macrophylla , as  components  of  the  cultivated 
pine  forests,3  but  I always  met  them  only  as  ornamental  trees, 
like  the  Ginko. 

The  bamboo  groves  (Yabu,  Take-yabu)  may  also  be  ranked  as 
cultivated  forests.  They  serve  the  most  manifold  purposes,  making 
an  agreeable  diversion  in  the  landscape,  and  are  especially  frequent 

1 “Reports  to  the  Kaitakushi.”  Tokio,  1878. 

3 See  also  Rein,  “Japan,”  vol.  i. 

3 “Ueber  den  anatomischen  Bau  des  Holzes  der  wichtigsten  japanischen 
Coniferae,  Untersuchungen  aus  dem  forstbotanischen  Institute  in  Munchen,” 
iii.  1883. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


21 7 


on  the  boundaries  of  the  larger  cities,  where  great  use  is  made  of 
the  cane. 

The  contrast  between  our  glades  with  their  many  varieties  of 
flowers,  and  the  well  kept  but  monotonous  sward  of  our  gardens 
and  public  grounds,  is  much  the  same  as  that  between  the  Japanese 
natural  mountain  forest,1  with  its  variegated  growths  of  many  kinds, 
and  the  regularly  formed  pine  or  deciduous  forests,  which  it  has  been 
found  necessary  to  cultivate.  Here  in  the  mountain  forest  as  in  the 
Hara,  nature,  so  rich  in  Japan  in  variety  and  shape,  has  preserved 
its  original  physiognomy.  But  richness  of  variety  does  not  by  any 
means  betoken  an  abundance  of  valuable  timber  in  such  a forest 
any  more  than  of  fodder  in  the  wild  meadow-land,  and  an  Eldorado 
to  the  lovers  of  nature  and  of  plants  is  not  always  such  when 
viewed  from  the  point  of  national  economy. 

In  the  wild  and  neglected  forest— whether  primeval  or  run  wild 
is  of  no  importance — life  and  death,  sprouting  and  withering  vege- 
tation are  mixed  together  in  a wonderful  way.  H.  Cotta  2 says  in 
reference  to  this,  that  forests  grow  and  flourish  best  in  places  where 
men  do  not  live,  and  consequently  where  no  forestry  is  carried  on. 
It  is  a wide-spread  but  none  the  less  erroneous  view  that  the  prim- 
eval forest  is  particularly  rich  in  wood.  It  includes  giant  trees 
interspersed  with  every  grade  of  the  most  diverse  wood-growths, 
down  to  the  lowest  bush,  but  produces  by  no  means  the  total 
amount  of  timber  yielded  by  a highly  cultivated  forest  covering 
the  same  surface,  where  valueless  kinds  of  wood  are  kept  back 
in  order  to  better  provide  the  light  and  air  necessary  to  a finely 
developed  growth.  And  so  the  forester  reduces  the  number  of 
species  in  a natural  forest  by  the  axe  and  other  means,  just  as  the 
continued  manuring  and  cultivation  of  a meadow  works  an  im- 
poverishment of  its  Flora.  With  the  numerous  motley  grasses  and 
weeds  the  equipoise  is  disturbed,  and  an  unequal  development 
caused  in  which  the  weakest  surrenders. 

As  is  more  carefully  noted  in  vol.  i.  p.  146,  Asa-ki,  the  deciduous 
forest  of  Japan,  in  contrast  to  Kuro-ki,  or  the  dark  pine  forests,  and 
to  our  own  woods  with  their  few  species,  is  made  up  of  a great  mix- 
ture of  large  numbers  of  trees  and  bushes  in  all  stages  of  growth. 
It  is  exceptional  and  generally  due  to  special  cultivation  when  we 
find  chestnuts  and  the  varieties  of  oak  forming  separate  plantations. 
Creepers  and  climbing  plants,  parasitic  and  rooted  ferns  are  seen 
in  greater  variety  and  larger  growth  than  with  us.  “To  name  all 
the  constituents  and  inhabitants  of  a Japanese  forest  of  deciduous 
growth  would  be  to  catalogue  not  less  than  half  the  Flora  of  the 
country.  In  the  higher  mountains  and  more  to  the  north  are  only 
a few  evergreen  bushes,  and  no  trees,  conifers  of  course  excepted. 
The  most  common  constituents  of  these  forests  are  oaks,  beeches, 
hornbeams,  maples,  birch,  horse  chestnuts,  magnolias,  aralias,  wal- 

1 Yama,  or  mountain,  is  the  commonest  term  for  a natural  forest. 

2 Preface  to  his  “ Anweisung  zum  Waldbau.” 


218 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


nuts,  elms,  planes,  various  rosacese  and  in  moister  places,  ashes  and 
alders  also”  (vol.  i.  p.  147).  As  the  most  important  of  these  will 
be  discussed  in  the  next  chapter,  which  deals  with  their  timber,  I 
need  not  here  enumerate  their  botanical  names. 

Among  the  larger  and  most  important  of  the  deciduous  trees  of 
the  island  of  Yezo,  may  be  mentioned  the  magnificent  magnolias 
(. Magnolia  liypoleuca  and  Cercidiphyllum  japonicum),  chestnuts, 
horse  chestnuts,  walnuts,  maples,  alders,  birch,  ash,  elm,  linden  and 
the  deciduous  oaks. 

The  Japanese  Asa-ki  is  not  at  all  a primeval  forest.  It  may  here 
and  there  even  be  a plantation  on  what  was  once  a field,1  but  it  has 
the  stamp  of  a thoroughly  natural  growth,  and  is  left  to  itself  and 
renews  itself.  The  woodman  visits  it  with  his  axe,  it  is  true,  but 
only  for  the  sake  of  the  most  valuable  and  scattered  timber,  such 
as  Ho-no-ki,  Saru-suberi,  Tsuta-no-ki,  (Magnolia  hypoleuca,  Stuartia 
monadelpha , Actinidia  volubilis),  and  some  others,  but  this  does 
not  in  any  wise  affect  the  settled  character  of  the  forest.  This  is 
accomplished  by  means  of  thorough  destruction  by  forest  fires.  As 
the  Capoeira,  in  the  forsaken  plantations  of  Brazil,  consist  of  plant- 
forms  entirely  different  from  the  primeval  growth,  so  is  it  here  also. 
Its  place  is  taken  by  a brushwood  in  which  the  narrow-leaved  wild 
rose  (Epilobrium  angustifolium,  L.)  springs  up  here  and  there  as 
in  our  burnt  forest  grounds,  the  stiff  bamboo  grass  (Phyllostachys 
bambusoides,  S.  and  Z.),  and  in  high  damp  places  also  the  Itadzuri 
(Polygonum  cuspidatum),  nearly  three  meters  high.  The  forest 
generally  takes  on  its  original  character  by  degrees  and  after  a 
long  time. 

In  the  deciduous  forests  of  the  mountains,  the  beech  is  among 
the  most  frequent  of  trees.  It  shows  itself  here,  as  with  us,  a 
tree  which  nourishes  the  ground  in  a high  degree,  as  one  may  see 
from  the  luxuriant  foliage2  and  the  brush  of  the  Lomaria  and 
other  ferns  which  grow  nearly  to  a height  of  one  meter  in  the  rich 
soil.  It  also  forces  the  various  other  trees  which  are  associated  with 
it,- — among  them  magnificent  specimens  of  Magnolia  hypoleuca, 
Calopanax  ricinifolia  and  yEsculos  turbinata,  notable  for  their  large, 
strange  leaves, — to  produce  long  boles  without  many  branches. 
This  is  also  done  by  the  Momitanne  (Abies  firma)  which  grows  in 
wide-spread  localities. 

It  is  clear  that  the  composition  of  the  natural  deciduous  forests 
of  Japan  varies  with  the  elevation  as  well  as  with  the  latitude. 
Besides  a large  number  of  trees  and  bushes  which  are  always 

1 According  to  a written  communication  kindly  sent  me,  the  famous  acade- 
mician Maximovicz,  in  the  year  1863,  botanized  for  a time  near  Nagasaki  in  a 
forest  so  high  that  he  took  it  for  a primeval  one,  till  he  recognised  in  the  terrac- 
ing of  the  ground  that  he  was  in  an  old  field. 

2 According  to  what  was  said  earlier  regarding  cattle-raising  and  manuring, 
there  does  not  appear  to  be  anything  prejudicial  to  the  self-preservation  of  the 
Japanese  forests  in  pasturing  or  withdrawing  the  bed  of  leaves. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


219 


found  from  Yezo  to  Southern  Kiushiu,  there  appear  constantly 
towards  the  south  and  lower  altitudes,  more  evergreen  trees. 
Among  them  evergreen  oaks,  camellias  and  other  Ternstromiaceae, 
the  camphor-laurel,  and  some  varieties  of  cinnamon  are  the  most 
noticeable.  On  Shikoku  and  the  peninsula  of  Yamato  the  camellia 
is  found  with  the  beech,  deciduous  oak  and  some  kinds  of  maple. 
In  Hiuga  I saw  Illicium  religiosum  and  evergreen  Daphne  shrubs 
in  company  with  Quercus  cuspidata.  In  still  other  parts  of  South- 
ern Kiushiu  and  reaching  to  300  meters  above  the  sea,  we  find, 
near  this  and  other  kinds  of  evergreen  oaks,  lofty  trees  of  different 
species  of  cinnamon,  and  among  others,  Buxus  japonica  in  the 
underwood. 

We  must,  however,  classify  all  these  forests  under  the  head  of 
wild  or  natural,  for  they  are  not  the  product  of  any  cultivation 
for  a particular  purpose,  but  grow  independently.  We  can  find  also 
in  all  of  them  another  and  still  more  interesting  feature,  This  is 
their  marked  relationship  to  the  woods  of  the  Atlantic  States  in 
North  America,  and  to  the  forests  of  the  tertiary  period  in  middle 
Europe.  It  does  not  lie  within  the  purpose  of  this  work  to  con- 
sider more  closely  their  kinships,  and  is  the  more  unnecessary  here, 
as  those  who  are  particularly  interested  in  them  will  find  a full 
account  of  them  in  vol.  i.  pp.  168-174. 

Hitherto  I have  treated  only  of  the  natural  deciduous  forests  of 
the  mountains.  I must  note  here,  however,  a group  of  Coniferae 
which  connects  itself  more  or  less  with  the  deciduous  forest  and  in 
general  within  the  altitudes  of  from  1,500  to  2,000  meters.  Where 
the  last  height  is  exceeded  (up  to  2,400  m.,  see  vol.  i.  p.  157) 
the  development  of  the  trees  is  far  behind  the  normal  state, 
except  where  the  ground  of  an  old  crater  or  a ridge  gives  protection 
from  the  violent  winds,  and  affords  a better  soil.  For  example, 
Abies  Tsuga  and  A.  polita  are  found  from  3 to  6 meters  in  height 
near  the  peak  of  Nantaisan,  2,500  meters  high,  in  the  Nikko  Moun- 
tains while  the  same  species,  of  no  greater  age,  grow  four  or  five 
times  as  high  lower  down.  Of  the  six  most  common  conifers  in 
this  region,  Tsuga  is  without  doubt  the  most  frequent,  and  by  itself 
often  covers  a wide  extent  of  territory.  With  it  one  finds  Abies 
Hrina  and  Larix  leptolepis  in  the  lower,  A.  polita , A.  Alcockiana , 
and  A.  Veitchii  in  the  higher  elevations. 

As  a rule,  only  a few  deciduous  varieties  of  trees  are  found  in 
these  dark,  high  mountain  forests  (Kuro-ki,  or  Black  Forests),  and 
these  are  only  exceptionally  brought  to  a high  state  of  develop- 
ment. They  are  birches,  alders,  and  mountain  ash  ( Betula  alba , 
Alnus  viridis , A.  incana,  Pyrus  sambucifolia) , with  different  kinds 
of  shrubs. 

Apart  from  Yezo,  the  relative  proportions  of  the  entire  Japanese 
Coniferae,  are  given  by  Dupont 1 as  follows : 

1 “Les  Essences  foresti&res  dujapon,”  p.  8. 


220 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


Resinous  timber,  and  woods  used  in  manufactures — (Bois  de 
travail  resineux)  35  per  cent. 

Deciduous  timber,  and  woods  used  in  manufactures — (Bois  de 
travail  feuillus)  5 per  cent. 

Deciduous  woods  for  fuel — (Bois  feuillus  pour  chauffage)  60  per 
cent. 

This  proportion,  according  to  what  has  been  said  before,  must 
be  very  nearly  that  of  the  pine  forests  to  the  deciduous  forests,  so 
that  my  conclusion  as  to  the  preponderance  of  the  latter  (vol.  i.  p. 
15 1)  is  confirmed  by  Duport.  The  designation  “Bois  feuillus 
pour  chauffage  ” must  be  taken  in  connection  with  what  I have 
said  regarding  mountain  deciduous  forests,  that  their  greatest  use 
consists  in  furnishing  a supply  of  wood  for  charcoal.  For  it  is  evi- 
dent that  the  demand  for  fuel  is  not  so  great  in  Japan  as  to  con- 
sume 60  per  cent  of  its  forests.  On  the  other  hand,  Japanese 
wood-culture  is  not  limited  to  forests,  as  we  see  in  Kiri  ( Paulownia ). 

No  thorough  investigation  of  the  Phyto-geography  of  Yezo,  com- 
prising also  the  high  mountains,  has  hitherto  been  made ; but  in 
comparison,  we  learn  from  F.  Schmidt  that  on  Sachalin,  the 
Dwarf-fir  region,  the  Pinus  parviflora,  which  in  Hondo  is  only 
found  on  the  high  mountain  peaks,  in  some  places  grows  as  high 
up  as  320  meters. 

My  studies  in  the  plant-geography  of  Japan  led  me  to  make 
a classification  of  forest  trees,  especially  Coniferae,  in  Honshiu 
particularly,  according  to  five  zones  of  vegetation  (vol.  i.  p.  1 57) ; 
two  years  later,  in  his  “ Ueber  den  anatomischen  Bau  des  Holzes 
der  wichtigsten  japanischen  Coniferen,” 1 which  I have  already 
quoted,  and  under  the  heading,  “ Beschreibung  der  japanischen 
Waldflora,”  Dr.  Yaroku  Nakamura  of  T6kio,  made  a similar 
zone  classification.  As  his  differs  somewhat  from  mine  I give  the 
two  together  in  conclusion  without  further  comment. 


“Rein,  Japan,  vol.  i.  p.  157. 

If  we  sum  up  in  conclusion 
what  has  been  said  as  to  the 
forms  of  vegetation  in  Japan, 
and  in  particular  as  to  the  ver- 
tical distribution  of  its  conifers, 
we  may  distinguish  five  zones. 

1.  Zone  of  Pine-Woods  and 
Juniper  to  a height  of  400 
meters.  It  embraces  the  region 
of  cultivation,  the  vegetation  of 
the  sand-dunes,  of  stagnant  and 
slowly  flowing  water,  of  the 
bushy  hill-country  and  of  the 


Nakamura  writes : If  we 
consider  the  vertical  distribution 
of  forest  trees  in  Japan,  we  are 
able  to  classify  them  in  general 
in  five  zones. 


I.  Zone  of  the  Pine  Woods. 
This  reaches  a height  of  500 
meters.  The  lower  portion  is 
inhabited  by  Pinus  Massoniana, 
with  the  winter-green  foliage 
trees  such  as  Quercus  acuta 
0.  glauca,  0.  gilva,  O.  phylly- 


1 “ Untersuchungen  aus  dem  forstbotanischen  Institut  zu  Miinchen.”  III. 
Berlin,  1883,  pp.  17-45. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


221 


evergreen  forests  in  the  south, 
which  only  in  exceptional  cases 
extends  200  meters  higher. 


2 Zone  of  the  Cryptomeria , 
Cypress  and  Yew , 400-1,000 
meters  high.  This  is  at  the 
same  time  the  range  of  the 
lower  summer-green  forest,  in 
which  the  vegetation  develops 
its  greatest  strength  in  point  of 
luxuriance  and  variety  of  kinds, 
the  region  of  Chestnuts,  Decidu- 
ous Laurenise,  most  of  the  Mag- 
noliacese,  Ternstromiacese, 
Lardizabalese,  Hydrangeae, 
Caprifoliaceae,  and  other  abun- 
dantly represented  tribes,  as 
well  as,  finally,  the  district  of 
the  lower  and  most  widely  dis- 
tributed Hara. 

3.  Zone  of  Abies  firma  and 
the  7iiiddle  broad-leaved  forest , 
1,000-1,500  meters  high.  To  this 
belongs  the  greater  part  of  the 
deciduous  forest  consisting  of 
oaks,  beeches,  maples,  alders, 
ashes,  horse  chestnuts,  aralias 
and  the  upper  Hara. 


4.  Zone  of  Firs  and  Larches. 
1,500-2,000  meters.  It  is  also 
the  district  of  the  higher  broad- 
leaved forest,  composed  of 
birches,  alders,  sub- Alpine  plants 
and  shrubs. 


rhoides,  Q.  glabra,  Cinnamomum 
Camphora,  Distylium  race- 
mosum,  Cinnamomum  pedun- 
culata,  Buxus  sempervirens,  etc. 
In  the  upper  parts  (300-500  m.) 
Pinus  densiflora  with  deciduous 
trees  like  the  Zelkowa  Keaki, 
Ginko  biloba,  Quercus  dentata, 
Q.  serrata,  Q.  crispula,  Cas- 
tanea  vulgaris,  Melia  japonica, 
Sophora  japonica,  Aphanante 
aspera,  Celtis  sinensis,  Populus 
Sieboldi,  Ilex  crenata,  etc. 

2.  Zone  of  the  Cypress , 500- 
1,000  meters  high.  The  pre- 
dominating varieties  of  wood 
are:  Chamaecyparis  obtusa, 
Ch.  pisifera,  Podocarpus  macro- 
phylla,  Sciadopitys  verticillata, 
Podocarpus  Nageia,  Torreya 
nucifera,  etc. 


3.  Zone  of  the  summer-green 
foliaceous  trees , 1,100-1,700  me- 
ters high.  Here  are  to  be  found 
principally  Magnolia  hypoleuca, 
Cercidiphyllum  japonicum, 
Evodia  glauca,  Ulmus  Campes- 
tris,  Alnus  Maritima,  Fagus 
sylvatica,  Juglans  Sieboldi, 
iEsculus  turbinata,  Acer  pal- 
matum,  A.  crataegifolium,  etc. 

4.  Zone  of  the  Firs  and 
Larches , 1,700-2, 400 meters  high. 
In  the  lower  part  of  this  zone 
are  Abies  firma,  Larix  leptolepis, 
and  Abies  Tsuga  principally, 
and  in  the  upper  portion,  are  to 
be  found  Abies  Veitchii,  Picea 
Alcockiana,  P.  polita,  etc. 


222 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


5.  Zone  of  Dwarf  pine,  from 
2,000  meters  upward,*  the  region 
of  creeping  Ericinese  and  high 
Alpine  herbs. 


5.  Zone  of  tJie  mountain 
Dwarf  pine,  2,400  to  2,800  meters 
high.  Here  the  Pinus  parviflora 
finds  its  home  and  the  dwarfed 
Alnus  viridis,  Sorbus  aucuparia, 
Betula  alba,  Alnus  firma,  etc. 
also  appear. 


The  great  influence  of  forests  upon  climate  has  been  repeatedly- 
called  in  question,  but  still  more  often  abundantly  attested.  A 
short,  appropriate  statement  of  the  relation  between  them,  based 
on  reliable  observations,  and  from  so  competent  an  authority  as 
the  Russian  meteorologist  A.  Woeikof,  in  Petermann’s  Reports,1  was 
surely  therefore  welcome  to  many.  The  result  of  the  investigation 
justifies  the  ruling,  and  among  our  foresters  the  unvarying  opinion, 
that  forests  have  really  a strong  climatic  influence  upon  the 
country.  The  most  eminent  French  savants  have  applied  them- 
selves to  the  question  of  reclothing  the  mountains  of  southern 
France  and  Algiers  with  forests,  and  have  come  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  cultivation  of  forests  and  all  forms  of  vegetation  has  a 
powerful  effect  upon  climate.  They  purify  the  air,  cool  it  in 
summer,  moderate  the  cold  in  winter,  in  many  cases  condense  the 
moisture  of  the  atmosphere,2  and  cause  the  greatest  variety  of 
rainfall.  They  suck  up  snow-water  and  rain 3 into  their  leaves, 
moss,  and  decaying  matter,  like  the  dry  spongy  turf.  They 
lessen  the  formation  of  clefts  in  the  ground  by  erosion  and  floods. 
On  the  one  hand,  they  hinder  the  flooding  of  valleys  in  the  time  of 
heavy  rains  and  melting  of  the  snow ; and  on  the  other,  the  water 
they  draw  in  and  store  away  is  given  out  gradually  and  feeds  the 
springs  in  the  dry  season.  Thus  the  forest  becomes  a water 
reservoir  and  an  inexhaustible  source  of  moisture,  through  which 
the  depth  of  rivers  is  regulated  and  maintained. 

The  consequences  of  forest  destruction  show  themselves  not 
only  in  the  failure  of  wood  for  fuel,  building,  and  manufacture, 
but  in  still  greater  degree  in  the  very  considerable  climatic  changes 
which  the  country  undergoes. 

The  destruction  of  forests  causes  an  increase  of  the  mean  annual 
temperature,  especially  of  summer  heat,  as  well  as  a decrease  of 
the  annual  rainfall.  But  to  consider  this  as  generally  the  cause 
of  floods  would  be  to  judge  too  partially.  Floods  are  known  in  the 
most  densely  wooded  parts  of  the  earth,  especially  in  the  heavily 
wooded  districts  of  Japan.  The  terrible  overflow  of  the  Rhine  in 
1882  occurred  in  one  of  the  richest  forest  districts  of  the  central 


1 Petermann’s  “ Mitth.”  31  Bd.  1885,  pp.  81-87. 

* Every  morsel  of  moss  which  we  destroy,  and  indeed  all  foliage,  is  a reservoir 
for  water. 

3 Forests  do  not  attract  the  clouds,  as  has  been  popularly  supposed,  owing  to 
deceptive  appearances,  but  produce  them,  by  condensing  the  air  which  moves 
through  and  over  them. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


223 


mountains  of  Germany.  The  broad  vestiges  of  the  old  river  beds 
show  too  that  our  rivers  of  to-day  have  grown  much  tamer  and 
better  behaved,  as  well  as  that  floods  were  much  more  common 
when  Germany  had  still  its  primeval  forests  than  now.  But  the 
correct  explanation  of  this  lies  in  quite  another  direction,  and  does 
not  at  all  contradict  the  fact  that  the  destruction  of  the  mountain 
forests  has  materially  increased  the  dryness  of  the  atmosphere,  the 
inequality  in  the  distribution  of  the  rainfall,  and  the  danger  of 
floods  in  the  valleys.  It  is  evident  that  it  was  not  so  much  the 
quantity  of  the  rainfall  that  formed  one  of  the  principal  causes  of 
these  floods,  as  the  forests  in  the  plain,  which  later  gave  way  to 
arable  and  meadow  cultivation.  The  washing  away  of  ground 
had  not  been  so  great  nor  the  river  beds  so  deepened  as  now, 
while  numerous  obstacles  to  a quick  ebb  of  the  waters  presented 
themselves. 

The  destruction  of  mountain  forests  is  looked  upon  by  all 
scientists  in  these  days  as  a calamity  to  the  future  of  a country. 
With  the  wood,  the  decayed  soil,  with  its  covering  of  moss  and 
leaves,  goes  inevitably  from  the  mountain  sides.  The  rain  torrents 
and  the  wind  sweep  them  away  and  leave  only  the  naked  rock. 
The  weather-beaten  mass  thus  broken  off  is  carried  rapidly  to  the 
valley,  where  floods  and  boulder-deposits  frequently  take  place  on 
the  formerly  cultivated  ground.  Numerous  examples  of  the  con- 
sequences of  forest  destruction,  reaching  on  to  future  generations, 
are  to  be  seen  in  different  countries.  In  the  year  1879  a Russian 
newspaper  contained  the  following  : 

“ One  can  wander  for  twenty  or  thirty  hours  on  the  coast  of  the 
Black  Sea,  which  was  in  earlier  time  covered  with  oak  woods, 
without  finding  a single  tree.  The  once  richly  wooded  environs 
of  Tiflis  are  now  entirely  treeless.  This  is  even  more  true  of 
the  mountain  ridge  of  Daghestan,  whose  forests  have  been  taken 
for  the  firewood  of  steamships  in  the  Caspian  Sea.  The  soil  of 
Eriwan  was  once  most  productive ; rich  cornfields  alternated  with 
meadows  between  forests.  To-day  all  is  a desert  waste,  and  the 
inhabitants  can  scarcely  secure  the  most  necessary  food.” 

In  the  foregoing  may  be  found  much  that  is  applicable  to  the 
situation  in  Japan.  The  weal  and  woe  of  the  inhabitants  in  the 
valley  depends  to  a certain  degree  upon  the  mountains  and  their 
forests  and  the  improvement  of  rivers  and  making  them  navigable 
appears  to  be  a problem  which  can  only  be  solved  satisfactorily  in 
connection  with  a thorough  system  of  mountain  forestry.  The 
preservation  and  scientific  cultivation  of  mountain  forests  is  one 
of  the  most  important  duties  which  the  Japanese  government  has 
to  perform  for  the  good  of  the  country.  Their  preservation  serves 
to  regulate  the  profuse  rainfall,  to  protect  the  land  from  floods  at 
the  season  of  rain  and  thaw,  and  to  provide  the  soil  in  the  dry' 
season  with  a rich  water  supply  to  fill  the  rivers.  Their  cultivation 
on  the  other  hand  aims  to  provide  the  needed  wood  supply,  and  to 


224 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


open  to  the  country  a source  of  income  which  till  now  has  been 
very  insufficiently  valued  and  developed. 

As  in  every  system  of  forestry,  so  in  the  Japanese,  there  must 
be  the  aim  to  strengthen  the  better  growths  and  repress  more 
worthless  timber,  as  well  as  to  secure  a proper  marketing  by 
establishing  roads  and  means  of  transportation.  A wide  field  of 
labour,  but  one  rich  in  results,  especially  in  consideration  of  the 
lack  of  wood  in  China,  opens  here — a work  that  certainly  cannot 
be  accomplished  off-hand,  but  which  must  be  carefully  and  steadily 
prosecuted.  In  my  travels  through  Japan,  I was  often  asked  by 
those  in  government  circles,  what  I would  especially  recommend 
for  the  promotion  of  the  national  welfare.  I said  then,  and 
repeat  it  now,  as  of  first  importance — “To  protect  and  cultivate 
the  forest.” 


The  Nature  and  Use  of  the  more  important  Forest  Trees  and 
other  tiseful  Japanese  Woods. 

There  are  only  a few  works  of  real  value  upon  this  subject  at 
my  command,1  with  the  exception  of  longer  or  shorter  lists  of 
Japanese  designations  with  or  without  scientific  names.  I have 
therefore  been  thrown  for  the  most  part  upon  my  own  observa- 
tions, the  collections  made  during  my  travels,  and  an  exhibition 
of  fifty  different  kinds  of  wood  made  by  the  Minister  of  the 
Interior  (Naimushio)  in  Paris,  1878,  and  which  later  on  were  sent 
to  me. 

The  long  duration  of  winter  limits  the  period  of  most  vegetation, 
in  Yezo  to  five,  in  Middle  Japan  to  six,  and  in  the  southern  part  to 
seven  months  of  the  year.  It  interrupts  too  the  growth  of  all 
woods,  even  the  evergreen.  They  show  therefore  distinct  annual 
rings,  as  is  the  case  in  all  countries  where  a low  winter  temperature 
and  a regularly  recurring  standstill  in  growth  takes  place.  For  the 
same  reason,  there  are  scarcely  any  heavy  woods  such  as  abound 
in  the  tropics.  In  addition  to  all  the  other  differences  in  the 
numerous  woods  of  Japan,  their  specific  gravity  fluctuates  between 
C329  in  Kiri  ( Paulownia  imperialis ) and  0960  in  Tsuge  ( Buxus 

1 Thunberg,  in  the  preface  to  his  “Flora  japonica,”  1784,  gave  the  first 
catalogue  of  the  useful  woods  of  Japan.  His  classification  is  followed  by  von 
Siebold  in  the  already  often  quoted  work,  “ Synopsis  Plantarum  CEconomicarum 
Universi  Regni  Japonici.”  Batavia,  1830.  In  this  work  he  enumerates  39 
species  as  Ligna  maxime  quaesita.  The  following  works  on  this  subject  are 
of  much  more  value  : 

x.  “Preliminary  Catalogue  of  the  Japanese  Kinds  of  Woods,”  by  Dr.  Geerts. 
“Transactions  As.  Soc.  of  Japan,”  vol.  iv.  pp.  1-26. 

2.  “ Experiments  on  the  Strength  of  Japanese  Woods,”  by  R.  H.  Smith. 

Ibid.  pp.  27-28.  134  kinds. 

3.  “Les  Essences  forestikres  du  Japon,”  par  Dupont.  Paris,  1879. 

4.  “ Nippon  Juboku-shi.  Treatises  on  100  Japanese  woods,  with  lengthwise 
and  cross  sections.”  Published  by  the  Geographical  Department. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


225 


■iaponica , J.  Muller).1  Besides  box,  the  heavier  and  harder  woods 
of  Japan  comprise  Yusu  ( Distylium  uzcemosum),  the  varied  Tern- 
stromiaceae  (Camellia,  Tea  plant,  Stuartia,  and  others),  the  Sara- 
suberi  {Lager stromia  indica ),  different  kinds  of  plum,  and  the 
numerous  oaks,  which  have  a specific  gravity  generally  from  0750 
to  0-850. 

Some  of  the  most  valuable  trees  of  Japan  attain  an  enormous 
growth.  These  giants  are  very  rarely  found  in  the  forest,  but 
generally  in  the  neighbourhood  of  towns,  in  the  courts  and  groves 
which  surround  old  temples,  and  among  the  trees  giving  shade 
along  the  roads,  especially  those  leading  to  celebrated  temples. 
The  Japanese  admires  and  protects  them  and  even  transfers  to 
them  something  of  the  reverence  toward  age  which  was  instilled 
into  him  from  his  youth  up.  Among  leaf-bearing  trees,  those  most 
noted  for  size  are  the  camphor-laurel  and  the  Keaki ; among 
conifers,  the  Cryptomeria  and  Ginko.  A short  classification  of 
those  giant  specimens  that  I have  myself  seen  may  be  of  interest, 
and  not  out  of  place  here. 

1.  Camphor-laurel  {Laurus  Camphora,  L.)  or  Kusu-no-ki.  A 
specimen  that  I saw  at  Kaseda-mura  in  1875,  on  the  way  from 
Wakayama  in  Kishiu  to  the  monastery-town  Koyasan,  at  breast- 
high  was  11*5  meters  in  circumference.  Like  an  old  village 
linden,  the  trunk,  separated  somewhat  higher  up  into  a number  of 
mighty  outspread  branches.  In  the  park  at  Uyeno  in  Tdkio  I 
measured,  in  1874,  another  camphor  tree  which  rivalled  the  sur- 
rounding conifers  behind  the  temple  of  Gongesama,  and  at  1 meter 
high  showed  a circumference  of  5 ’50  meters.  In  1884  Lehmann2 
found  the  circumference  5^55  meters,  and  the  height  of  the  tree  he 
estimated  at  31  meters.  Large  as  these  dimensions  are,  they  are 
far  behind  those  of  the  trees  which  one  sees  in  Nagasaki  and  in 
other  parts  of  Kiushiu.  Kaempfer  mentioned  in  1691  a camphor 
tree  which  was  celebrated  for  its  enormous  thickness.  In  1826, 
135  years  later,  Siebold  found  it  rich  in  foliage  and  apparently 
sound.  The  trunk,  which  measured  16-884  meters  in  circumference, 
however  was  hollow. 

2.  Keyaki  (Zelkowa  acuminata , Planchon).  At  Meguro  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Tdkio,  in  January,  1874,  the  “0  Keyaki” 
(Great  Keaki)  was  felled,  and  showed  a circumference  of  1 17  meters 
at  1 meter  high. 

3.  Camellia  ( Camellia  japonica , L.)  or  Tsubaki.  In  Southern 
Japan  I saw  many  trees  from  8 to  10  meters  high,  and  1 meter 

1 R.  H.  Smith  gives  the  specific  gravity  of  box  as  only  0-839  > °f  Paulownia, 
as  0.329,  and  of  Kashi  ( Quercus  dentata , Thunb.)  1-017.  There  is  no  doubt  an 
error  in  this,  especially  concerning  the  weight  of  Kashi,  for  the  boxwood  of 
Southern  Japan  is  as  marked  above  all  others  for  its  weight,  as  is  Kiri  for  its 
lightness. 

2 R.  Lehmann,  engineer,  of  Tokio,  in  accordance  with  an  expressed  wish  of 
mine  in  1884,  kindly  subjected  several  other  trees  which  I had  indicated  to 
him  to  a careful  measurement. 

II. 


Q 


226 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


in  circumference.  The  plants  in  their  wild  condition  reach  the  same 
height  but  not  the  same  thickness  of  trunk.  A magnificent  speci- 
men in  the  court  of  the  temple  at  Yutenji  near  Tokio,  with  straight 
trunk  and  beautifully  formed  crown,  I estimated  in  1874,  by  its 
shadow,  at  5 meters  high.  The  trunk  had  a circumference  of  147 
meters.  In  1844,  Lehmann  found  the  latter  1 '5 3 metres  and  the 
height  5-5  meters.  The  age  of  the  tree  was  given  him  as  120  years. 

4.  Shii-no-ki  ( Quercus  cuspidata).  A specimen  behind  the  Sanno 
temple  was,  in  1874,  46  meters  in  circumference  but  scarcely  12 
meters  high,  although  this  species  is  reckoned  among  the  tallest 
oaks  of  Japan. 

5.  Fuji  ( Wistaria  Chinensis , S.  and  Z.).  There  was  a giant  tree 
at  Nakanobu-mura  near  Tokio,  which  covered  the  spacious  court- 
yard of  a tea-house,  and  bore  thousands  of  long  soft  clusters  ot 
blossoms,  but  it  has  disappeared.  Below  its  branching  and  at 
breast  high  it  measured,  in  the  spring  of  1874,  24.5  meters  around 
the  trunk. 

6.  Sugi  ( Cryptomeria  japonica , Don.).  On  Sasa-no-yama-toge,  on 
Koshiukaido  (road  from  Tokio  to  Kofu),  about  750  meters  above 
sea  level,  I found  in  the  autumn  of  1874,  on  the  right  of  the  road, 
a Cryptomeria,  which  at  xj  meters  high  had  a circumference  of 
941  meters.  Specimens  of  from  6 to  7 meters  circumference  are 
frequent  in  Nikko  and  other  temple  groves.  They  reach  a height  of 
30  to  45  meters.  In  1565  the  missionary  Almeyda  visited  the  temple 
of  Kasuga  near  Nara.  The  way  led  through  an  avenue  of  cedars 
(Sugi)  and  pines  “ qui  faisoient  une  fort  belle  symetrie,  et  dont  les 
tetes  se  joignoient  tellement  que  le  soleil  n’y  pouver  percer.” 
Single  cedars  measured  “cinq  brasses  de  circumference,”  or  8’ 12 
meters  according  to  modern  measurement.  He  found  the  roof  of 
the  temple  resting  on  ninety  columns  of  cedar  (Cryptomeria)  trunks, 
each  of  which  measured  6 meters  in  circumference.1 

7.  Ichio  or  Ginkiyo  ( Ginkgo  biloba , L.).  Among  the  trees  of 
this  kind  in  temple  grounds  in  and  around  Tokio,  the  largest 
and  most  finely  developed  is  the  one  at  the  temple  Koyenji.  Ten 
years  ago,  at  2 meters  high,  its  circumference  was  73  meters,  and 
in  1884  nearly  7'55  meters.  Lehmann  estimated  the  height  of  the 
stoutest  branches  at  32  meters,  and  heard  that  the  age  of  the  tree 
was  supposed  to  be  1,000  years.  This  must,  however,  be  a great 
exaggeration  in  view  of  the  origin  and  growth  of  the  city  Yedo 
under  Tokugawa  Iyegasu,  and  the  circumstance  that  the  Salisburia 
only  grows  from  planting.  The  tree  has  otherwise  the  appearance 

1 John  Booth  of  Klein  Flottbeck  near  Altona,  mentions  in  his  interesting 
report  of  the  Forestry  Exhibition  in  Edinburgh,  1884,  that  in  the  Japanese  Re- 
ports concerning  the  province  of  Kiushiu  (where?),  it  was  stated  that  there 
were  Cryptomeria  groves  in  which  single  trees  had  a diameter  of  27  feet.  I 
should  have  at  once  substituted  circumference  for  diameter  had  not  the  farther 
statement  been  made  that  they  (Morimasa  Takei  and  his  companions),  to  the 
number  of  twelve,  once  passed  the  night  in  a hollow  trunk. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


227 


of  an  old  linden  with  a symetrically  developed  crown.  In  the 
park  at  Shiba  the  largest  Salisburia  had  in  1874  a circumference 
of  6 30  meters. 

8.  K6ya-maki  (Sciadopitys  verticillata).  The  largest  specimen 
which  I know  and  which  Japan  can  properly  show,  is  found  in  a 
temple  court  in  Nikko.  Lehmann,  who  reckoned  the  height  24 
meters  and  the  circumference  at  415  meters,  was  told  that  the  tree 
was  250  years  old,  an  estimate  that  agrees  very  well  with  the  age 
of  the  park  in  which  it  was  found. 

Further  estimates  also  in  respect  to  immense  size  will  be  found 
in  the  following  pages,  in  which  I have  tried  to  collect  briefly  in 
systematic  order  the  most  remarkable  of  the  useful  woods  of  Japan. 


Fam.  Gramine^e,  Group  Bambusace^e. 

The  greater  wood-forming  varieties  of  bamboo  cane,  which  alone 
are  to  be  considered  here,  bear  the  collective  name  Take,  in  com 
binations  often  written  “dake,”  for  which  also  the  Japanese-Chinese 
form  chiku  1 is  much  used. 

1.  Bambusa  arundinacea , L.  ( Arundo  Bambos , L.  and  Thunb.), 
Japanese  Ma-take  or  male  bamboo.  It  is  the  most  valuable  and 
the  most  cultivated  Japanese  variety,  with  which  B.  vulgaris,  Wendl., 
is  often  found  in  company.'2  Its  cylindrical  stalks  are  long  and 
straight,  the  wood  is  firm,  capable  of  resistance  in  the  highest  de- 
gree, and  well  adapted  to  many  uses.  Ha-chiku  seems  to  be  a 
sub-species.  Ma-take  reaches  in  Japan  a height  of  from  15  to  20 
meters  and  a trunk  circumference  of  40  to  50  cm.,  but  only  in 
favourable  soil.  In  less  favourable  conditions  and  higher  altitudes 
the  dimensions  will  fall  far  short  of  the  above  figures. 

2.  B.  agrestis,  Poir.  ( B . spinosa,  Roxb.),  Japanese  Kan-chiku, 
grows  6 to  8 meters  high  and  over  a thumb’s  thickness.  It  is  a 
strong,  thick- walled  cane,  that  is  distinguished  chiefly  by  its  knotty 
joints.  It  is  found  generally  as  a live  hedge. 

3.  Bambusa  — — ? Japanese  Moso-chiku  and  Honan-chiku.  The 
latter  name  comes  from  the  Chinese  province  of  Honan  where, 

1 As  most  of  the  Japanese  bamboos  never  produce  seed  nor  even  bloom, 
their  classification  and  identification  with  Indian  varieties  is  difficult.  For  this 
reason  authors  of  works  on  the  Japanese  Flora,  like  Franchet  and  Savatier, 
have  either  omitted  them,  or  contented  themselves  with  simply  giving  the 
Japanese  names.  I have  endeavoured  to  find  in  the  well-known  Treatise  of 
Col.  Munro,  “ A Monograph  of  the  Bambusacese,”  in  the  Transactions  of  the 
Linn.  Soc.  vol.  xxvi.  pp.  1—159,  a definite  classification,  but  I give  here  the  result 
with  all  reserve,  and  commit  it  to  a successor  who  may  better  discharge  the 
difficult  task,  and  shed  more  light  on  this  interesting  subject. 

2 Of  all  the  bamboos  of  Indian  origin  these  two  are  found  most  widely  spread. 
The  former  was  in  1730  introduced  into  hot  houses  in  England,  and  was  till 
1813  the  only  one  of  its  kind  there.  In  the  West  Indies,  on  the  Mascarenes 
and  elsewhere,  both  are  now  extensively  cultivated. 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


as  at  Hong-kong,  it  is  much  cultivated.  Stouter,  but  not  so  tall 
as  B.  arundinacea , it  may  be  identified  chiefly  by  the  club-like 
swelling  of  the  stalk  at  the  base,  and  its  frequent  knobs.  The 
wood  is  not  so  much  prized,  is  porous  and  not  so  capable  of  resist- 
ance. It  is  used  for  flower  vases  and  other  vessels,  but  the  prin- 
cipal object  in  its  cultivation  is  to  furnish  bamboo  sprouts  in  spring.1 

4.  Phyllostachys  nigra , Munro  ( Bambusa  puberula,  Miq.),  Japa- 
nese Kuro-dake,  black  bamboo,  and  Goma-dake.  This  variety 
show's  brown  spots  when  young,  and  becomes  later  quite  black.  It 
is  a beautiful  cane,  from  3 to  6 meters  high  and  of  a thumb’s  thick- 
ness, but  is  not  extensively  cultivated.  A kindred  or  only  sub- 
species is  the  so-called  Han-chiku,  or  spotted  Bamboo  of  the 
island  of  Yezo.  This  is  found  near  the  western  coast  of  Shikotan 
in  Shiribeshi,  where  it  grows  in  great  quantities  on  both  banks  of 
a brook,  and  on  account  of  its  beautiful  marking  (irregular  brown 
spots  and  shading)  is  much  gathered.  The  Japanese  prize  it 
highly  and  use  it  for  walking  sticks,  whistles,  brush  handles,  and 
other  objects. 

5.  A-rundinaria  japonica,  S.  and  Z.,  called  Me-take  (i.e.  female 
bamboo).  This  is  an  indigenous  variety  which  is  found  growing 
wild  in  the  hilly  country,  and  much  prized  for  thick-growing 
hedges.  It  attains  a height  of  2 to  3*5  meters,  and  a finger’s  thick- 
ness, is  firm  and  hardy,  used  for  whistles  and  brush  handles,  and 
has  found  a wide  field  outside  of  Japan. 

Most  of  the  other  indigenous  bamboos  do  not  become  woody, 
but  remain  small  and  grass-like.  They  bear  the  collective  desig- 
nation Sasa,  often  form  the  underwood  of  forests,  and  are  distin- 
guishable in  part  by  the  variegation  of  their  leaves,  and  several 
varieties  are  found  as  decorative  plants  in  Europe,  for  instance 
Bambusa  nana , Roxb.,  B.  Fortunei,  van  Houtte,  B.  aurea,  Sieb.,  B. 
pygnicea,  Miq.,  Phyllostachys  bambusoides,  S.  and  Z.,  P.  Kumasasa, 
Munro. 

The  monsoon  district  is  the  old  home  of  many  kinds  of  bamboo 
and  the  place  where  the  largest  and  most  beautiful  varieties  are 
cultivated  most  extensively,  as  is  also  the  case  with  rice.  A portion 
of  these  bamboos  have  spread  far  beyond  the  tropic  of  Cancer, 
especially  in  China  and  Japan.  Notwithstanding  this,  I cannot 
agree  with  Wallace  when  he  affirms2  that  the  immense  grasses 
which  we  call  bamboo  cane  can  scarcely  be  regarded  as  tropical 
plants.  The  most  numerous  and  especially  the  largest  varieties 
belong  to  the  tropical  monsoon  district,  and  those  indigenous  to 
South  America  and  Africa  seldom  if  ever  cross  the  tropic  line.  No 
other  food  plant  in  monsoon  lands  is  as  important  as  rice,  and 
no  other  wood  growth  equal  to  the  bamboo  (1  consider  here  only 

1 Bambusa  quadrangularis , Fenzi.,  Japanese  Kaku-dake  (square,  four-cornered 
bamboo  cane),  Ciko-chiku,  and  Ho-chiku.  (See  Th.  Dyer.  “The  Square 
Bamboo,”  Nature , vol.  xxxii.  p.  391.) 

2 Wallace,  “Tropical  Nature,”  London,  1878,  p.  52  ff. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


229 


the  large  varieties)  in  respect  to  its  varied  use.  None  other  graces 
the  landscape  with  equal  charm. 

In  their  early  growth  the  bamboo  varieties  furnish  a favourite 
food  ; in  fuller  development  their  decorative  groups  are  most 
effective  in  the  landscape  of  the  country,  and  finally  when  dead 
they  yield  a material  which  in  the  warm  monsoon  districts  is  so 
manifold  in  its  uses  that  an  intelligent  companion  of  Col.  Yule1 
could  not  conceive  of  the  possibility  of  human  existence  in  a 
country  destitute  of  bamboo  cane. 

As  the  houses  in  North  Germany  are  decorated  at  Whitsuntide 
with  the  lovely  green  of  young  branches  of  birch,  so  in  Japan  the 
bamboo  is  used  for  the  New  Year’s  festival.  Behind  the  fir  tree  on 
each  side  of  the  entrance  door,  is  placed  a tall  slender  stalk  of  Take- 
no-ki  with  its  many  knots  and  articulations,  a symbol  of  man’s 
strength,  and  its  branches  decked  out  with  small  mandarin 
oranges,  according  to  old  custom. 

These  great  bamboo  canes  have  often  been  aptly  compared  with 
asparagus.  As  every  spring  a number  of  stalks  are  driven  up 
from  the  asparagus  root,  and  under  normal  conditions  attain  a 
regular  growth  each  year,  so  it  is  with  the  well  ordered  cultiva- 
tion of  the  bamboo.  Only  here  the  circumstances  are  on  a much 
grander  scale.  Out  of  a few  clumps  of  bamboo  roots  on  good  soil 
is  developed  an  entire  grove.  In  early  spring  the  fresh  growth 
looks  much  like  gigantic  asparagus,  and  like  it  is  used  as  a veget- 
able. By  the  1st  of  May  the  canes  of  Bambusa  arundinacea  have 
reached  the  height  of  a man,  but  it  is  not  till  Midsummer  that 
nature  shows  her  full  power  in  the  bamboo  thicket,  for  the  cane  is 
indeed  grass,  which  one  can  see  grow,  in  the  literal  sense  of  the 
word,  and  under  certain  conditions,  at  the  rate  of  ten  or  more 
meters  a week.  Without  branches  or  leaves,  it  forces  its  way  easily 
through  the  thickets  of  other  canes,  and  after  reaching  almost  its 
full  height,  pushes  out  its  thin  branches  through  the  nodes  in  all 
directions,  forming  of  them  and  their  light  green  foliage  the  web  of 
its  crowns  which  are  already  outlined.  It  is  necessary  of  course 
to  provide  a bamboo  plantation  with  plenty  of  light  and  air.  The 
older  canes  which  have  been  sawed  off  or  hewn  down  are  taken 
away  and  used,  and  young  plants  take  their  place.  The  larger 
cultivated  varieties  of  bamboo  in  Japan,  are  not,  as  in  India,  set 
apart  in  forests  by  themselves,  but,  as  has  been  previously  intimated, 
are  planted  on  the  edges  of  forests,  near  large  towns,  and  in  temple 
groves.  Experience  has  taught  that  most  varieties,  even  in  their 
Indian  home,  when  they  grow  in  groves  of  more  or  less  density, 
sometimes  from  20  to  30  m.  high,  only  over-topped  by  the  highest 
trees,  or  planted  near  villages,  are  very  slow  in  reaching  their 
blossoming  and  seed  time,  when  they  die.  In  Japan,  the  large 
cultivated  kinds  never  blossom,  nor  do  they  here  attain  the  same 
height  and  thickness  as  in  their  tropical  home. 

1 Yule,  “ Marco  Polo,”  i.  298. 


230 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


In  India,  Bambusa  Brandisii,  Munro,  sometimes  grows  from  30 
to  36  m.  high,  and  in  warmer  China,  B.  arundinacece  and  B. 
vulgaris  reach  a circumference  of  from  28  to  30  English  inches 
(70  to  75  cm.),  and  a height  of  more  than  20  m.,  dimensions  which 
are  considerably  exceeded  by  the  best  canes  of  Japan. 

The  tree-like  bamboo  finds  a use  in  every  size,  at  all  ages,  in  great 
quantities  and  for  manifold  purposes.  First  of  all,  the  full-grown 
stalks,  gigantic  wood  stems,  which  nature  has  endowed  with  many 
valuable  properties  such  as  no  other  wood  possesses  in  like  measure, 
have  a wide  range  of  applications  and  in  numberless  directions. 
No  other  wood  contains  so  much  firmness,  elasticity  and  strength. 
The  large  quantity  of  free  silicic  acid  in  the  cane  makes  it  hard 
and  able  to  resist  many  influences  which  destroy  other  wood.  In 
burning  it  crackles  and  fulminates,  as  was  noted  by  Marco  Polo, 
who  also  mentions  that  wild  animals  in  this  way  are  kept  at  night 
from  the  camp  fires  and  the  fruits  of  the  field.  Its  slenderness 
and  length,  its  pipe  form,  its  nodal  interruptions  and  its  easy 
lengthwise  cleavage,  are  among  its  most  valuable  properties. 
Every  attempt  to  number  the  manifold  uses  based  upon  these 
properties  seems  vain,  for,  sleeping  or  waking,  in  every  form  of 
activity  and  at  every  age,  man  is  surrounded  by  its  forms  and 
accustomed  to  its  uses  wherever  the  bamboo  grows  in  Southern 
and  Eastern  Asia. 

In  its  natural  condition,  and  stripped  only  of  its  crown,  it  is 
used  for  ladder  beams,  rafters,  palings,  posts,  and  stakes  for  pro- 
tection and  support,  for  example,  of  young  trees  ; for  scaffoldings  ; 
for  rudder-posts,  masts,  flag-staffs,  fishing-rods,  and  measuring 
sticks ; for  walking-sticks,  handles  and  other  parts  of  implements 
and  weapons  ; for  hedges,  fences  and  all  sorts  of  framework.  Its 
hollowness  makes  it  applicable  In  many  directions,  eg.,  as  water 
pipes  when  the  partitions  at  the  joints  have  been  pierced  through, 
and  for  pumps,  flutes,  and  whistles. 

Every  section  with  these  cross  walls  at  the  joints  is  a closed 
vessel.  If  cut  crosswise  it  affords  a piece  of  pipe  which,  with 
its  closed  end  and  open  top,  forms  a cylindrical  vessel  that  may 
serve  under  different  circumstances  as  a pail  or  cup,  flower  vase 
or  spittoon. 

Its  easy  cleavage  allows  of  its  use  in  small  staves,  splints  and 
bands  of  various  size,  also  chopsticks,  spoons,  spears,  and  other 
simple  articles,  as  well  as  in  many  kinds  of  lattice  work  and 
plaiting,  as  hats,  sieves,  baskets,  boxes  and  cages,  chairs,  litters 
and  bedsteads,  mats  and  covers,  blinds  for  doors  and  windows, 
sails,  picture-frames,  screens  and  fans. 

In  Tokio  there  are  whole  streets  where  there  is  scarcely  anything 
but  bamboo  sold.  Here,  exposed  for  sale  in  the  courts  of  the 
larger  shops  are  thousands  of  stalks  of  every  length  and  thickness, 
from  rafters  and  ladder  beams  to  paint-brush  handles,  ready  to 
make  up  into  the  before  mentioned  Take-mono  (bamboo  work). 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


231 


After  what  has  been  said  of  the  various  uses  made  of  it  by  the 
inhabitants  of  the  monsoon  countries,  and  taking  into  account 
its  ornamental  features,  it  will  not  cause  surprise  to  know  that 
its  praises  are  much  sung  by  Chinese  and  Japanese  poets.  It  is 
a favourite  subject  with  the  Japanese  artist,  which  he  imitates  not 
only  with  his  brush  but  the  chisel  also — and  to  be  able  to  repre- 
sent its  characteristic  likeness  with  a few  strokes  of  the  India-ink 
pencil  is  considered  in  Japan  an  unmistakable  sign  of  artistic 
ability. 


Fam.  Palmed. 

6.  Chamczrops  excelsa , Thunb.,  Jap.  Shuro  or  Shuro-no-ki,  also 
called  Shuro-gi.  The  wood  of  this  palm  is  especially  valuable  on 
account  of  its  durability  and  resistance  to  damp,  and  is  prized 
above  all  others  in  boat  and  house  building.  It  is  also  used  like 
bamboo  in  making  hollow  ware. 

7.  Cycas  revoluta  Thunb.,  Jap.  Sotetsu.  This  beautifully  spotted 
but  very  light  and  porous  wood  is  distinguished  for  not  splitting. 
It  is  used  like  Keyaki,  for  small  boxes,  plates,  and  other  similar 
articles.  (See  Hakone-zaiku.) 

Fam.  Conifers. 


a.  Taxacece , Yew  tribe. 

8.  Taxus  cuspidata,  S.  and  Z.,  Jap.  Araragi,  Ichii  and  Suw6, 
called  by  the  Ainos,  Onko — a bush  or  low  tree  six  meters  high, 
found  mostly  in  Hida  and  on  Yezo,  and  used  often  as  a decora- 
tive plant.  Its  highly  valued  wood  is  marked  by  a beautiful  red 
colour  (like  our  yew),  fine  grain  and  great  toughness.  On  account 
of  this  last  quality  it  is  used  by  the  Ainos  for  their  bows. 

9.  Torrzya  nucifera,  S.  and  Z.  ( Taxus  nucifera , Thunb.),  Jap. 
Kaya  (see  p.  157),  is  mostly  found  as  a bush  and  underwood,  and 
seldom  as  a small  tree.  The  wood  is  uniformly  firm  and  thick, 
light-coloured,  yellowish,  and  serves  as  building  material  and  for 
chests  and  boxes. 

10.  Cephalutaxus  drupeacea , S.  and  Z.  ( Taxus  baccata , Thunb.), 
Jap.  Inu-gaya  (see  p.  157).  The  wood  is  used  like  the  foregoing 
varieties,  but  is  not  so  fine-grained  and  is  less  prized. 

11.  Ginkgo  biloba,  L.  ( Salisburia  adiantifolici,  Smith),  Jap.  Ichio 
and  Ginkiyo,  must  be  considered  a unique  specimen  among  exist- 
ing conifers,  on  account  of  its  leaf,  blossom,  and  plum-like  fruit 
forms.  Kindred  specimens  have  been  found  in  the  Dogger-form- 
ation and  were  widely  scattered  over  the  northern  hemisphere 
in  the  tertiary  period,  but  are  now  reduced  to  the  single  Gingko  of 
Eastern  Asia.  It  is  now  known  only  in  a cultivated  state.  The 
Chinese  and  Japanese  cultivate  it  partly  on  account  of  its  edible 
fruits  (p.  94),  but  principally  for  the  adornment  of  their  temple 


232 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


courts  and  cemeteries.  It  grows  rapidly,  reaches  large  dimensions 
and  a great  height.  The.  wood  shows  many  similarities  to  the 
maple,  is  of  a bright  yellowish  colour,  fine-grained,  capable  of 
polish,  tender  and  easily  broken,  and  therefore  not  so  highly  prized. 

12.  Podocarpus  macrophylla , Don.  ( Taxus  macrophylla , Thunb.), 
Jap.  Maki,  Kusa-Maki  and  Inu-maki,  is  limited  to  the  warmer 
portions  of  Japan,  and  even  here  is  not  widely  spread.  Sometimes 
the  plants  are  used  for  green  hedges  as  here  and  there  in  Tokio. 
It  is  mostly,  however,  met  with  in  temple-groves  and  courts.  It  is 
a tree  with  a straight  grey-barked  trunk,  I to  2 m.  in  circumference 
and  15  to  20  m.  high.  The  fibrous,  reddish  yellow  wood  is  not  so 
durable  in  the  air  as  in  water,  and  on  account  of  its  scarcity,  is  not 
very  widely  used. 

13.  Podocarpus  Nageia,  R.  Br.,  Jap.  Nagai.  As  to  its  distribution, 
what  was  said  of  the  preceding  species  is  true  also  of  this ; indeed 
it  seems  still  doubtful  if  it  belongs  to  the  indigenous  conifers  of 
Japan  at  all.  The  trees  in  the  neighbourhood  of  temples  resemble 
juniper  in  colour  of  their  wood  and  their  brownish  red  bark. 

b.  Cupressineoe : Cypresses. 

14.  Juniperus  chinensis,  L.  (J.  Thunbergii , Hook),  Jap.  Ibuki  and 
Beni-biyakushiu.  This  Japanese  juniper  is  a mere  shrub,  like  all 
others.  The  reddish  brown,  firm,  heavy  wood  is  characterized 
by  a strong  and  agreeable  smell  and  is  excellent  for  inlaid  work, 
but  on  account  of  its  small  size  and  the  difficulty  of  working  it  up, 
is  not  much  used. 

15.  Biota  orieutalis,  Endl.  ( Thuya  orient  alls,  Thunb.),  Jap.  Konote, 
Wabyakudan.  The  fine-grained  wood  of  this  bush  or  low  tree  is 
but  little  used.  It  is  like  that  of  the  Nagi,  only  lighter  in  colour 
and  weight. 

16.  ChamcEcyparis  obtusa , S.  and  Z.  ( Retinispora  obtusa,  S.  and 
Z.),  Jap.  Hi-no-ki. 

17.  Ch.  pisifera,  S.  and  Z.  ( Retinispora  pisifera , S.  and  Z.),  Jap. 
Sawara. 

18.  Thujopsis  dolabrata , S.  and  Z.  ( Thuju  dolabrata , Thunb.), 
Jap.  Hiba. 

These  three  conifers  form  a small  group  not  so  much  on  account 
of  their  relationship  to  Arbor  vitae  as  because  of  their  conditions, 
common  occurrence,  the  similarity  of  their  woods  and  its  uses. 
We  find  them  chiefly  on  the  mountain  sides  and  in  the  low  valleys 
of  Honshiu  in  the  Upper  Kisogawa,  and  in  Kishiu  and  Yamato, 
(see  p.  219),  upon  a soil  which  having  been  made  up  by  the  de- 
composition of  granite,  of  old  slate,  or  volcanic  rock,  affords  easy 
drainage  and  a deep  rooting  of  the  tree.  In  dense  groves  on  a 
good  soil,  they  form  magnificent  cultivated  forests  with  straight  up- 
right trunks,  reaching  a circumference  of  3 to  4 m.  and  a height  of 
30  to  35  m.  When  from  160  to  200  years  old  they  look  as  sound 
as  in  their  youth.  Trunks  200  years  old  measure  2-5  to  3 m. 
around  at  the  base  ; and  18  m.  higher,  where  the  crown  com- 


A GRICUL  RURAL  IND  US  TRIES. 


233 


mences,  they  are  1*8  to  2 m.  in  circumference.  Hi-no-ki  and 
Sawara  are  more  often  found  than  Hiba.  When,  as  is  generally 
the  case,  they  are  met  with  together,  it  is  difficult  at  first  glance 
to  distinguish  between  them,  while  the  third  variety  is  very  diver- 
gent in  appearance.  The  fine  yellow-green  of  the  upper  side  of 
the  leaves,  the  blue-green  and  peculiar  marking  of  the  under 
side  in  Thujopsis  dolabrata,  are  so  strikingly  distinctive  of  this 
most  beautiful  of  cypresses  that  we  cannot  easily  confound  it  with 
other  conifers. 

As  has  been  previously  said,  the  cypress  forest  is  a cultivated 
one.  The  seeds  germinate  best  in  the  shade,  which  fact  must  be 
duly  considered  in  the  cultivation. 

First  of  all  in  its  value  stands  Hi-no-ki,  which  is  particularly 
sacred  to  ancestry  cultus  (Shinto  worship),  and  is  cultivated  on 
this  account  more  than  any  other.  The  wood  is  white  or  pink, 
smooth,  light  and  very  tough,  fine  grained,  poor  in  resin,  and 
free  from  knots.  It  is  preferred  for  lacquer  ware,  and  used  exclu- 
sively for  building  Shinto  temples.  The  palaces  of  the  Mikado 
and  his  family  at  Kioto  were  always  built  of  Hi-no-ki  wood,  and 
roofed  with  the  bark  of  the  tree,  which  when  very  old  can  be  easily 
cut  into  long  strips.  Criminals  condemned  to  Harakiri  (disem- 
bowelling) were  formerly  presented  with  a dagger  upon  a small 
white  unlacquered  table  of  Hi-no-ki  wood,  and  on  a similar  one  is 
offered  the  food  and  drink  to  the  gods  at  festivals. 

Sawara  is  distinguished  in  appearance  only  by  a rather  light 
green  crown,  and  on  nearer  observation  by  the  different  shape  of 
its  small  scale-like  leaves  and  its  wood,  strikingly  different  from 
that  of  Hi-no-ki,  being  of  a reddish  colour,  rough,  and  not  so 
valuable. 

The  wood  of  the  Hiba  is  yellow,  is  marked  by  its  durability  in 
water,  and  is  therefore  much  used  for  stakes,  as  well  as  in  ship 
and  bridge  building.  It  is  also  employed  in  the  same  way  as  the 
before-mentioned  varieties  for  lacquer  wares  and  window  sashes  or 
Shoji,  for  which  use,  however,  Hi-no-ki  is  much  preferred  to  both 
the  other  varieties. 

Various  kinds  of  the  previously  mentioned  cypresses  have  more 
interest  for  the  gardener  than  the  forester.  The  following  are  not- 
able only  for  their  wood  : 

19.  Thujopsis  hztevirens,  Lindl.,  Jap.  Nedjuko,  which  is  often 
taken  for  a smaller  form  of  the  Dolabrata,  from  which  it  is  dis- 
tinguished among  other  things  by  a bluish  green  colour.  The 
wood  is  fine  and  straight-fibred,  similar  to  the  former  varieties, 
and  like  them  adapted  to  manifold  uses,  but  does  not  rank  in 
value  with  Hiba.  In  its  white  sap-wood  it  is  very  similar  to 
Hiba,  but  in  dark  brown  core  it  resembles  more  the  Sugi. 

20.  Cryptomeria  japonica,  Don.,  Jap.  Sugi.  While  Hi-no-ki  is 
indeed  the  most  valuable,  Sugi  is  without  doubt  the  most  widely 
employed  of  all  the  conifers  of  Japan.  Young  specimens  are  used 


234 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


for  evergreen  hedges,  and  its  finely  developed  trees  are  to  be  admired 
in  temple  groves  and  avenues  (see  illustration  in  vol.  i.  p.  150). 
It  is  most  frequently  found  forming  larger  or  smaller  cultivated 
forests  throughout  the  entire  empire,  from  the  islands  of  Riukiu 
to  Yezo,  for  it  is  a marvellous  wood  producer  and  serves  for  house- 
building as  well  as  the  manufacture  of  boxes  of  all  sizes. 

The  Cryptomeria  are  not  so  ornamental  when  young  as  many 
other  pines.  And  the  trees  must  be  seen  at  their  full  growth 
in  order  to  be  able  to  appreciate  their  favour  in  temple  groves 
and  along  the  roads  leading  thereto — gigantic  figures  frequently  5 
to  6 m.  in  circumference  and  often  tall,  perpendicular  shafts  20  to 
25  m.  high  which  raise  their  dark  green,  regular,  conical  heads 
from  10  to  15  m.  higher. 

From  earliest  years  they  blossom  every  spring  and  bear  fruit 
abundantly,  but  an  after-growth  is  seldom  seen  in  the  Sugi  forest 
any  more  than  in  the  Hi-no-ki  wood,  so  that  the  variety  would 
probably  die  out  if  it  were  not  for  human  interference.  It  is  akin 
in  this  to  the  giant  Sequoia  of  California,  to  which  it  has,  in  habitat, 
also  much  similarity.  It  is  cultivated  from  slips  and  seedlings, 
chiefly  from  the  latter.  The  tree  demands  a deep  soil  and  pro- 
tection against  storms.  We  find  its  forests  in  the  valleys  and  on 
mountain  sides  to  about  1,000  m.  high.  In  plantations  on  a light 
clay  soil  the  ground  must  be  carefully  treated  like  arable  land, 
deeply  ploughed  and  freed  from  all  weeds.  The  seeds  sown  in 
rows  in  the  autumn  sprout  the  next  spring.  At  the  end  of  the 
second  year  the  seedlings  reach  a height  of  0‘50  to  0'6o  m.  and 
are  transplanted  in  the  following  spring.  Sugi  grows  rapidly. 
Four-year-old  trees  have  an  average  height  of  r8o  m.  and  in  a 
good  soil  their  circumference  will  be  04.5  m.  in  ten  years,  and  in 
fifty  years  2 meters. 

The  wood  of  the  Cryptomeria  is  brownish  red  at  the  core,  sap- 
wood  white,  easily  split,  of  agreeable  smell,  easy  to  work,  durable 
in  water,  but  also  very  brittle.  The  colour  changes  very  consider- 
ably with  its  growth  and  its  condition,  from  bright  red  to  a dark 
reddish  brown,  like  the  walnut.  This  colour  also  distinguishes  the 
sub-species  known  by  the  name  of  Jindai-sugi,  while  Yaku-sugi 
shows  a brownish  red,  fire-striped  colour,  and  Kurobe  a reddish 
brown.  On  account  of  its  beautiful  colour  and  ease  of  working  it 
is  preferred  for  most  purposes  to  that  of  pine  and  fir,  and  is  higher 
in  price.  It  is  not  therefore  used  in  bridge  building  nor  in  other 
places  where  elasticity  and  strength  to  bear  heavy  weight  is  ne- 
cessary. The  English  usually  call  the  Cryptomeria  Japanese  cedar, 
and  built  great  expectations  on  its  cultivation  forty  years  ago,  when 
first  introduced  by  Fortune.  These  expectations  have  been  as 
little  fulfilled,  however,  as  in  other  places  north  of  the  Alps.  The 
tree  is  very  sensitive  to  severe  cold  and  long  summer  coolness, 
while  the  dry,  hot  climate,  e.g.,  of  the  Canaries  suits  it  well.  In 
Germany  it  grows  in  only  a few  protected  places,  like  the  Heidel- 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


235 


berg  Castle  park  and  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Bonn  (Rosenburg), 
where  one  specimen  has  attained  a height  of  20  m.  in  twenty-four 
years  and  is  0’85  m.  in  circumference  at  the  height  of  1 meter. 

c.  Abietinece : Firs,  pines  and  larches.  The  Japanese  collective 
name  for  the  last  two  is  Matsu,  while  several  kinds  of  firs  are  called 
Momi.  Of  the  nine  varieties  of  Japanese  firs  and  pines  given  by 
Franchet  and  Savatier  in  their  “ Enumeratio  plantarum,”  only  two 
have  any  wide  distribution,  or  as  wood  producers  any  significant 
value,  viz.,  Abies firma , S.  and  Z.,  and  A.  Tsuga,  S.  and  Z. 

21.  Abies  firma , S.  and  Z.,  Jap.  Momi,  is  spread  over  the  whole  of 
Japan,  more  general  however  in  Middle  and  Northern  Hondo, 
and  on  the  Southern  Islands.  It  is  found  chiefly  and  in  the  high- 
est development  in  mixed  forests,  among  the  beautiful  deciduous 
woods,  at  an  elevation  of  between  1,000  and  1,500  m.  seldom  iso- 
lated. It  develops  the  most  magnificent  trunk  of  all  the  Japanese 
firs,  and  grows  in  parks  and  temple  groves  to  a height  of  30  to  40  m. 
with  a circumference  of  4 to  5 m.  In  its  entire  bearing  as  well  as 
in  the  character  of  its  wood,  this  tree  resembles  our  Abies pectinata , 
but  has  a much  slower  growth.  Its  wood  is  lighter,  rougher,  and 
less  tough  than  that  of  the  pine,  hence  cheaper  and  less  valued. 
It  is  seldom  used  in  housebuilding. 

22.  Abies  Veitchii , Lindl.  (A.  nephrolepsis , Maxim.),  Jap.  Shirabe, 
a tree  of  the  upper  conifer  region  with  a greyish  red  bark  which 
is  distinguished  from  kindred  species  chiefly  by  the  brilliant,  bluish 
white  colour  of  two  lines  on  the  under  side  of  its  needles,  thus 
giving  its  crown  a peculiar  appearance.  It  grows  20  to  30  m. 
high  and  measures  about  2 m.  around  the  trunk.  The  wood  is 
moderately  fibrous,  splits  easily,  has  broad  shining  rings  of  white 
and  narrow  reddish  autumn  zones,  and  is  lighter  and  still  less 
elastic  and  firm  than  that  of  the  Momi,  and  consequently  not  so 
much  prized. 

23.  Abies  bicolor , Maxim.  (A.  Alcockiana , Lindl.),  Jap.  Tohi, 
belongs  likewise  to  the  high  mountain  conifers  of  Middle  and 
Northern  Hondo,  but  is  often  found  on  Yezo.  This  tree,  which  as 
a rule  is  found  mixed  with  the  following  species,  attains  the  same 
dimensions  as  Shirabe.  Its  wood  is  pale  pink,  white  in  the  sap- 
wood,  less  shiny  than  Shirabe,  and  seamed  with  large  distinctly 
recognisable  channels  of  resin.  On  account  of  its  easy  cleavage  it 
is  frequently  used  for  shingles. 

24.  Abies  polita , S.  and  Z.  ( Picea  polita,  Carr.),  Jap.  Ira-momi 
and  Tora-momi.  This  kind  is  very  easily  distinguished  from 
others  by  its  needles,  which  are  four-edged,  prismatic  in  shape, 
crooked  toward  the  top,  and  ending  in  a sharp  point.  It  makes  a 
fine  stately  tree  with  the  bearing  of  our  Abies  excelsa,  belongs  to 
the  high  mountain  districts  and  northern  parts  of  Japan,  and,  like  its 
previously  described  companions,  is  little  used.  In  modern  times 
on  the  island  of  Yezo,  however,  it  has  been  much  employed  in 
building. 


236 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


25.  Abies  Jesoensis,  S.  and  Z.  ( Abies  Menziesii,  Louv.),  Jap. 
Yezo-matsu.  This  second  kind  of  Yezo  fir  does  not  attain  the 
dimensions1  of  the  foregoing  species,  and  is  also  less  used.  It  is 
found  on  Yezo  and  Sachalin,  as  well  as  in  the  mountain  pine-forests 
of  Middle  and  Northern  Hondo;  here  and  there  also  as  an  orna- 
mental plant  in  gardens  and  temple  groves,  where  it  reaches  a 
height  of  30  m.,  and  a circumference  of  2 to  3 m. 

26.  Abies  Tsuga,  S.  and  Z.  ( Tsuga  Sieboldi,  Carr.),  Jap.  Tsuga. 
The  Tsuga  fir  is  found  on  all  the  large  Japanese  islands,  chiefly 
at  an  elevation  of  from  1,500  to  2,000  m.  (region  of  firs  and 
larches),  and  especially  on  the  light  soil  of  volcanic  mountains.  It 
grows  usually  in  dense  groves  on  a clear  sod,  with  but  few  other 
trees  in  its  company.  It  is  seldom  found  so  low  as  700  m.,  but 
reaches  there  its  best  development,  with  a circumference  of  3 to  4, 
sometimes  even  to  5 meters,  and  a height  of  24  m.  with  a trunk  12 
to  14  m.  The  finest  specimens  I found  in  the  forest  of  Kirishima- 
yama,  in  Southern  Kiushiu,  with  trunks  4 to  5 m.  thick,  growing 
with  Momi  of  equal  size.  In  the  mountain  pine-forests,  the  height 
and  thickness  decrease  toward  the  top,  especially  the  former,  so 
that  in  places  over  2,000  m.  in  height,  the  trunk  falls  off  in  height 
to  about  6 or  8 m.,  as  may  be  easily  observed  on  climbing  Nantai- 
san  in  the  mountains  of  Nikko. 

Wherever  the  Tsuga  grows  in  forests  by  itself,  it  forms,  like  its 
North  American  .relative,  the  hemlock  tree  {A.  Canade?isis,  Michaux), 
a fine  straight  trunk,  but  when  growing  isolated  it  tends  like  this 
one  to  fork  and  become  crooked.  The  wood  has  very  fine  qualities 
and  is  prized  above  that  of  all  other  firs  in  Japan.  It  has  a reddish 
colour,  is  moderately  fibrous,  fine  grained,  resinous,  firmer  and 
tougher  than  the  other  pines  and  firs,  and  therefore  more  durable. 
It  is  also  less  influenced  by  changes  in  temperature  and  damp.  On 
account  of  this  property,  and  its  resistance  to  moisture,  it  is  used 
by  the  prosperous  Japanese  for  the  verandah  floor  of  his  house,  and 
prized  the  more  if  it  has  a deep  red  colour.  Its  high  price,  how- 
ever, due  to  the  difficulty  of  working  up,  and  also  on  account  of 
the  inaccessibility  of  the  forests,  and  the  lack  of  proper  transport- 
ation, prevents  any  extensive  use  of  the  wood  in  house  and  ship 
building,  to  which  it  is  eminently  adapted. 

27.  Pinus  densiflora , S.  and  Z.,  Jap.  Aka-matsu  and  Me-matsu. 

28.  P.  Massoniana,  S.  and  Z.  (P.  Thunbergi , Park),  Jap.  Kuro- 
matsu  and  O-matsu.  These  two  pines,  belonging  to  the  Pinaster 
Endl  group,  are  accounted  among  the  most  widely  used  and 
favourite  trees  of  Japan.  The  first  is  very  similar  to  P.  sylvestris, 
and  the  second  like  P.  austriaca.  With  the  latter,  as  with  Kuro- 
matsu,  or  the  black  pine,  the  colour  of  the  bark  of  trunk  and 
branches  is  dark  grey  all  the  way  through,  while  Aka-matsu,  the 
red  pine,  is  marked,  like  our  common  pine,  by  the  pale  red  colour 
of  the  upper  trunk  and  branches. 

1 “Reports  to  the  Kaitakushi,”  1875,  p.  306. 


A GRICUL  TURAL  IND  US  TRIES. 


237 


The  Japanese,  like  the  Chinese,  to  whom  the  monoecious  charac- 
ter of  this  tree  has  long  been  known,  describe  the  Kuro-matsu  as 
male,  and  the  Aka-matsu  as  female.  Accordingly  they  call  them 
O-matsu  (male  pines)  and  Me-matsu  (female  pines).  At  the  New 
Year’s  festival  it  used  to  be  the  custom  to  place  at  the  left  of  the 
wreathed  doorways  a black-trunked  P.  Massoniana,  and  at  the 
right  a red-trunked  P.  densijlora , to  represent  a happy  marriage. 

j Finns  Massoniana  makes  the  least  requirements  as  to  soil  of  any 
tree  in  Japan.  If  the  sand  dunes  thrown  up  by  the  waves  of  the 
sea  have  attained  some  firmness  through  the  settlement  of  deeply 
rooted  strand  plants,  among  which  generally  the  creeping  juniper, 
Juniperus  littoralis , Maxim.,  is  often  found,  the  Japanese  turn  them 
to  good  use  by  plantations  of  Kuro-matsu.  This  pine  is  therefore 
of  very  much  the  same  importance  here  as  Pinus  Pinaster  in  the 
French  Departement  Des  Landes,  which  has  been  previously  men- 
tioned. From  the  coast  to  300  meters  above  the  sea,  we  find  the 
Kuro-matsu  on  land  that  would  afford  no  support  to  other  conifers. 
It  comes  to  its  best  as  a shade-tree  on  the  country  roads  and  in 
temple  court-yards.  Trunks  from  150  to  200  years  old,  with  a 
circumference  of  4 to  6 m.,  and  30  to  35  m.  high,  are  here  not  un- 
frequently  found. 

The  appearance  of  Pinus  densiflora  resembles  the  foregoing 
species  in  many  particulars.  It  grows  in  hilly  and  mountain  dis- 
tricts 150  to  800  m.  above  the  sea  level,  and  in  exceptional  instances 
still  higher,  especially  on  the  sunny  slope  of  a mountain.  Lower 
down,  as  on  the  roadways  of  the  country,  it  is  often  found  mingled 
with  Pinus  Massoniana,  and  like  it,  in  scattered  growth,  so  that  there 
is  plenty  of  light  and  air  for  many  a shrub  as  underwood  between 
the  trees.  It  also  inhabits  the  gravel  soil  formed  from  the  slate  of 
mountain  sides,  and  granite  splinters,  old  lava  fields  also,  and  does 
not  attain  the  dimensions  of  the  Massoniana. 

Among  all  the  conifers  of  Japan,  the  wood  of  these  two,  next  to 
that  of  some  of  the  firs,  is  the  cheapest.  The  two  are  very  similar 
in  colour  and  marking,  as  well  as  in  their  long  straight  fibres,  in 
closeness  and  toughness.  They  are  much  employed  therefore  in 
house  and  bridge  building,  for  numerous  little  implements,  and  as 
wood  for  burning  porcelain,  and  many  other  purposes.  But,  in 
comparison  with  the  wood  of  our  pines,  they  have  no  remarkable 
superiority.  They  are  just  as  resinous  and  knotty,  and  only 
exceptionally  as  straight  in  trunk,  being  much  more  bent  than  our 
Pinus  sylvestris  in  thin  and  open  groves. 

29.  Pinus  Koraiensis,  S.  and  Z.  (P.  Strobus,  Thunb.),  Jap.  Chosen- 
matsu  (Korea  pine),  and  Goyo-no-matsu  (five-needle  pine).  The 
name  given  by  Thunberg  to  this  variety  indicates  its  simi- 
larity in  appearance  to  the  North  American  white  pine,  while 
its  cones,  with  their  edible  nuts,  remind  us  more  of  P.  Cembra. 
The  tree  had  its  origin,  as  is  indicated  by  one  of  its  Japanese 
names,  in  Corea,  and  is  found  in  Japan  only  as  an  ornamental 


238 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


tree.  I saw  in  Northern  Hondo,  a beautiful  avenue  lined  with 
it  near  the  castle  of  Morioka  (p.  94).  The  dirty,  yellowish  red 
wood  has  broad  year-rings,  and  is  used  in  much  the  same  way  as 
the  before-mentioned  pines. 

30.  Pinus paroifiore,  S.  and  Z.,  Jap.  Goyo-no-matsu  and  Hime-ko- 
matsu.  This  variety  forms  the  underwood  of  the  upper  portion  of 
the  high  mountains  in  Hondo  and  Yezo,  and  is  occasionally  an 
ornamental  tree  in  gardens  and  parks.  Its  yellow  wood  is  far 
behind  all  the  other  kinds  in  value. 

31.  Larix  leptolepis , Gord.  ( Pinus  Larix,  Thunb.),  Jap.  Kara- 
matsu.  The  Japanese  larch  is  found  from  the  34th  parallel  north- 
wards. In  Middle  Honshiu  it  belongs,  as  a rule,  to  the  mountain 
region  between  the  levels  of  1,500  and  2,000  m.,  and  forms  few  settle- 
ments by  itself,  but  is  more  often  mixed  with  Tsuga  and  other  sorts 
of  Abies.  Farther  north  its  growth  is  limited  to  lower  elevations, 
more  and  more,  and  with  this  the  frequency  of  its  appearance 
and  even  its  development  increase.  It  is  especially  adapted  to  a 
soil  of  crumbled  volcanic  lava,  and  in  high  altitudes  measures  ij  m. 
around  the  trunk,  and  20  to  24  m.  in  height.  In  peculiarly 
favourable  lower-lying  points  it  reaches  a diameter  of  4 m.  and  a 
height  of  30  m.  Its  reddish  brown  core  shows  small  year-rings,  is 
fine  grained,  tough  and  durable ; it  withstands  damp  remarkably, 
and  for  these  reasons  is  highly  valued,  though,  on  account  of  the 
difficulty  of  procuring  it,  is  employed  but  little  in  building,  but 
in  preference  in  mining,  as  well  as  for  small  wares. 

32.  Sciadopitys  verticillata,  S.  and  Z.,  Jap.  Koya-maki.  The 
Japanese  umbrella  pine  is  a fine  conifer,  unique  in  its  bearing,  and 
without  question  one  of  the  most  beautiful  species  for  which  we 
are  indebted  to  Eastern  Asia.  Its  proper  name  is  Kane-matsu,  or 
gold  pine.  Its  name  Koya-maki,  reminds  us  of  Maki  ( Podocarpus 
macrophylla ) which  its  leaves  somewhat  resemble,  and  of  the 
monastery-town  Koya  in  Kiushiu,  where  the  umbrella  trees  form  a 
magnificent  grove,  and  in  the  neighbourhood  are  found  in  several 
dense  woods,  at  an  elevation  of  400  to  800  m.  Here  the  tree  is 
in  all  cases  only  artificially  propagated,  as  has  been  proved.  It 
grows  straight  and  tall,  with  thick  branches,  as  is  the  case  with 
Pinus  Strobus,  to  a height  of  20  to  24  m.,  and  a circumference  of  2 
to  4 m.1  The  cones  remind  one  of  pines,  as  do  the  fissured  bark  of 
old  trees,  and  the  outspread  branches.  But  the  crown  is  regularly 
cone-shaped,  like  most  kinds  of  Abies,  and  that  which  lends  a 
particularly  distinctive  character  is  its  leaves,  which  are  verticillate 
like  the  branches  and  twigs  of  pines,  and  long,  like  their  needles. 
They  are  broad,  thick,  shiny  and  green  like  those  of  Podocarpus. 
The  yellowish  white,  light,  fine-grained  and  broad-ringed  wood 

1 The  incorrect  statement  of  Siebold,  that  the  umbrella  tree  grows  in  bushes 
only  a few  meters  high,  has  been  preserved  and  repeated  in  many  of  our  books, 
although  it  was  long  since  shown  by  Veitch  that  its  development  is  that  of  a 
stately  tree. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


239 


most  resembles  that  of  the  different  Abies  varieties,  and  is  not 
distinguished  by  any  particularly  valuable  properties.  This  may 
be  the  reason  why  the  umbrella  tree  is  cultivated  only  on  the  Koya- 
san,  in  forests,  and  but  here  and  there  as  an  ornamental  tree. 

Fam.  Salicine^e. 

33.  Salix  japonica , Thunb.,  Jap.  Yanagi.  The  white,  tender 
wood  of  this  and  some  other  willows,  among  them  the  ornamental 
weeping  willow  ( Salix  Babylonica , L.),  called  Shidare-yanagi,  is 
used  for  making  Yo-ji,  or  tooth-brushes;  children’s  playthings,  little 
dishes,  cups,  etc.,  are  also  turned  from  it.  Willow  plaiting  has 
already  been  noted  on  page  173. 

34.  Populus  tremula , L.  (P.  Sieboldi,  Miq.),  Jap.  Yama-narashi, 
and  Dorufu,  if  not  so  frequent  as  in  Europe,  is  nevertheless  to 
be  found  in  the  mountain  woods  of  Japan,  and  especially  in  the 
clearings  from  the  34th  parallel  northwards.  The  wood  is  scarcely 
used. 

Fam.  Betulacf.a£. 

35.  Betula  alba , L.,  Jap.  Shira-kaba  or  Shira-kamba,  also  called 
Kaba  and  Kamba,  is  found  scattered  in  the  high  mountain  forests 
of  Middle  and  Northern  Hondo,  and  upon  the  island  of  Yezo. 

36.  B.  ulmifolia , S.  and  Z.,  Jap.  Midzume,  whose  brownish  red 
wood  is  like  that  of  the  alder.  The  wood  of  this  and  other  kinds 
of  birch  is  used  sometimes  for  boxes  and  for  lacquer-ware. 

37.  Alnus  firma,  S.  and  Z.,  Jap.  Minebari,  Yama-harinoki  and 
Hari-no-ki. 

38.  Alnus  Maritima,  Nutt.  (A.  Japonica , S.  and  Z.),  Jap.  Hari- 
no-ki  and  Han-no-ki. 

39.  Alnus  incana , Wild.,  Jap.  Yama-hari-no-ki.  The  wood  of 
this  alder  is  used  for  boxes.  In  the  Hakone  mountains  it  has 
a peculiar  kind  of  use  and  employment.  (See  Art  Industry : 
Wood  Turning.) 


FAM.  JUGLANDACEAs. 

The  trees  belonging  to  this  family  have  the  collective  name, 
Kurumi.  Besides  our  common  walnut,  Juglans  Sieboldiana  is 
cultivated  here  and  there  on  account  of  its  fruit  (p.  94),  and  the 
latter  as  well  as  other  varieties  is  found  also  scattered  in  the 
mountain  forests  of  Middle  and  Northern  Hondo,  as  well  as  on 
Yezo.  Their  wood  has  varying  character  and  value.  It  is  used 
only  moderately  in  joiner-work.  The  noteworthy  varieties  are  : 

40,  Juglans  mandschurica , Maxim.,  Jap.  Kurumi,  whose  beau- 
tiful dark  wood  is  very  similar  to  that  of  our  walnut,  and  the 
following : 

41.  Juglans  Sieboldiana , Maxim.,  called  Td-gurumi  and 
Kurumi. 


240 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


42.  Pterocarya  rhoifolia , S.  and  Z.  (P.  sorbifolia,  S.  and  Z.),  Jap. 
Sawa-gurumi.  Its  wood  is  light  in  colour  and  weight,  white, 
yellow-white,  or  bright  pink. 

43.  Platycarya  Strobilacece,  S.  and  Z.,  Jap.  No-gurumi  and 
Yama-gurumi. 

Fam.  Corylace/e. 

44.  Corylus  heterophylla,  Fisch.,  Jap.  Hashibami.  The  white, 
soft  wood  is  very  little  used. 

45.  Carpinus  japonica , Blume,  C.  laxijiora , Bl.,  and  C.  cordata,  Bl., 
all  have  the  Japanese  designation  Soro.  Their  wood  is  white, 
shining,  and  like  that  of  our  common  C.  Betuhis,  little  used. 

Fam.  Cupulifer^e. 

We  have  here  to  regard  first  of  all,  the  numerous  Japanese 
species  of  the  oak  tribe.  They  are  classified,  as  is  well-known, 
in  two  groups ; one,  evergreen,  with  laurel-like  leaves,  smooth 
bark,  found  in  the  warm  South  and  on  the  coast  of  Hondo  north- 
wards to  the  36th  parallel ; the  other  in  the  North  and  mountain 
forests,  deciduous,  like  our  indigenous  oak-group,  having  a thick 
rugged  bark  when  old,  and  in  general  indented  leaves.  The 
former  bear  the  collective  name  of  Kaski,  while  the  latter  are 
called  Nara.  A great  difference  is  seen  in  the  two  woods.  That 
of  the  deciduous  variety  is  like  our  oak  wood,  shows  most  distinctly 
pith-rays,  year-rings  and  the  characteristic  concentric  order  of  the 
large  pores.  In  the  laurel-leaved  tribe  these  marks  are  less  distinct; 
the  numerous  pores  are  smaller  and  more  irregularly  distributed. 
Its  wood  is  correspondingly  denser,  firmer,  tougher  and  heavier,  and 
is  therefore  more  valuable  than  that  of  the  other.  In  comparison 
with  most  of  the  other  kinds  of  wood  which  the  country  possesses, 
it  is  heavy,  hard,  tough  and  very  strong,  does  not  split  easily,  and 
resists  the  influence  of  moisture  for  a long  time.  The  wood  of  the 
deciduous  species  is  like  that  of  the  chestnut  tree,  mainly  prepared 
as  charcoal  for  fuel,  and  scarcely  used  at  all  in  carpentry.  That  of 
the  evergreen  is  prized  above  all  where  elasticity  and  toughness  are 
especially  in  demand,  and  is  used  for  handles,  bearers’  poles,  oars, 
and  in  ship  building.  To  the  deciduous  oaks  of  Japan  belong  : 

46.  Quercus  dentata,  Thunb.,  Jap.  Kashi  wa.  This  species  is 
distinguished  chiefly  by  its  very  large  indented  and  serrated  leaves, 
and  is  often  grown  on  this  account  as  a small  ornamental  tree 
for  gardens.  It  is  especially  numerous  on  the  island  of  Yezo.  I 
found  it  as  a shrub  very  often  in  the  Hara  on  the  border  of  the 
volcanic  mountain  forests  in  Northern  Hondo.  Its  large-pored 
wood  is  of  small  value. 

47.  Q.  crispula , Blume,  Jap.  Ko-nara  or  Nara,  a small-leaved, 
deciduous  oak,  resembling  our  own  in  bearing  and  in  wood,  as 
do  those  immediately  following.  It  is  very  widely  spread,  grows 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


241 


singly  as  far  as  Southern  Kiushiu,  is  found  in  the  middle  and 
northern  portions  of  Japan,  often  in  groups,  and  with  a circum- 
ference of  3 to  4 m. 

48.  Q.  glandulifera,  Blume,  Jap.  Nara,  O-nara,  Midzunara,  is  like 
the  foregoing  and  often  found  in  its  company.  The  leaves  how- 
ever are  much  larger,  as  is  indicated  by  the  name  O-nara,  great 
oak.  Both  have  a fine  wood  like  ours,  but  do  not  reach  the  same 
imposing  dimensions. 

49.  Q.  serrata,  Thunb.,  Jap.  Kunugi  and  Kunugi-nara,  very 
widely  distributed  on  Yezo  and  Hondo,  also  in  Corea  and  China, 
as  well  as  in  the  Indian  slopes  of  the  Himalayas  to  a height  of 
1,500  m.  (See  Brandis,  “Forest  Flora  of  India,”  p.486).  The  leaves 
are  very  like  those  of  the  edible  chestnut  and  are  the  food  of  the 
oak-spinner  silkworms.  (See  Silk  Culture,  p.  210.) 

Among  the  many  evergreen  oaks,  the  following  are  most  pro- 
minent : 

50.  Q.  cuspidata , Thunb.,  Jap.  Shii-no-ki,  of  all  the  evergreen 
Japanese  oaks,  is  the  least  susceptible  to  the  cold  of  winter  ; it  is  the 
most  widely  spread  and  most  important,  often  forming  dense 
forests,  eg.,  in  the  vicinity  of  Atami  at  the  foot  of  the  Hakone 
mountains.  It  furnishes  a valuable  wood.  It  is  a great  favourite 
as  an  ornamental  tree,  especially  in  Tokio.  In  spring,  when  the 
leaves  change,  the  tips  of  its  twigs  are  white  and  red  with  young 
leaves,  which  little  by  little  become  a deep  green.  In  May  it 
puts  forth  catkin  blossoms,  which  in  colour  and  position  more  re- 
semble those  of  our  edible  chestnut  than  of  the  deciduous  oak. 
The  edible  acorns  (Shii-no-mi)  have  been  already  mentioned  on 
page  94. 

51.  Q.  acuta,  Thunb.,  Jap.  Aka-gashi,  red  oak.  This  tree  de- 
rives its  name  from  the  redness  of  its  wood,  which  deepens  often  to 
a reddish  brown.  It  is  rather  more  susceptible  to  cold  than  the 
foregoing,  and  sometimes  has  a trunk  of  considerable  thickness. 

52.  Q.  glauca,  Thunb.,  Jap.,  Shira-kashi,  i.e.  white  oak.  This 
wood  is  the  lightest  in  colour  of  all  the  Japanese  varieties,  grey- 
white,  very  dense,  firm,  tough,  and  therefore  much  prized.  It  is 
preferred  for  making  lance  handles,  bearers’  poles  and  rudder  posts, 
as  well  as  handles  to  various  implements.  The  Shira-kashi  loves 
a warm  climate,  and  only  in  the  mild  South  develops  to  a sightly 
tree. 

53.  Castanea  vulgaris,  Lamark,  Jap.  Kuri. 1 The  light  brown 
wood  is  used  in  the  forests  for  making  charcoal ; but  is  otherwise 
not  much  in  demand.  In  its  structure  it  is  like  the  foregoing  oak, 
but  is  more  porous,  lighter,  and  less  durable. 

54.  Fagus  Sieboldi,  Endl.,  resembles  very  much  our  ordinary 
beech,  and  is  probably  only  a variety  of  the  same.  The  Japanese 
call  it  Buna.  Its  distribution  and  importance  in  the  Japanese 

1 F or  further  particulars  concerning  this  variety,  and  its  distribution,  see  p. 
93,  also  p . 2 10. 

II. 


R 


242 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


mountain  forests  have  been  mentioned  on  page  218.  The  fresh 
wood  is  greyish  white  but  grows  darker  and  redder  by  degrees.  Its 
numberless  fine  pores  are  evenly  distributed.  It  is  distinguished 
from  the  oak  by  its  firmer  structure  and  finer  grain,  but  is  not  so 
heavy,  nor  so  tough  and  durable.  Easy  cleavage,  hardness  and 
flexibility  are  its  chief  properties.  It  is  used  here  and  there  for 
agricultural  implements.  Soup  bowls  are  made  from  it  and  then 
lacquered,  but  it  is  seldom  used  for  fuel. 


Fam.  Morea;. 

35.  Moms  Alba,  L.,  Jap.  Kuwa.  On  page  190,  this  tree  and  its 
cultivation  have  already  been  considered  in  connection  with  silk 
culture.  The  wood  may  be  called  but  a secondary  product  Its 
year-rings  are  outlined  like  those  of  the  deciduous  oak  by  a girdle 
of  large  spring  spores.  It  has  lengthwise  fibres,  generally  of  a 
yellow  colour,  sometimes  reddish  brown,  and  is  in  this  latter  case 
more  highly  valued.  It  is  firm  and  durable,  takes  polish  easily, 
and  is,  within  a limited  range,  used  in  joiner’s  work. 

Fam.  ULMACE4E. 

56.  Zelkowa  Keaki,  S.  and  Z.  (Planera  acuminata , Lindl.),  the 
Keyaki  (pronounced  Keaki)  of  the  Japanese,  is  a stately  and,  be- 
cause of  its  wood,  a useful  tree,  found  in  forests  and  temple  groves 
as  well  as  along  the  side  walks  of  village  streets,  particularly  in 
the  neighbourhood  .of  Tokio.  It  sometimes  reaches  prodigious 
size,  from  30  to  40  m.  height  and  10  m.  circumference.  In  ap- 
pearance it  resembles  very  strongly  Celtis  australis  of  the  Mediter- 
ranian  regions,  as  for  instance  the  fine  specimens  of  this  kind 
in  the  Botanical  Garden  at  Madrid.  But  it  is  also  similar  to  our 
beeches. 

Keaki  is  the  favourite  joiner’s  wood,  and  plays  in  Japan  the 
part  of  oak  wood  with  us,  and  is  somewhat  like  it.  Its  most 
notable  recommendations  are,  that  it  does  not  split  nor  .warp  easily, 
so  that  cross  sections  may  be  used,  e.g.  for  trays  and  bowls,  as  is 
done  in  the  Hakone  mountains.  It  is  also  noted  for  its  great  tough- 
ness, elasticity  and  durability,  as  much  in  water  as  in  dry  air,  if 
not  felled  when  full  of  sap.  The  smooth  grey-white  bark  resembles 
in  colour  and  thickness  that  of  our  beeches ; the  soft,  light- 
coloured  sap-wood  is  quickly  transformed  into  grained  wood,  whose 
colour  varies  according  to  the  situation  and  age  of  the  tree,  from 
light  to  dark  brown.  To  make  it  more  valuable,  the  colour  is  often 
deepened  by  a long  submersion  in  water  before  working.  Keaki 
is  lighter  than  oak,  having  a specific  gravity  of  only  0 682.  When 
cut  crosswise  its  small  pith-rays  are  easily  distinguished,  as  is  the 
case  with  all  elms,  and  the  girdles  of  numberless  larger  pores  on 
the  inside  of  the  year-rings  is  plainly  marked.  These  pores  and 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


243 


their  walls  show  very  distinctly  even  when  cut  lengthwise.  This 
reveals  also  the  parallel  and  straight-fibred  character  of  the  ordinary 
wood.  The  illustration  of  the  Japanese  tobacco  pipe-case  on  page 
133  gives  a good  idea  of  the  structure  of  keaki  wood.  It  serves 
the  Japanese  for  many  purposes;  in  ship  and  house  building,  in 
furniture  making,  turnery  ware,  and  for  manufacturing  many  small 
articles.  It  takes  different  names  according  to  its  colouring,  the 
highest  estimate  being  placed  on  Tama-moku,  or  speckled  wood, 
also  called  Tama-no-keaki. 

In  all  the  qualities  which  have  been  mentioned,  it  excels  the 
other  Ulmaceae.  On  the  other  hand  its  branches  are  so  fine  and 
its  foliage,  like  the  Celtis,  is  so  light,  that  it  cannot  be  used  like 
the  elm  as  an  ornamental  or  shade-giving  tree.  Its  draft  upon  the 
soil  is  about  the  same  as  with  its  kindred.  It  is  found  in  its  best 
condition  on  light  clay  soil,  in  which  it  can  spread  and  develop 
its  roots  symmetrically.  It  belongs  to  the  lower  region  of  the 
mountain  deciduous  forests,  and  in  Hondo  seldom  grows  beyond 
an  elevation  of  800  to  1,000  m.  It  is  not  widely  distributed  or 
frequent,  and  only  attains  on  the  plains,  in  temple  groves  and 
along  the  roads,  those  large  dimensions  which  distinguish  it  be- 
yond all  other  deciduous  trees,  except  the  camphor-laurel. 

57.  Celtis  sinensis,  Pers.  (C.  orientalis,  Thunb.),  Jap.  Ye-  (pro- 
nounced A)-no-ki.  In  its  appearance  this  tree  is  like  Keyaki,  but 
does  not  reach  such  a growth,  and  has  a light,  greyish  white, 
spongy  wood,  of  little  worth.  The  tree  is  seldom  found  in  the 
forest,  but  is  cultivated  on  the  banks  of  streams  and  in  villages. 

58.  Homoie  celtis  aspera,  Bl.  ( Aphananthe  aspera,  Planch.),  Jap. 
Muku,  Muku-no-ki.  The  wood  is  darker,  denser  and  better  than 
that  of  the  foregoing  variety,  but  still  is  not  very  valuable.  The 
tree  loves  a warm  climate,  but  does  not  grow  very  large,  often  re- 
maining only  a bush.  (For  the  uses  of  its  inside  bark,  see  Paper 
Industry.) 

59.  Ulmus  campestris , Sm.,  Jap.  Haru-nire,  Kobu-nire,  Ya-gire, 
The  nature  of  this  tree,  so  widely  distributed  in  Europe,  is  well 
known.  I have  a wood  specimen  from  the  last  Paris  Exhibition, 
by  the  name  Damo,  its  source,  Shimotsuke-no-kuni,  Hoso-Omura, 
in  the  province  of  Shimotsuke,  which  evidently  belongs  to  this 
variety.  It  has  greyish  white  sap-wood  and  reddish  grained 
wood,  and  may  be  identical  with  the  “Aka-tamo,”  i.e.  red  Tamo, 
named  by  Dupont  in  his  book,  p.  50,  and  which  is  often  mentioned 
by  others  as  wood  of  the  island  of  Yezo.  The  Tanichi-tamo  of 
this  island  appears  to  be  Ulmus  montana , Sm.,  the  Ohio-no-ki, 
already  spoken  of. 

60.  U.  parvifolia,  Jacq.  ( Microptelia  parvifolia , Spach.),  Jap.  Aki- 
nire,  Nire,  and  Yu.  This  wood  has  finer  pores  and  is  denser  than 
that  of  the  others.  The  tree  comes  far  short,  however,  of  reaching 
their  height. 


244 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


Fam.  Buxace^e. 

6 1.  Buxus  jctponica , J.  Miill.  ( Buxus  virens,  Thunb.),  Jap.  Tsuge. 
There  appears  to  be  no  material  difference  between  this  plant  and 
Buxus  sempervirens , L.  The  yellow  wood  is  finer  grained,  denser 
and  more  uniform  in  structure,  as  well  as  heavier  than  all  the 
other  woods  of  Japan.  Under  the  microscope  it  shows  fine  year- 
rings  and  pith  rays,  but  not  to  the  naked  eye.  The  pores  seem 
evenly  distributed  and  remarkably  fine.  There  is  no  marked 
separation  of  grained  and  sap-wood.  Out  of  a collection  of  fifty 
different  kinds  of  Japanese  woods,  each  piece  150x75  X 3 mm.  in 
size,  the  tsuga  warped  the  most.  The  box  tree  is  confined  to  the 
warm  South,  and  appears  oftenest  on  the  Riu-kiu  islands.  Its 
much  prized  wood  is  used  chiefly  in  the  manufacture  of  combs, 
as  mentioned  already  by  Kaempfer  and  Thunberg.1 

62.  ElcBOcocca  cordata,  Bl.  ( Aleilrites  cor  data,  Miill.) , Jap.  Dokuye, 
Abura-no-ki,  Abura-giri,  and  Yama-giri  (see  pp.  156,  157).  This 
plant  shows  great  similarity  to  Kiri  ( Paulownia  imperialis')  in 
habitat,  figure  and  size  of  leaves,  also  in  quality,  colour  and  use 
of  its  wood. 

63.  Exccecaria  japonica , J.  Miill.  ( Croton  siraki,  S.  and  Z.),  Jap. 
Shira-ki  and  Haratoku. 

64.  Sapium  sebiferum , Roxb.  ( Stillingia  sebifera , S.  and  N.),  Jap. 
T6-haze  and  Nanking-haze. 

Fam.  Lauracete. 

The  evergreen  members  of  this  interesting  family  are  generally 
superb  trees  and  belong  to  the  warm  south  of  Japan.  The 
deciduous  varieties  (of  the  Lindera  species)  are  found  as  bushes 
and  low  trees  scattered  everywhere  in  foliaceous  forests.  However 
different  the  colour  and  value  of  the  woods  belonging  to  this  class 
may  be,  they  are  all  more  or  less  alike  in  aromatic  odour,  dull 
or  high  silky  lustre,  indistinct  pith-rays,  and  even  distribution  of 
pores.  The  woods  of  the  cinnamon  species  belong  to  the  most 
valuable  of  Japanese  woods.  Their  weight  is  less  than  that  of  the 
oak. 

65.  Cinnamomum  camphora,  Nees.  ( Laurus  camphora,  L.),  Jap. 
Kusu,  Kusu-no-ki.  The  most  noteworthy  qualities  of  this  in- 
teresting and  valuable  tree  have  already  been  mentioned  in  the 
article  “ Camphor,”  pp.  143-1 50,  and  also  on  p.  225.  When  cut  cross- 
wise, camphor  wood  shows  numerous,  evenly  distributed,  moderately 
large  pores,  whose  size  and  figure  differs  according  to  the  age  and 
situation  of  the  tree.  The  colour  of  the  wood  also  varies  between 
greyish  white  and  dark  reddish  brown,  but  is  most  generally  a 
light  brownish  red.  The  various  sorts  of  camphor  wood  are  dis- 

1 “ Ligni  pro  pectinibus  confidences,  quos  portant  femime  crinibus  infixos, 
rubro  plerumque  vernice  obductos.” — Flor.  Jap.  p.  77. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


245 


tinguished  according  to  colour,  the  dark-coloured  varieties,  reddish 
brown  and  speckled,  being  most  highly  prized. 

66.  C.  pedunculatum , Nees  (C.  japonicum , S.  and  Z.),  Jap.  Yabu, 
Tabu,  Tabu-no-ki  and  Tama-gusu,  or  speckled  camphor  wood. 
This  wood  resembles  the  foregoing  in  its  variety  of  colour,  but 
is  denser  and  heavier.  It  is  still  more  valuable,  especially  in 
furniture  making,  for  small  cabinets  and  other  articles,  and  furnishes 
a specially  fine  veneer. 

67.  Machilus  Thunbergii,  S.  and  Z.  ( Lauras  indica,  Thunb.),  Jap. 
Nan,  Inu-kusu,  Ta-funo,  growns  not  only  in  the  southern  islands, 
but  also  along  the  coast  of  Hondo  as  far  as  Tokio. 

68.  Litscea  glauca,  Sieb.,  Jap.  Yabu-kusu,  i.e.  Camphor-bush, 
Shiro-tsudzu  (Shiro-damo). 

69.  Tetranthera  japonica , Spreng.  {Tome; tr  japonica , Thunb.),  Jap. 
Hama-biwa. 

70.  Actinodaphne  lancifolia , Meissn.  ( Daplmidium  lancifolium , 
S.  and  Z.),  Jap.  Koga-no-ki,  Koga-gashi.  Eight  species  of  the 
deciduous  genus  of  Litsaea , Thunb.  ( Benzoin  Nees)  are  found  in 
Japan.  They  are  moderately  sized  bushes,  which  do  not  specially 
differ  in  foliage  from  many  other  members  of  the  deciduous  forest. 
Several  take  the  name  Kuro-moji,  on  account  of  their  blackish 
bark  ; others  are  called  Shiro-moji  because  of  a greyish  white 
bark.  The  first  are  found  very  far  spread,  even  on  the  island  of 
Yezo.  In  all  varieties  there  lies  around  the  white  pith  a greyish 
white,  silky,  fragrant  wood,  that  on  the  cross-cut  shows  fine  pith- 
rays,  distinct  year-rings  and  very  small  pores.  For  several  hundred 
years  the  various  kinds  of  Kuso-moji  have  been  used  for  the 
manufacture  of  toothpicks,  Jap.  Ko-y6ji  (yoji,  tooth  brush;  ko, 
small),  especially  the — 

71.  Lindera  sericea,  Bl.  {Benzoin  sericeum,  S.  and  Z.),  Jap.  Kuro- 
moji,  and  the — 

72.  L.  umbellata , Thunb.  {Benzoin  Thunbergii , S.  and  Z.),  Jap. 
Inu-kusu,  Kuro-moji. 

Fam.  Scrophularine/e. 

73.  Paidownia  imperialis,  S.  and  Z.  {Bignonia  tomentosa , Thunb.), 
Jap.  Kiri  or  Kiri-no-ki.  This  tree  is  not  indigenous,  but  one  of  the 
plants  cultivated  in  Japan  for  its  light  wood.  It  is  never  found  in 
groves  only  of  itself,  or  otherwise  like  a forest  tree,  but  is  more 
like  our  fruit  trees.  It  grows  rapidly,  and  in  the  course  of  nine  to 
ten  years  develops  a good-sized  trunk.  It  may  be  propagated  by 
roots  or  seeds.  The  wood  is  usually  of  a greyish  white,  but  often 
light  brown,  very  porous,  especially  at  the  year-rings.  In  its  specific 
gravity  of  0-329,  it  approaches  cork,  but  in  comparison  with  many 
other  woods  of  light  weight  it  is  remarkably  strong,  and  does  not 
warp  nor  split  easily.  All  these  properties  increase  its  value,  and 
on  account  of  its  lightness  and  softness  it  is  used  in  hundreds  of 


246 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY 


ways  ; for  the  manufacture  of  boxes  for  pills,  tooth  powder,  paper, 
cloths,  bric-a-brac,  also  for  getas,  or  wooden  shoes,  cabinet  drawers, 
light  and  pleasing  lacquer  wares,  playthings  and  many  other 
articles. 

Fam.  Bignoniace^e. 

74.  Catalpa  Kaempferi , S.  and  Z.  ( Bignonia  catalpa , Thunb.), 
Jap.  Raiden-giri,  Shira-giri.  The  wood  is  like  the  Kiri  though 
darker,  and  similarly  employed.  The  name  Shira-giri,  “ White 
Kiri,”  comes  from  the  light  colour  of  the  blossoms. 

Fam.  Oleaceai. 

75.  Fraxinus  longicuspis , S.  and  Z.,  Jap.  Toneriko,  like  our  ash, 
loves  the  deep,  damp  soil  of  the  hollows  and  ridges  of  the  valley. 
It  is  found  in  the  mountain  foliaceous  forests  from  Kiushiu  to  Yezo, 
but  most  frequently  of  all  in  the  North.  Its  wood  resembles  our 
indigenous  ash,  is  of  a greyish  white  colour,  fine  grained,  with 
numerous  tiny  pith-rays  and  distinct  year-rings.  Each  of  these 
rings  is  sharply  separated,  by  one  or  two  rows  of  somewhat  darker 
pores,  from  a compact  girdle  that  encloses  them  on  the  outer  side. 
The  wood  is  much  used  in  joinery  for  boxes,  like  that  of  both  the 
foregoing  species. 

76.  Olea  fragrans,  Thunb.,  Jap.  Mokusei,  an  ornamental  shrub 
in  Southern  Europe,  and 

77.  O.  aquifolium , S.  and  Z.,  Jap.  Hira-gi,  growing  wild,  and 
also  an  ornamental  plant.  It  has  a fine,  whitish,  and  light  brown 
marbled  wood,  which  under  the  lens  shows  small  pores,  clear  but 
close  year-rings,  and  numerous  small  pith-rays. 

78.  Ligustmm  japonicum , Thunb.,  Jap.  Nedzumi-mochi,  like  the 
foregoing,  a large  bush  or  small  tree,  an  ornamental  plant,  and 
growing  wild.  The  yellowish  brown  wood  is  also  similar,  and  is 
used  in  the  same  way  for  making  boxes  and  other  small  articles. 
The  same  is  the  case  with  Ibota,  Sieb.  {L.  vulgare,  Thunb.),  Jap. 
Ibota  (see  also  p.  164). 

Fam.  Styracace^e. 

There  are  many  members  of  this  family  in  the  different  low 
mountain  foliaceous  forests  of  Japan.  They  are  good-sized  de- 
ciduous shrubs  or  small  trees  which  in  early  summer  are  covered 
with  five-pointed,  white,  bell  flowers.  The  wood  is  distinguished 
by  its  close  grain,  hardness,  and  durability.  It  is  used  moderately 
in  joiner-work  and  turnery.  The  most  remarkable  of  all  is  : 

80.  Styrax  japonicum , S.  and  Z.,  Jap.  Chisha-no-ki,  Yego.  It 
is  found  extensively  on  the  edge  of  forests,  also  in  moats,  and  re- 
sembles, in  its  general  bearing  and  the  colour  of  its  bark,  a finely 
branching  beech  from  4 to  6 m.  high.  Its  beautiful  white,  long- 
stemmed flowers  form  a row  of  bells  hanging  along  the  lower  side 
of  the  branches. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


247 


81.  Styrax  Obassia,  S.  and  Z.,  Jap.  Oba-no-chisa. 

82.  Symplocos  lancifolia , S.  and  Z.,  Jap.  Ikono-shiba. 

83.  S.  japonica,  D.  C.  (S.  lucida,  S.  and  Z.),  Jap.  Kuro-ki. 

84.  S.  cratcegoides , Don.,  Jap.  Tubetagi. 

Fam.  Ebenacea-:. 

85.  Diospyros  Kaki,  L.,  Jap.  Kaki.  The  distribution  of  this 
beautiful  tree,  and  its  greatly  prized  fruits,  the  so-called  persimons, 
has  been  already  considered,  pp.  88,  89.  There  remains  only  to 
note  the  qualities  and  uses  of  its  wood.  This  is  light  greyish  brown 
when  young,  like  the  kindred  Indian  ebony  woods  ( D . ebenum 
and  D.  melanoxylon),  and  becomes  black  at  the  core  only  when 
old.  This  black  Kaki  (Kuro-gaki)  is  generally  included  in  the 
Shibu-gaki  or  astringent  Kaki  (see  pp.  181,  182).  But,  as  with  the 
Indian  varieties,  it  is  impossible  to  tell  from  the  outside  whether 
the  black  wood  has  formed,  and  this  can  only  be  determined  by 
boring.  When  cut  crosswise,  Kaki  wood  shows  small  or  moderately 
large,  unevenly  scattered  pores,  of  a circular  or  elliptical  form,  and 
numerous  very  fine  pith-rays.  The  specific  gravity  is  less  than 
that  of  the  Indian  ebony  wood — only  o-6o6,  according  to  Dupont: 
In  this,  as  in  firmness,  it  is  far  surpassed  by  oak.  It  is  used  in 
joiner-work,  especially  for  veneer,  small  cabinets  and  boxes,  glove 
boxes,  etc. 

86.  D.  lotus,  L.  (D.  japonica,  S.  and  Z.),  Jap.  Shinano-gaki  and 
Mame-gaki.  The  wood  of  this  wild  variety  resembles  the  fore- 
going, but  has  finer  pores,  and  is  closer.  Its  use  is  the  same. 

The  wood  of  Diospyros  ebenum,  L.,  Jap.  Koku-tan,  was  brought 
into  Japan  from  South  China  and  Further  India,  and  is  employed 
for  similar  purposes. 

Fam.  Ericaceae. 

87.  Rhododendron  Metternichii,  S.  and  Z.,  Jap.  Shaku-nage.  The 
light  brown  wood  of  this  high  mountain  shrub  is  close-grained  and 
hard.  It  is  used  in  Nikko  and  elsewhere  in  wood-turning. 

Fam.  Caprifoliace^e. 

88.  Viburnum  opulus,  L.  The  wood  has  distinct  year-rings, 
very  fine  pith-rays  and  pores,  which  even  under  the  glass  are 
hard  to  find.  It  has  a pale  pink  or'reddish  brown  colour. 

Fam.  Corner. 

89.  Cor nus  officinalis,  S.  and  Z.,  Jap.  San-shiu,  San-shiu-yu. 

90.  C.  brachypoda,  May,  Jap.  Midzuki. 

91.  Marlea  platanifolia,  S.  and  Z.,  Jap.  Uri-no-ki.  The  fine- 
grained wood  of  these  bushes  or  low  trees  is  used  here  and  there 
for  small  articles. 


248 


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Fam.  AraliacEjE. 

92.  Calopanax  ricinifolia , Miq.  ( Acanthopanax  ricinifolia , S.  and 
Z.),  Jap.  Se-no-ki,  Shi-o-ji.  This  beautiful  tree  is  distinguished 
by  its  great,  lobate,  shiny  leaves,  its  white  flower-umbels,  and 
black  fruit,  of  the  size  of  pepper-corns,  resembling,  like  its  flowers, 
the  Aralia  and  Ivy.  Like  Magnolia  hypoleuca  and  ZEsculos 
turbinata  it  is  scattered  in  the  high  mountain  forests  of  Japan 
from  Kiushiu  to  Yezo,1  but  is  most  numerous  in  the  North.  In 
Yezo,  trunks  of  from  3 to  4 m.  circumference  and  30  m.  height 
may  be  seen.  I often  found  them  in  Hondo  quite  as  high,  but 
generally  not  so  thick.  In  high  forests  the  trunks  are  often  some- 
what bent,  and  do  not  branch  till  they  are  20  m.  high.  Their 
dark,  thick,  rugged  bark  makes  them  as  noticeable  as  their  beauti- 
ful foliage.  The  white  wood  shades  often  into  brown,  and  is 
moderately  light,  rough-fibred,  and  more  or  less  porous.  Cross 
cut,  it  shows  year-rings,  but  no  pith-rays.  The  pores  are  of  two 
kinds  : one  sort  microscopic  and  scattered  about  in  the  thick 
summer-wood  ; the  other  apparent  to  the  naked  eye,  and  denoting 
the  spring  girdles.  According  to  Bohmer,  the  Ainos  make  their 
canoes  out  of  the  large  trunks  from  6 to  9 m.  (20')  long.  They 
call  the  tree,  he  says  further,  Yoshini ; the  Japanese,  Se-no-ki  and 
Hari-giri.2 


Fam.  Lythrarie^e. 

93.  Lagerstromia  indica,  L.,  Jap.  Saru-suberi,  is  said  by  Brandis  3 
to  be  of  Chinese  extraction,  and  according  to  Gamble,4  is  often 
found  as  an  ornamental  plant  in  the  gardens  of  India.  In  Japan, 
also,  it  is  cultivated  here  and  there,  on  account  of  its  beautiful  red 
flower-clusters.  It  is  characterized  not  only  by  these,  but  by  the 
fact  that  its  brownish  bark  shells  off  of  itself.  It  is  a slow-growing 
bush  or  low  tree,  with  a firm,  fine-grained  wood  of  a light  pink 
colour.  Cut  across,  the  wood  shows  small  pores,  year-rings  close 
together,  and  numerous  pith-rays.  It  is  used  in  turning. 


1 According  to  Bohmer  in  his  “ Reports  to  the  Kaitakushi,”  1 875,  p.  312,  this 
tree  grows  best  in  Yezo,  and  becomes  a tree  of  almost  tropical  appearance.  F. 
Schmidt  found  fine,  lofty  trees  in  Southern  Sachalin  also. 

2 In  the  previously  mentioned  collection  of  woods,  which  the  Japanese  Govern- 
ment sent  to  the  Paris  Exhibition,  1878,  there  is  a tablet  of  Satsuporo  (Sapporo) 
from  Yezo,  bearing  both  these  names  ; also  a second  marked  Shi-oji,  from  the 
province  of  Musashi.  They  are  both  of  a greyish  white  colour,  but  are  not 
alike  in  structure  nor  in  weight,  as  the  Shi-oji  is  much  the  heavier.  The 
Sapporo  specimen  has  fine  pores,  and  each  year-ring  shows  only  one  row  of 
distinct  spring-pores,  while  the  other  has  a whole  girdle  of  irregularly  arranged 
pores. 

3 “ Forest  Flora  of  North-west  and  Central  India,”  p.  240.  London,  1874. 

4 “A  Manual  of  Indian  Timbers,”  p.  20a  Calcutta,  1882. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


?49 


FAM.  HaMAMELIDEjE. 

94.  Distylhivi  racernosum , S.  and  Z.,  Jap.  Isu,  Isu-no-ki  or 
Yusu,  belongs  to  the  warm  southern  parts  of  Japan,  and  is  mostly 
found  in  the  province  of  Hiuga.  It  is  also  seen  in  the  forests  of 
the  district  of  Obi,  and  there,  according  to  Dupont,  the  trunk 
attains  a height  of  12  m.  before  branching,  and  a circumference  of 
3 m.  I,  myself,  have  often  met  the  tree  on  Kiushiu  and  Shikoku, 
in  gardens  and  temple-groves  ; but  I have  never  seen  specimens 
of  more  than  1 m.  circumference  and  15  to  18  m.  high.  The 
branches  spread  far  out  in  all  directions,  if  air  and  light  permit, 
and  the  insignificant  flowers  appear  in  the  earliest  days  of  spring. 
The  leathery,  short-stemmed  and  elliptical  leaves  are  frequently 
covered  with  galls  the  summer  through,  like  our  ashes  and  beeches. 
The  bark  and  wood  of  the  tree  are  highly  prized.  The  former  is 
smooth,  thin,  and  of  a grey  colour.  When  the  trees  are  felled  the 
bark  is  peeled  off,  dried,  and  burned  to  get  the  ashes  called  Isu-bai, 
which  are  sent  to  the  porcelain  manufactories  in  Arita,  where  they 
serve  in  the  making  of  porcelain  glaze.  The  wood  is  shipped 
mostly  to  Osaka.  It  is  specially  good  for  making  combs,  but  serves 
a variety  of  other  purposes  also,  as  it  has  many  excellent  qualities. 
It  is  heavy,  fine  grained,  compact,  strong,  tough,  and  extremely 
durable,  even  in  water,  so  that  Dupont  said  of  it,  “ On  pourrait 
l’appeler  le  bois  de  fer  du  Japon.”  Its  colour  varies  from  light  to 
dark  chocolate  according  to  its  age.  The  cross-cut  section  when 
placed  under  the  microscope  seems  thickly  sown  with  small  pores, 
but  the  year-rings  and  pith-rays  are  very  indistinct. 

Fam.  Rosacea. 

Nearly  all  the  many  varieties  of  this  family  have  a reddish,  com- 
pact, fine  and  close-grained  inner  wood,  that  takes  a very  easy  and 
often  beautiful  polish.  It  is  moderately  heavy,  its  specific  gravity 
ranging  between  0 6 and  07.  The  most  valuable  wood  of  this 
family  is  obtained  from 

95.  Prunus  pseudo-cerasus,  Lindl.  ( P.puddum , Will.),  the  Sakura 
or  Yama-sakura.  This  is  a fine  tree  of  moderate  size,  resembling 
our  cherry.  It  grows  wild  in  the  forests  all  over  Japan  and  also 
in  South  Sachalin.  On  the  great  southern  islands  it  is  found 
here  and  there  at  an  elevation  of  1,000  m.  above  the  sea.  Farther 
north  the  altitudes  in  which  it  is  found  grow  lower  and  lower.  It  is 
a favourite  ornamental  tree  for  the  garden  and  the  temple  grove, 
where  it  is  chiefly  prized  for  its  large,  full  flowers.  Its  even,  fine- 
grained reddish  wood  is  employed  principally  for  carvings,  and  for 
blocks  in  printing  cloth  and  wall  paper. 

96.  Prunus  Mume , S.  and  Z.  ( P . armeniaca , Thunb.),  the  Mume, 
or  Bai.  Wood  generally  dark  reddish  brown,  like  the  foregoing,  but 
not  so  highly  prized.  It  has  many  fine  pith-rays  and  clear  year- 


250 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


rings,  each  one  separated  from  the  other  by  a row  of  dark  spots 
(pores).  For  further  observations  see  p.  86.  The  woods  of  all  the 
other  fruit  trees  belonging  to  Rosaceae  enumerated  on  pp.  83-87. 
No.  11,  are  included  in  this  variety. 

97.  Amelanchier  canadensis , Torr.  and  Gray,  Jap.  Chide  and 
Zaiburi,  furnishes  a wood  similar  to  the  Sakura,  like  it  reddish  in 
colour  but  much  harder. 

98.  Pyrus  sambucifolia , Cham.,  Jap.  Nana-Kamedo,  and 

99.  P.  aucuparia , Gaertn.,  vay.  Japonica , Maxim.,  Jap.  Yama- 
nashi,  both  belonging  to  the  upper  boundary  of  the  mountain  forests, 
furnish  wood  of  similar  character. 

Fam.  Leguminosal. 

100.  Sophora  japonica , L.,  Jap.  Yenju,  is  found  scattered  through 
the  entire  country,  especially  in  the  foliaceous  forests  of  the  north. 
It  grows  sometimes  to  a height  ^of  18  to  20  m.  and  has  a circum- 
ference of  2 m.,  for  example,  in  Osaka  where  it  is  an  ornamental 
tree,  overshadowing  an  open  space  before  a temple.  It  has  long 
been  cultivated  in  Europe  also,  and  grows  to  a fine  stature,  resem- 
bling specimens  of  our  Robinia.  The  wood  is  light,  and  varies  in 
colour  from  light  brown  to  a dark  sepia.  Its  coarseness  of  grain 
and  porosity  make  it  less  even  and  delicate,  but  it  is  very  tough 
and  durable.  The  year-rings  show  distinctly  in  the  cross  section, 
divided  into  light  zones  with  very  large  pores,  alternating  with  others 
darker,  closer,  and  less  porous. 

10 1.  Gleditschia  japonica , Miq.,  Jap.  Saikachi,  a sightly  tree  found 
principally  in  Northern  Japan.  It  grows  wild  along  the  rivers  and 
in  the  hollows  of  the  lower  mountain  forests,  and  is  cultivated  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  villages.1  Its  long  brown  pods  were 
formerly  used  throughout  the  entire  north  of  Hondo,  for  soap. 
They  are  found  still  in  many  of  the  shops  of  Morioka,  done  up 
in  small  packages.  The  wood  of  Saikachi  resembles  that  of  the 
Yenju. 

102.  Albizzia  Jidibrissin , Boiv.  {Mimosa  arborea , Thunb.),  Jap. 
Nemu  and  Nemu-no-ki.  The  following  description  of  this  plant 
may  be  found  on  p.  139  of  the  first  volume  of  this  work.  “ In  the 
island  of  Amakusa  and  the  neighbouring  Kiushiu,  most  of  the 
deciduous  trees  were  already  covered  with  foliage  in  the  second 
half  of  April,  1875  ; Rhus  succedanea,  L.  and  Castanea  vulgaris , 
Lamk.  had  partly  developed  their  young  leaves,  and  only  Albizzia 
Jidibrissin,  Boiv.  {Mimosa  arborea,  Thunb.)  still  displayed  their 
winter  aspect  unaltered,  and  even  a month  later,  in  the  middle  of 
May,  we  found  this  little  tree  in  the  mountain  forests  of  Shikoku, 
at  a height  of  some  800  meters,  quite  leafless,  so  that  its  Japanese 

1 I found  it  specially  frequent  in  Nambu  (Iwate-ken)  and  counted  one  day  on 
the  road  from  Kamaishi  to  Morioka  nearly  100  trees  near  the  village  of  Yoko- 
machi. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


251 


name  ‘ Nemu,  sleeper,’  suits  it  for  other  reasons  than  merely  the 
sensibility  of  its  leaves,  and  its  sleeping  during  the  night.” 

This  little  tree  is  spread  abroad  over  the  whole  of  Japan,  and  is 
also  found  in  the  Himalayas.  The  broad  zone  of  its  young  wood 
is  yellow,  the  core  dark  brown,  hard  and  strong,  also  easy  to  polish. 
The  cross-cut  shows  numerous  firm  red  pith-rays  and  year-rings, 
with  large  pores  and  dark  outlines. 

The  dark  red  sandal-woods  of  the  tropical  monsoon  district 
belong  also  to  this  family,  particularly  the  Pterocarpus  indicus,  L. 
and  Pterocarpus  santalinus , L.  These  two,  with  perhaps  a third 
variety,  the  Pterocarpus  marsupium,  Roxb.,  were  a long  time  since 
introduced  into  Japan,  under  the  Sinico-Japanese  name  of  Shi-tan. 
They  are  used  for  making  furniture,  and  still  more  for  carvings. 

Fam.  Anacardiaceal 

103.  Rhus  succedanea , L.,  Jap.  Haze,  Haji,  Haze-no-ki  and 
R6-no-ki  (see  p.  163).  This  wood  is  sharply  divided  by  an  irregular 
line  and  varying  colour,  into  light  greyish  white  sap-wood  which 
resembles  kiri-wood,  and  the  moderately  heavy  core  of  a bright 
green  colour.  The  latter  has  an  extremely  silky  appearance  when 
polished  in  longitudinal  sections.  Cut  across  the  grain,  distinct 
year-rings  are  seen,  and  a great  many  pith-rays  and  pores,  which 
are  larger  and  more  numerous  in  the  spring-zones  than  in  the  closer 
and  darker  summer-wood. 

104.  Rhus  vernicifera , D.  C.  (R.  vernix,  Thunb.),  Jap.  Urushi  or 
Urushi-no-ki  (see  pp.  158  to  163).  The  wood  is  similar  in  all  respects 
to  the  foregoing  variety,  only  considerably  lighter  and  not  so  firm. 
It  grows  lighter  in  colour  with  age.  Both  kinds  are  used  for 
making  small  chests,  and  the  lining  of  cabinets  and  chests  of  drawers. 
But  it  has  no  great  value.  The  rest  of  the  Japanese  sumachs 
remain  much  smaller,  and  their  wood  also  is  not  remarkable  and 
will  not  justify  any  special  mention. 

Fam.  Acerine^e.. 

None  of  the  twenty-two  kinds  of  Japanese  maple,  distinguished 
mainly  by  their  leaves  and  fruit,  attain  the  size  and  height  of  our 
mountain  maples  (A.  pseudo-platanus , L.),  no  matter  whether  they 
grow  wild  or  as  ornamental  trees.  The  best  known  and  most 
valued  varieties  are  : 

105.  Acer  palmatam , Thunb.  (A.  polymorphum,  S.  and  Z.),  Jap. 
Momiji.  The  scientific  names  of  this  variety  refer  both  to  the 
division  and  multiformity  of  the  leaves.  This  is  seen  in  the 
many  varieties  which  grow  in  gardens  and  temple  groves,  and  are 
peculiarly  prized  because  the  foliage  at  its  first  development  in 
spring  and  before  falling  in  autumn  is  of  a magnificent  red  colour. 
The  tree  in  all  its  varieties  is  of  low  stature,  often  even  dwarfed. 


252 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


The  wild  plant,  which  belongs  to  the  lower  mountain  forests,  grows 
about  12  m.  high,  and  the  trunk  is  from  l-5  to  l'8  m.  in  circum- 
ference. 

The  light  greyish  brown  wood  shows  fairly  distinct  year-rings, 
very  small  pores  and  numerous  weak  pith-rays.  It  is  extremely 
fine  grained,  even,  close  and  heavy,  therefore  durable  and  tough, 
and  on  all  these  accounts  belongs  to  the  most  valuable  cabinet 
woods  of  the  country. 

106.  Acer  Jciponicum , Thunb.,  Jap.  Kayede  or  Kaide.  The 
Japanese  give  this  name  to  several  other  maples,  such  as  Acer 
micranthum. , S.  and  Z.  The  tree  is  found  often  in  mountain  forests 
as  high  as  1,000  m.  above  the  sea,  and  grows  as  large  as  the  fore- 
going variety.  The  light-coloured  pink  wood  is  fine  grained,  close, 
and  when  cut  longitudinally  shows  a shiny  spotted  surface.  A 
wood  well  known  by  the  name  Itaya,  and  found  on  Yezo,  seems 
to  be  identical  with  A.  jciponicum,  Thunb.,  and  Yama-shiba  with 
Acer  carpinifolium,  S.  and  Z. 

Fam.  Sapindace^e. 

107.  Sapindus  Mukurosi,  Gaertn.,  Jap.  Mukuroshi,  a medium- 
sized tree  of  the  lower  foliaceous  forest  which,  according  to  Gamble, 
is  the  same  as  the  Indian  5.  detergens , Roxb.  The  wood  of  the 
Mukuroshi,  like  that  of  all  the  soap-nut  trees,  is  of  a light  yellowish 
white  colour,  with  fine  pith-rays  and  a girdle  of  numberless 
moderately  large  pores.  It  is  light,  brittle,  and  not  of  much 
value. 

108.  Koelreuteria  paniculata,  Laxm.  ( Sapindus  Chinensis , L.), 
Jap.  Moku-kenjiu,  Bodaijiu.  This  little  tree  is  found  in  forests, 
but  is  often,  as  with  us,  an  ornamental  tree.  Its  wood  is  like  that 
of  the  Mokurushi. 

109.  AEsculus  tiibinata,  Bl.,  Jap.  Tochi,  Tochi-no-ki,  a beautiful 
tree  of  the  deep  mountain  forests,  from  Kiushiu  to  Yezo.  It  has 
yellow  flowers,  and  deserves  the  attention  of  our  gardeners,  on 
account  of  its  fine  foliage.  The  wood  is  extremely  fine-pored, 
whitish,  brittle,  and  perishable,  therefore,  like  our  horse-chestnut, 
is  not  much  prized. 

Fam.  Rhamne^e. 

1 10.  Hovenia  dulcis,  Thunb.,  Jap.  Kempon-nashi,  has  been  already 
mentioned  (p.  87),  as  a fruit  tree.  The  light  wood  has  a colour 
varying  from  yellowish  brown  to  brownish  red.  It  is  even  in 
texture,  finely  porous,  and  shows  in  cross  sections  clearly  marked 
year-rings,  and  numerous  small  but  sharply  distinct  white  and 
prominent  pith- rays.  It  is  found  too  seldom  to  have  any  great 
significance. 

hi.  Zizyplnis  vulgaris , Lamk.,  Jap.  Natsume  and  Sanebuto- 
natsume  (see  p.  87).  The  wood  of  this  fruit  tree  resembles,  and  is 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


253 


as  scarce  as,  that  of  the  foregoing.  The  very  numerous  small 
pith-rays  are  here  widely  separated  and  sharply  defined. 

Fam.  Celastrineal 

The  woods  of  this  family  are  characterized  in  Japan  by  a white 
colour,  an  even,  fine  grain,  and  great  density.  The  pores  are 
extraordinarily  small  and  fine,  and  the  numberless  pith-rays  also. 
These  valuable  properties,  which  resemble  those  of  the  box,  make 
it  to  be  regretted  that  the  bush-like,  imperfect  development  of  all 
the  varieties  prevent  any  extensive  use  of  the  wood. 

1 12.  Evonymus  Sieboldianus,  Bl.,  Jap.  Mayumi,  is  called  Pai-oh- 
cha  by  the  Chinese.  It  is  said  to  be  employed  in  wood-carving. 
(A  very  fine  specimen  of  this  variety,  of  even  white  colour,  is  shown 
in  the  collection  at  Kew  Gardens.) 

1 13.  Celastrus  articulata,  Thunb.,  Jap.  Tsuru-mume-modoki. 

Fam.  Ilicineaj. 

Franchet  and  Savatier’s  “ Enumeratio  Plantarum  ” gives  no  fewer 
than  thirteen  species  of  this  evergreen  genus  of  shrubs  and  low 
trees.  They  are  naturally,  for  the  most  part,  confined  to  the  South, 
and  are  favourite  ornamental  trees.  They  are  known  for  their 
fine-grained,  even,  hard  wood,  of  a light  greyish  white  colour.  The 
pith-rays  are  numerous  and  show  a darker  colour  than  the  woody 
fibre.  Longitudinal  sections  are  sprinkled  peculiarly  with  dark 
spots  on  a light  ground.  The  wood  is  used  for  turning  a variety  of 
small  articles,  in  making  combs  and  chopsticks,  and  is  very  well 
adapted  to  these  purposes.  The  noteworthy  kinds  are : 

1 14.  Ilex  crenata,  Thunb.,  Jap.  Inu-tsuge,  the  commonest  holly 
of  Japan.  It  is  found  from  the  Riukiu  to  Yezo,  a bush  sometimes 
6 m.  high,  but  very  often  much  less.  Its  small-leaved  foliage 
resembles  that  of  the  box,  whence  it  gets  the  name,  Inu-tsuge,  or 
dog-box. 

1 1 5.  I.  latifolia,  Thunb.,  Jap.  Torayo,  is  found  along  the  coast 
northwards  in  the  vicinity  of  Tokio.  Here  it  is  frequently  found  as 
a tree  from  6 to  10  m.  high,  growing  in  gardens  and  temple  groves. 
It  is  distinguished  by  its  thick,  leathery,  large,  smooth-edged  leaves 
of  shining  green,  and  its  thick  ramification,  which  render  it  a highly 
ornamental  shrub. 

1 16.  I Integra,  Thunb.,  Jap.  Mochi-no-ki  and  Tori-mochi  is  closely 
related  to  the  preceding  in  character  and  distribution.  The  cross 
section  shows  year-rings  and  dark  pith-rays,  and  the  wide  length- 
wise section  a dotting  of  distinct  dark  spots. 

Fam.  Meliace^e. 

Japan  has  four  members  of  this  family,  viz  : 

117.  Melia  japonica , Don.,  Jap.  Sendan. 


254 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


xi8.  M.  Too-sendan,  S.  and  Z.,  Jap.  T6-sendan,  or  Chinese 
Sendan. 

1 19.  M.  Azedarach , L.,  Jap.  Ochi,  Sendan. 

120.  Cedrela  chinensis,  A.  Juss.,  Jap.  Chian-chin. 

Among  the  many  varieties  of  foreign  plants  which  the  botanist 
from  the  north  meets  in  gardens  and  public  parks  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean region  is  a deciduous  tree  of  considerable  size  of  trunk, 
whose  thick  and  rugged  bark  is  like  that  of  an  old  Robinia. 
Its  light,  irregularly  branching  crown  and  thick  twigs,  however, 
resemble  the  large  sumachs.  In  May,  there  appear,  before  the  large 
double-feathered  leaves,  a number  of  light  blue  flower-clusters, 
which  in  form,  colour  and  smell  resemble  those  of  the  Syringa. 
This  is  Melia  Azedarach,  which  is  extensively  used  as  an  orna- 
mental plant,  and  is  known  in  the  English  West  Indies  with  no 
little  exaggeration  by  the  dignified  name — -“  The  Pride  of  India.” 
India  is  really  its  home,  from  which  it  has  been  imported  to  Japan, 
together  with  another  variety  whose  name  Too-sendan  (Too  = To) 
indicates  Chinese  origin.  The  third  species  mentioned  above  is 
considered  indigenous,  but  like  the  others  is  not  widely  spread 
in  Japan.  The  near  kinship  of  the  three  plants  is  shown  by  their 
common  name  Sendan. 

They  are  trees  of  rapid  growth,  but  are  more  remarkable  for 
circumference  than  height.  The  wood,  which  ranges  from  a light 
brown  to  dark  brick-red  colour,  is  exceedingly  soft.  The  cross 
section  shows  broad  year-rings,  whose  almost  purple  girdles  of 
closely  crowded  pores  are  sharply  defined  and  intersected  by 
numerous  very  fine  pith-rays.  It  is  used  in  joiner-work  and  for 
chests,  although  it  is  not  very  firm  or  durable  when  exposed  to 
the  air.  Utensils  of  various  sorts  are  also  made  from  it. 

The  Cedrela,  as  its  popular  name,  Chian-chin,  indicates,  is  a 
rare,  ornamental  tree  from  China.  Its  sweet  smelling  wood  re- 
sembles that  of  the  Sendan,  but  has  a deeper  brick-red  colour. 
It  does  not  warp  or  split  easily,  and  is  used  for  furniture-making. 
In  comparison  with  its  American  relative,  Swietonia  Mahagoni,  L. 
it  has  not  much  value. 


Pam.  Simarubeal 

1 2 1.  Picrasma  ailanthoides , Planch.,  the  only  Japanese  specimen 
of  this  family,  is  found  in  the  mountain  forests  of  Hondo,  and  on 
the  island  of  Yezo.  The  soft,  white  wood  has  not  been  used  yet. 

The  Chinese  “tree  of  the  gods,”  A ilantus  glandulifera,  Desf.,  in 
spite  of  its  French  name — “ Vernis  du  Japon  ” — is  not  found  any- 
where in  the  kingdom  of  Nippon. 

Fam.  Rutace^e. 

Most  of  the  woods  belonging  to  this  order  are  known  by  their 
close  even  grain  and  whitish  colour.  The  pores  are  evenly  dis- 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


255 


tributed,  as  are  also  the  fine  numberless  pith-rays.  The  heaviest 
woods  are  those  of  the  orange  family,  or  Citrus  varieties,  men- 
tioned on  p.  89,  90,  to  which  belong 

122..  Citrus  trifoliata,  L.,  Jap.  Karatachi,  a high,  strong,  thorny 
bush,  used  pretty  much  in  live  hedges. 

123.  Phellodendron  amurense , Rupr.,  the  Amurian  cork-tree,  and 
P . japonicum,  Maxim.,  till  lately  found  only  in  Northern  Japan.  I 
do  not  know  their  Japanese  names  and  uses.  The  former  has  been 
cultivated  with  success  as  an  umbrageous  tree  in  the  Royal  Insti- 
tute for  Gardening  at  Potsdam. 

1 24.  Orixa  japonica , Thunb.  ( Celastrus  orixa,  Miq.),  J ap.  Kokusa-gi. 
This  large  bush  is  found  in  the  foliaceous  forests  of  the  lower  moun- 
tain region,  and  in  gardens,  e.g.  and  around  Tokio.  Its  wood  is 
but  little  used.  The  strong  aromatic  odour  of  the  leaves  is  dis- 
agreeable to  Japanese  olfactories,  hence  its  name,  which  signifies 
“ Little  stink-tree.”  1 

125.  Zanthoxylon  piperitum , D.  C.  ( Fagaria  piperita , Thunb.), 
Jap.  Sansho,2  like  Z.  Clava- Hercules,  L.,  is  furnished  with  thorns 
and  spikes,  as  are  many  other  kinds  of  this  genus,  which  is  known 
in  the  warmer  parts  of  America  also.  Large  numbers  of  blunt 
spikes  and  knobs  of  a grey  colour  show  themselves  on  its  usually 
not  very  thick  bark.  They  appear  in  the  cross-section  brown 
in  colour,  and  composed  of  concentric  layers  of  a close  cork-like 
mass.  The  yellowish  white  wood  is  very  equal,  fine  grained,  close 
and  firm  like  box-wood.  Cross-sections  show  clearly  defined 
year-rings,  extraordinarly  fine  pith-rays  and  very  small,  regularly 
distributed  pores.  It  is  worked  on  the  turning-lathe  in  the  Hakone 
Mountains,  especially  for  making  many  small  articles  such  as  pretty 
cups  for  cigar  ashes,  which  usually  preserve  the  knobby  cork-like 
bark,  and  which  are  imported  into  Germany. 

126.  Evodia  glauca , Miq.,  Jap.  Kiwada  or  Obaku.  As  the  bark 
and  appearance  of  Kiwada  has  already  been  described  on  p.  176  a 
brief  notice  of  its  wood  will  suffice  her’e.  The  wood  is  much  lighter 
than  that  of  the  other  varieties  of  the  family.  It  is  very  soft,  of 
a light  grey  or  brown  colour,  lighter  and  almost  sulphur-yellow  in 
the  sap-wood,  like  its  inner  bark,  though  much  softer.  The  moder- 
ately sized  pores  are  especially  numerous  on  the  inner  edges  of  the 
clearly  marked  year-rings. 


Fam.  Tiliace^e. 

127.  Tilia  cordata.  Mill.,  Jap.  Shina-no-ki  and  Bodaijiu,  called 
by  the  Ainos  Shibeshi  (p.  170). 

128.  T.  mandschurica , Rupr.  and  Maxim.,  Jap.  Bodaijiu. 


1 From  ko=little,  kusai=stinking,  ki=tree. 

2 Concerning  the  value  of  this  bush  for  its  spice,  see  p.  71. 


256 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


Fam.  Sterculiace^e. 

129.  Sterculia  platanifolia , L.  ( Firmiana  platanifolia,  R.  Br.),  Jap. 
Ao-giri,  i.e.  green  Kiri.  The  light  grey,  spongy  wood  resembles 
Kiri  and  is  similarly  employed.  Its  cross  sections  show  distinct 
year-rings,  thinly  sprinkled  with  pretty  large  pores,  which  increase 
in  number  toward  the  edges  of  the  rings.  The  pith-rays  are  clearly 
marked  by  their  white  colour  and  are  equi-distant  from  each  other. 

Fam.  Ternstroemiace.-e. 

The  evergreen  bushes  and  trees  of  this  family,  Ternstroemia, 
Cleyera,  Eurya  and  Camellia,  also  the  deciduous  variety  Stuartia, 
furnish  an  extremely  fine  grained,  finely  porous,  close,  firm,  hard, 
and  correspondingly  heavy  wood  which,  in  all  these  qualities,  re- 
sembles the  Yusu  ( Distylium  racemosuni).  Like  the  latter,  this 
wood  is  used  for  combs  and  various  turnery  articles,  including 
seals  and  other  things  which  demand  firmness  and  a fine  grain. 
The  woods  of  greater  circumference  belonging  to  the  larger 
species  (Stuartia  and  Camellia)  are  used  for  bearer’s  poles,  handles, 
cylinders,  and  in  wood-carving. 

130.  Ternstroemia  japonica , Thunb.,  Jap.  Moku-koku  (pronounced 
Mokkoku).  This  is  a good-sized  bush  found  wild  in  Southern 
Japan,  but  much  cultivated  in  gardens  and  temple  groves.  In  the 
latter  it  plays  the  same  part  as  the  species  which  follows.  Because 
of  its  sacred  character  and  the  similarity  of  its  bright  chocolate- 
coloured  wood  to  that  of  the  Yusu  ( Distylium ),  the  bush  is  also 
called  Bukku-yusu,  i.e.  the  Yusu  dedicated  to  the  gods. 

1 3 1.  Cleyera  japonica , Thunb.,  Jap.  Saka-ki ; a fine,  evergreen 
shrub  growing  wild,  like  the  foregoing,  in  the  warmer  parts  of 
Japan.  It  is  a favourite  ornamental  bush  for  gardens  and  temple 
groves,  and  is  a sacred  plant  in  Shinto,  the  worship  of  ancestors, 
like  the  Lotus  flower  and  lllicium  religiosum,  S.  and  Z.,  in  Buddhism. 
In  certain  celebrated  temples,  eg.,  the  Kompira  near  Kotohira  in 
Sanuki,  numerous  articles  made  from  the  wood  are  offered  for  sale  ; 
carvings  and  chop-sticks  (Hashi),  called  Sakaki-no-hashi,  as  olive- 
wood  trinkets  are  sold  in  the  holy  places  of  Palestine. 

132.  Eurya  japonica,  Thunb.,  Jap.  Shira-ki  and  Mi-sasa-gi.  This 
bush,  found  widely  scattered  through  the  monsoon  district  of 
South-eastern  Asia,  grows  only  three  or  four  meters  high.  Its 
leaves  are  very  like  those  of  the  tea-plant.  It  is  often  found  as 
under-brush  in  the  woods  of  Southern  Japan,  but  more  often  in 
the  thickets  of  wooded  mountain-slopes. 

133.  Camellia  japonica,  Lin.,  Jap.  Tsubaki  (see  also  pp.  152, 
153).  The  Camellia  is  everywhere  indigenous  in  Southern  Japan. 
It  grows  to  a good-sized  tree  in  the  mountain  forests  of  Kiushiu 
and  Shikoku,  often  at  an  elevation  of  800  m.  above  the  sea  ; it  ex- 
tends into  the  deciduous  forests,  where  it  is  distinguished  for  size 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


257 


above  all  the  other  evergreens  except  conifers.  It  is  found  with 
the  winter-green  oaks  on  the  south-eastern  coast  of  Hondo  as  far 
as  the  36th  parallel,  and  as  a large  bush  on  the  Bay  of  Yedo.  The 
northern  limit  of  its  natural  growth  on  the  coast  of  the  Japan  Sea 
is  the  hill-country  of  Northern  Echigo,  about  38°  N.  latitude.  I 
found  it  there  in  the  pine  and  bush  forests  as  a bush  1 m.  high. 
In  Southern  Kiushiu  trees  of  10  m.  high  and  ivj.  m.  circumference  are 
frequently  seen.  I found  this  size,  however,  only  among  cultivated 
trees.  I saw  here  often  also  the  parasite,  Visciun  articulation,  Burm. 
on  its  branches.  In  its  wild  state  the  camellia  blossom  is  a simple 
red  flower  which  never  opens  to  the  full,  but  remains  half  closed, 
like  a tulip.  This  variety  is  cultivated  solely  for  the  oil,  and 
only  as  far  as  the  Tsugaru  Straits.  Both  the  single  and  double 
camellias  are  found  in  gardens  and  temple  groves,  the  latter,  how- 
ever, in  fewer  varieties  than  with  us.  The  blooming  season  begins 
according  to  the  latitude,  in  January  or  February,  and  lasts  until 
April.  The  colour  of  the  wood  changes  gradually  from  a light 
grey  or  pink  to  darker  shades.  The  bark  resembles  that  of  the 
beech  tree. 

134.  Camellia  Sasanqua,  Sieb.,  Jap.  Sasan-kuwa,  a large  bush 
(see  p.  152)  whose  leaves  and  flowers  are  very  much  like  those  of 
the  tea-bush.  The  blossom  time  is  late  autumn  and  December,  as 
in  the  case  of  the  tea-shrub. 

135.  Camellia  tkeifera,  Griffith  ( Thea  Chinensis,  Sims.),  Jap.  Cha, 
Cha-no-ki  (see  p.  1 10  ft'.). 

136.  Stuartia  monadelpha , S.  and  Z.,  Jap.  Saru-name  and  Saru- 
suberi. 

137.  Stuartia  serrata,  Maxim.,  Jap.  Saru-name  and  Saru-suberi, 
like  the  foregoing,  which  however  is  much  more  frequent.  The  home 
of  this  plant  is  in  the  mountain  forests,  1,000  to  1,500  m.  above  the 
sea,  e.g.,  in  the  mountains  of  Nikko,  on  Mi-kuni-toge,  and  elsewhere. 
It  grows  to  a tree  from  6 to  12  m.  high,  has  a smooth  bark,  but  sel- 
dom a straight  trunk.  Among  the  other  members  of  the  moun- 
tain forests  it  is  distinguished  by  casting  off  its  bark  in  small  pieces, 
as  the  plane  tree  does  with  us.  In  this  respect  it  resembles  the 
Lagerstroemia  indica  of  the  gardens,  whence  comes  the  common 
name,  Saru-suberi,  or  monkey-slider. 

Among  the  other  deciduous  Ternstroemiaceae,  the  well-known 
ornamental  bush,  Stachyurus  prcecox,  S.  and  Z.,  Jap.  Mume-fuji,  can 
scarcely  be  considered  as  a wood-furnishing  tree,  and  there  remains 
only  the  species  Actinidia  to  be  mentioned.  Its  character  differs 
widely  from  that  of  the  other  members  of  this  family.  We  have  to 
do  here  with  only  a few  simple-leaved,  deciduous  climbing  plants, 
which  belong  for  the  most  part  to  the  mountain  forests,  and  only 
resemble  the  evergreen  Ternstroemiaceae  in  their  blossom.  Their 
fruits  are  juicy  and  sometimes  edible  berries  (p.  92).  Their 
brownish  wood,  like  that  of  most  climbing  and  creeping  shrubs,1  is 

1 Many  of  them  bear  the  Japanese  surname,  Tsuru,  Tsuta  and  Katsura. 

II.  S 


2S8 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


light  and  very  porous.  Cross-sections  of  it  are  used  for  Dobin- 
shi,  or  mats  for  little  tea  cups,  and  it  is  further  used  for  turning 
various  small  articles.  The  most  notable  of  these  varieties  are : 

138.  Actinidia  arguta,  Planch.  ( Trochostigma  arguta , S.  and  Z.), 
Jap.  Shira-kuchi,  Shira-kuchi-katsura  and  Ko-kuwa. 

139.  A.  polygama,  Planch.,  Jap.  Matatabi  (p.  92). 

140.  A.  volubilis , Planch.,  Jap.  Tsuta-no-ki. 

Fam.  Magnoliace^e. 

The  wood  of  the  varieties  belonging  to  this  family  are  moderately 
light,  equal,  fine  grained,  soft,  somewhat  elastic,  but  not  very  durable. 
In  the  cross  section  sharply  defined  year-rings  are  to  be  seen, 
very  fine,  extremely  numerous  and  evenly  distributed  pores,  and 
fine,  prominent  pith-rays,  also  very  numerous.  The  following 
varieties  deserve  special  mention  : — 

141.  Illicium  religiosum , S.  and  Z.,  Jap.  Shikimi  (pronounced 
Skimmi).  This  small  tree  is  found  wild  in  Southern  Japan,  is  cul- 
tivated in  gardens,  and  especially  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Buddhist 
temples.  In  April  it  displays  its  numerous  sweet  smelling  yellow- 
ish white  blossoms.  The  vases  of  Buddhist  temples  are  adorned 
with  its  branches,  as  those  of  the  Shinto  sanctuaries  with  Sakaki. 
The  bark  of  the  Shikimi  (Shikimi-no-kawa)  is  used  as  described 
on  p.  136  to  make  the  quill-like  brown  Makko,  or  incense  candles. 
The  wood  is  employed  in  making  chopsticks,  and  in  turning. 

142.  Magnolia  hypoleuca,  S.  and  Z.  (M.  glanca , Thunb.),  Jap. 
Ho-no-ki.  This  fine,  highly  interesting  tree  appears  in  all  the 
mountain  foliaceous  forests  of  Japan  from  Kiushiu  to  Yezo,  not, 
however,  collected  together,  but  scattered  about  among  other  de- 
ciduous woods.  Towards  the  north  its  frequency  increases  ;.  it 
attains  here,  also,  its  largest  dimensions,  trunks  of  more  than  2 m. 
circumference  and  20  to  25  m.  high.  It  is  found,  also,  in  the  high 
foliaceous  forests  of  Middle  and  Northern  Hondo,  on  the  island  of 
Yezo,  and  even  in  Southern  Sachalin.  It  rivals  in  height  and 
thickness  the  other  deciduous  forest  trees  in  its  company,  and  all 
the  other  varieties  of  its  own'  race,  even  the  North  American  M. 
grandijlora.  Few  of  its  kindred  endure  the  rigours  of  winter  so 
well  also. 

Ho-no-ki  loves  a good  soil;  and  grows  best  in  the  shade  of  high 
trees,  especially  the  beech  forests.  Oaks,  maples,  ashes,  and 
especially  ZEsculus  turbinata,  and  Calopanax  ricinifolia  are  fre- 
quently its  companions,  as  has  been  before  stated.1 

1 Dupont  errs  in  his  work,  which  has  already  been  several  times  quoted,  when 
he  says  (page  58)  “ On  le  trouve  toujours  associd  au  chataignier  (Kuri).”  On  the 
contrary,  I found  the  Ho  but  seldom  in  the  company  of  the  chestnut,  which 
latter  makes  far  less  demand  upon  the  soil,  but  much  greater  upon  the  light  and 
heat.  It  loves  sunny  mountain  slopes,  but  does  not  grow  in  the  same  high  alti- 
tudes as  the  magnolia. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


259 


The  smooth  greyish  white  bark  of  the  straight  trunk,  which  in 
thick  high  forests  is  branchless  to  a considerable  height,  reminds 
one  of  the  beech.  The  crown  is  formed  of  thick,  widely  spread- 
ing, but  not  so  numerous  nor  so  ramified  branches,  and  its  leaves 
and  flowers  give  the  tree  a peculiar  beauty.  The  former  strongly 
resemble  the  leaves  of  the  American  Magnolia  tripetala , Mich.,  espe- 
cially in  their  prominence,  but  are  much  larger,  viz.,  15  to  20  cm. 
long,  and  5 to  8 cm.  broad.  They  are  elliptical  and  smooth-edged  ; 
on  the  upper  side  of  a beautiful  green  colour,  and  underneath  greyish 
white,  as  indicated  by  the  name  “ hypoleuca.”  Every  branch  de- 
velops about  ten  leaves,  which  are  crowded  together  in  verticillate 
form  near  the  end.  In  the  midst  of  this  beautiful  wreath  of 
leaves,  there  unfolds  about  the  middle  of  May  or  beginning  of 
June  a splendid  large  white  flower,  with  a pine-apple-like  perfume. 
Even  later  in  midsummer  the  Ho-tree  presents  a surprisingly  beau- 
tiful appearance.  When  the  wind  sways  the  foliage  of  the  mag- 
nolia-lined mountain  side,  and  the  lower  side  of  the  leaf  is  turned 
upward,  the  tree  looks  to  one  at  a little  distance  as  if  it  were  for  a 
second  time  covered  with  blossoms. 

By  October  the  trees  are  bare.  The  long  ellipsoidal  reddish 
brown  fruit-capsules,  with  their  pink  seeds,  soon  follow  the  leaves. 
The  seeds,  like  all  of  this  species,  soon  lose  their  germinating 
power,  which  is  probably  the  main  reason  why  the  Ho-no-ki  is  still 
a stranger  to  our  European  gardens.1 

The  H6-no-ki  in  Japan  surprises  and  delights  every  lover  of 
plants,  and  it  is  easy  to  agree  with  Dupont  when  he  calls  it  more 
ornamental  than  Magnolia  grandijlor a. 

The  light,  greyish  white  wood  changes  gradually  to  a deeper 
shade.  It  is  soft,  easily  bent,  and  elastic,  and  has  a fine  even  grain, 
which  makes  it  applicable  to  many  uses.  The  wood  engraver 
uses  it  in  patterns  for  cloth  printing,  and  the  lacquerer  finds 
it  adapted  to  various  small  articles.  The  sides  of  the  pretty, 
light  and  durable  oval  bread-baskets  are  generally  made  out  of 
Hd-no-ki.  Two  thin  strips  of  the  wood  are  bent  around  the 
elliptical  pinewood  bottom,  their  sharpened  ends  bent  over  each 
other  and  glued,  and  tacked  to  the  bottom  board.  Sword  sheaths 
(Katana-no-Saya)  were  also  formerly  made  out  of  Ho-no-ki.  In 
Niigata  and  Yonezawa  it  is  used  as  the  groundwork  of  nearly  half 
of  all  the  lacquer  ware,  and  from  it  is  prepared  the  soft,  fine-grained 
charcoal  which  is  used  throughout  the  whole  of  Japan  for  rubbing 
the  lacquer,  and  for  polishing  the  enamel  of  cloisonne  ware. 

1 I have  made  repeated  unsuccessful  attempts  to  propagate  this  plant  from  the 
seed  in  Europe.  All  magnolia  seeds  sprout  on  their  way  through  the  tropics, 
and  reach  us  with  dried-up  germ  fibres.  Out  of  a collection  of  badly  packed 
and  half  withered  small  trees  which  I received  eight  years  since,  about  half  a 
dozen  were  saved  in  the  Botanical  garden  at  Marburg.  Of  these  six,  one  was 
sent  to  Garden-inspector  Lauche,  one  to  Prince  Troubetzkoi  at  Intra,  and  a 
third  was  given  to  the  Botanical  Garden  at  Frankfort. 


26o 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


143.  Magnolia  Kobus,  D.  C,  Jap.  Kobushi.  This  wood  stands 
next  to  Ho-no-ki  in  abundance.  It  is  found  in  Middle  and  Northern 
Hondo,  also  on  the  island  of  Yezo,  generally  in  the  plains,  on  river 
banks  and  edges  of  woods,  and  even  in  the  lower  mountain  forests. 
It  does  not  grow  as  high  as  the  preceding,  but  broadens  its  crown 
still  more,  and  forms  a beautiful  tree,  which  blossoms  while  it  is 
putting  forth  leaves. 

There  are  six  other  magnolias  which  are  known  in  Japan,  though 
not  in  sufficient  numbers  to  have  a value  as  wood-producers  ; Mag- 
nolia conspicua , Salisb.  (M.  Yulan , Desf.  ?),  M.  parvijlora,  S.  and  Z., 
M.  obovata,  Thunb.,  M.  salicifolia , Maxim.,  M.  stellata,  Maxim.,  and 
M.  compressa,  Maxim. 

144.  Katsura  japonica , L.  (Uvaria  japonica , Thunb.),  Jap.  Sane- 
katsura,  Binan-katsura  and  Kuro-gane-modoshi,  i.e.,  iron  sumach, 
is  a notable  sumach  variety  of  the  foliaceous  forest.  In  the  autumn, 
before  the  leaves  fall,  it  has  a glowing  brownish  red  colour.  The 
long  trunks,  from  a finger’s  to  an  arm’s  thickness,  are  distinguished 
by  their  cork-like  bark  and  the  flexibility  of  their  wood,  so  great 
that  it  is  often  used  instead  of  cables  in  small  bridges,  and  in  other 
cases  where  strong  binding  is  required. 

145.  Cercidiphyllum  japonicum , S.  and  Z.,  Jap.  Katsura.  Mag- 
noliaceae  find  their  greatest  representative  in  this  beautiful  tree  of 
the  mountain  forests  of  Northern  J apan.  Its  heart-shaped  leaves  re- 
semble those  of  the  Cercis-tree,  as  the  name  of  its  species  might 
indicate.  It  grows  to  a height  of  30  m.,  and  a circumference  of 
4 to  5 m.  in  the  warm  part  of  Yezo,  and  is  found  also  in  Hondo 
of  a similar  size,  but  only  exceptionally.  It  is  marked  by  rapid 
growth,  a layer  of  wood  4 to  5 cm.  thick  being  the  yearly  addition 
to  the  trunk  of  old  trees.  A soil  made  up  of  crumbled  clay- 
shale  on  a basis  of  volcanic  material  suits  the  Katsura  best.  Its 
light  soft  wood  is  darker  than  that  of  H6-no-ki,  is  of  a light  red 
varying  to  yellowish  brown,  is  capable  of  high  polish,  and  used  in 
furniture  making,  and  for  the  same  purposes  as  Hd-no-ki. 

146.  Umure-gi  (vulgo  Omore-gi),  i.e.,  fossilized  wood,  and  Jin-dai- 
boku,  or  wood  from  the  time  of  the  gods,  is  a heavy,  dark  brown 
lignite.  It  is  used  for  making  numerous  articles,  such  as  plates 
and  trays,  adorned  with  mottoes,  flowers,  birds,  and  other  decora- 
tions, which  are  sold  in  Nikko,  Tokio,  and  elsewhere.  The  wood, 
which  looks  like  dark  walnut,  but  fails  in  resemblance  on  closer 
investigation,  is  said  to  come  from  Sendai  (Natori-gawa),  hence  the 
designation  of  these  articles  in  Tokio  as  Sendai-no-umure-gi-zaiku. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


261 


7.  Gardening. 

Size,  Enclosure , and  Character  of  the  Japanese  Garden. — Limited 
Expedients  and  Peculiarities  of  Gardening. — Dwarfing  and 
Deforming.  — Improvement  of  Species.  — Variegation.  — The 
Japanese  Love  of  Nature  and  Flowers. — Flowering  Season  and 
other  characteristics  of  the  Flora. — Shade  Trees. 

Enclosed  fruit  and  vegetable  gardens,  such  as  are  usually  found 
with  us  around  the  dwelling,  are  unknown  to  the  Japanese.  He 
plants  his  Yasai-mono  (see  p.  69)  on  the  Hatake,  or  Sai-yen,  the 
vegetable  ground  in  the  open  field.  He  calls  the  fenced  tree- 
nursery  Uye-gomi,  and  the  little  ornamental  garden,  commonly 
behind  the  house,1  Niwa  (Son6  is  the  poetical  expression)  or 
K6-yen.  It  is  the  Niwa  which  chiefly  interests  us. 

Siebold  says2  that  even  in  the  large  cities  there  is  scarcely  a 
house  which  has  not  its  garden,  or  at  least  a court  adorned  with 
one  or  more  evergreen  trees.  This  idea  has  become  very  preva- 
lent, but  it  is  nevertheless  erroneous.  Extensive  journeys  through 
different  portions  of  the  three  principal  islands  of  Old  Japan,  and 
numerous  observations  in  cities  and  country,  have  convinced  me 
that  only  a small  proportion  of  dwellings  have  any  ornamental  or 
particularly  cultivated  piece  of  ground  about  them,  and  that  these 
are  only  to  be  found  in  the  homes  of  the  cultured  and  wealthy 
classes.  The  following  Japanese  couplet,  which  Dr.  R.  Lange  has 
well  translated  into  German,  agrees  with  this  observation  : 

“ Ob  auch  des  Lenzes  Macht  an  alien  Orten  sich  zeiget, 

Findest  du  Blumen  doch  nicht  bliihend  in  jeglichem  Dorf.”  3 

Even  the  already  noted  substitute  for  a garden — the  court  with  its 
few  evergreen  trees  (more  properly  bushes) — although  frequently 
seen,  is  still  only  an  exception.  The  two  shrubs  which  are  found 
most  often  in  these  narrow  courtyards  are  the  Toshuro  ( Raphis 
flabelliformis,  Ait.),  a kind  of  fan  palm,  about  2 m.  in  height,  and 
even  more  generally,  the  Nanten  (Nandina  domestica , Thunb.),  a 
bush  which  seldom  grows  more  than  1 to  2 m.  high.  Its  trunk, 
when  old,  is  covered  with  rugged  bark.  It  bears  red  berry  clusters 
in  winter,  and  is  a favourite  house-decoration  at  the  New  Year. 
It  often  furnishes  a pattern  to  the  ornamental  work  of  Art  In- 
dustry, its  leaves  being  wrought  in  silk,  the  berries  in  glass,  painted 
with  red  cinnabar.  The  Nandina  grows  wild  in  Shikoku. 

The  enclosures  (Jap.  Kaki)  of  gardens  and  parks  differ  greatly. 

1 Ko-yen-chi  (public  garden  ground)  is  a temple  garden,  a sort  of  open  park  ; 
as,  for  example,  those  of  Uyeno  and  Shiba  in  Tokio. 

2 “ Sur  l’etat  de  1’horticulture  au  Japon,”  p.  2.  Leide,  1863. 

3 “ Haru  no  iro-no  itari  itaranu  sato  wa  araji  | sakeru  sakazaru  hana  no 
miyuramu.” — Old  Japanese  spring-songs,  translated  and  versified  by  Dr.  R. 
Lange.  Berlin  : Weidmann’sche  Buchhandlung,  1884. 


262 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


They  are  whitewashed  mud  and  stone  walls,  palings  generally  of 
bamboo  cane,  and  quickset  hedges  (Ike-gaki).  There  is  abundance 
of  fine  material  for  the  last-named,  but  it  is  in  many  places  not 
used,  and  often  only  to  a very  limited  extent.  The  different 
conifers,  particularly  the  Cryptomeria  and  Podocarpus,  and  many 
varieties  of  bamboo-cane,  serve  well  in  evergreen  hedges,  but  not 
the  beautiful  Evonymus  or  Liguster,  which  are  used  so  successfully 
in  the  Mediterranean  region. 

Quickset  hedges  are  seen  most  often  around  the  houses  of 
the  Samurai.  They  are  generally  very  carefully  cultivated  and 
trimmed,  and  shut  off  a small  garden  from  the  street.  Oftentimes 
a pretty  bamboo  paling  takes  their  place,  but  in  this  case  an  ever- 
green thicket  grows  just  behind  it,  so  as  to  hide  the  modest  dwell- 
ing as  much  as  possible  from  the  passers-by.  In  the  spring  of 
1875  I saw  in  the  Samurai  quarter  of  the  little  city  of  Nojiri 
(province  of  Hiuga,  in  Southern  Kiushiu),  for  example,  a row  of 
stately  camellia-trees  behind  such  a fence,  growing  9 to  10  m.  high, 
and  some  of  them  still  blooming.  Close  beside  them  the  light 
beautiful  crowns  of  the  tall  bamboo-canes  rocked  in  the  wind.  The 
yellowish  green  of  the  young  leaves  of  the  camphor-trees  and 
evergreen  oaks  contrasted  finely  against  the  shiny  dark  green  of 
the  last  year’s  foliage  and  the  red  blossoms  of  the  camellias  and 
azaleas.  In  Akita,  high  in  the  north  of  Hondo,  I saw  at  another 
time  the  little  front  garden  of  the  Samurai  dwellings  mostly  sur- 
rounded by  Kome-no-ko,  or  Iwa-yanagi  ( Spircea  Thunbergi , Sieb.). 
Karatachi  ( Citrus  trifoliata , L.)  and  Mukuge  ( Hibiscus  syriacus , L.) 
are  more  often  used  for  hedges.  The  violet-blue,  rarely  white, 
blossoms  of  the  latter  appear  in  late  summer  and  autumn.  Kara- 
tachi is  used  evidently  because  of  its  strong  protection,  for  its 
hedges  are  neither  close  nor  have  they  a very  beautiful  foliage,  as 
the  leaves  are  not  as  large  and  fine  in  appearance  as  those  of  the 
other  Aurantiaceae. 

As  has  been  stated  several  times  in  the  first  volume  of  this  work, 
Chinese  civilization  was  introduced  into  japan  with  Buddhism  in 
the  sixth  century  A.D.,  and  found  its  principal  support  and  foster- 
ing in  the  cloisters  and  temples  of  the  land.  It  can  hardly  be 
doubted  that  flower  cultivation  and  the  art  of  gardening  among 
the  Japanese  received  their  first  impulse  and  encouragement  from 
Buddhist  priests.  For  many  centuries  the  Chinese  had  cultivated 
the  beautiful  ornamental  plants  which  were  brought  from  thence 
to  adorn  altars  and  graves,  temple  courts  and  holy  pools,  gardens 
and  parks  ; also  the  plants  which,  like  the  peony  and  lotus,  were 
at  the  same  time  producers  of  valuable  medicines.  In  the  enjoy- 
ment of  the  beautiful  appearance  and  prosperity  of  the  foreign 
plants,  interest  in  the  indigenous  flora  increased  also,  and  its  finest 
specimens  were  gradually  brought  into  cultivation  and  carefully 
reared.  These  indigenous  plants  were  found  to  be  numerous  and 
choice,  for,  as  has  been  amply  shown  in  vol.  i.  pp.  135-174,  Japan 


AGRICULTURAL  LNDUSTRIES. 


263 


is  one  of  those  countries  where  Nature  wears  her  most  variegated 
and  attractive  dress.  Later  on,  some  of  those  ornamental  plants 
which  Japan  had  got  from  China  were  introduced  into  our  gardens 
and  hothouses,  and  were  taken  fof  indigenous,  just  as  certain  Chinese 
ornamental  plants  brought  to  Calcutta,  and  afterward  to  Europe, 
were  supposed  to  be  of  Indian  origin,  and  were  named  accord- 
ingly ; eg.  Rosa  indica,  L.,  and  Chrysanthemum  indicum,  L. 

As  the  feudal  system  developed  in  Japan  and,  under  the  rule 
of  the  Tokugawa,  the  privileged  classes  enjoyed  their  prerogatives 
in  peace,  the  parks  surrounding  the  fortresses  of  the  Daimios  and 
their  Yashikis  in  Yeddo  became  the  gathering  place  of  various 
ornamental  plants  which  had  been  introduced  gradually  from  the 
neighbouring  continent,  and  principally  of  those  which  had  been 
borrowed  from  the  splendid  indigenous  flora.1  Every  Samurai 
cultivated  as  large  a selection  as  space  would  permit  in  the  little 
garden  which  was  his  pleasure-ground,  but  the  nationality  of  the 
plants  after  so  many  digressions  was  unrecognisable. 

The  Japanese  ornamental  garden  is  not  intended  to  be  an  abode, 
but  merely  to  please  the  eye.  It  is  not  a pleasure-garden  or  Jardin 
d'  agrement,  in  the  German  or  French  sense,  but  it  has  its  own 
peculiar  charm.  The  cosy  arbour  which  is  hardly  ever  wanting 
in  the  most  modest  German  house  garden,  in  whose  shade  from 
childhood  we  pass  so  many  happy  hours  of  recreation  and 
agreeable  work,  is  not  to  be  found  in  the  Niwa.2  There  is  also 
no  fine,  carefully  kept  sward,  with  flower-beds  here  and  there, 
and  broad  gravel  walks.  But  there  is  often  a great  deal  of  taste 
and  refinement  manifested  in  imitating  nature  and  constructing  a 
miniature  landscape.  If  the  limited  space  will  not  permit  a little 
pond  in  which  gold  fish  and  turtles  may  comfortably  play  and 
lotus  flowers  unfold  their  lovely  leaves  and  petals  in  midsummer, 
there  is  nevertheless  room  for  a modest  water-basin,  with  small 
red-bellied  Imori  ( Triton  subcristatus ) in  its  clear  bottom,  for  a 
small  arched  bridge  over  the  little  stream  flowing  from  it,  and  a 
pile  of  rocks.  On  a somewhat  larger  plan,  this  becomes  a beautiful 
cool  place  where  clear  rippling  water  flows  from  a little  mossy 
grotto,  whose  arches  are  built  up  in  close  imitation  of  mountain 
rocks.  These  are  covered  with  ferns  and  little  bushes  of  Tsutsuji 
( Azalea  indica , L.),  resembling  our  Alpine  roses,  being  clothed  in 
early  summer  with  red  blossoms ; and  further,  with  the  beautiful 
Daimiojisb  ( Saxifraga  cortuscefolia , S.  and  Z.),  and  other  tastefully 

1 Most  of  these  very  interesting  large  parks,  with  their  grand  old  tree-groups 
and  tasteful  landscapes  of  rock  and  water,  avenues  and  lodges,  their  many  sorts 
of  fanciful  gardening,  pruning,  dwarfing,  and  deforming,  stone  turrets  and 
idols,  were  destroyed  after  the  Restoration.  The  finest  specimen  of  Japanese 
landscape  gardening  now  to  be  seen  is  at  Fuki-age,  the  Imperial  Garden  in 
Tokio. 

3 The  Glycine  ( Wistaria  ckinensis)  is  cultivated  here  and  there  on  trellises, 
but  not  in  order  to  afford  shade,  only  to  better  exhibit  the  hanging  clusters  of 
blossoms.  (See  Illustration  in  vol.  i.) 


264 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


distributed  favourites  of  the  indigenous  flora.  A little  cemented 
basin  or  trough  is  made  just  in  front  of  this  group  of  rocks,  where 
the  water  is  collected,  and  near  by  grows  the  Giboshi  ( Funkia 
ovata,  Sprengel),  its  bluish  green  leaf-tufts  covered  in  late  summer 
with  spikes  of  beautiful  bluish  white  flowers. 

The  narrow  paths  which  wind  through  a Japanese  garden  of  this 
kind  are  paved  with  one  row  of  stone  slabs,  in  which  all  regularity 
of  form  is  avoided.  There  is  no  attempt  to  make  the  edges  even. 
Potted  plants  of  the  popular  dwarfed  varieties  take  the  place  of 
borders  on  both  sides. 

Japanese  art-gardening  is  carried  on  with  very  few  implements — 
and  these  few  but  poorly  adapted  to  their  purpose — but  with  great 
manual  skill.  It  does  not  compare  with  European  gardening 
in  perfection  of  taste  and  execution,  nor  in  the  ways  and  means 
which  are  at  the  command  of  our  gardeners.  It  must  be  re- 
garded, however,  as  a sample  of  Japanese  taste,  just  like  some 
specimens  of  their  art  industry.  Our  gardeners  have  learned  with 
great  care  the  requirements  of  all  the  plant-life  in  their  domain, 
and  seek  by  fulfilling -these  conditions  to  bring  all  to  their  highest 
natural  perfection.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Japanese  gardener 
tries  to  keep  all  bushes  and  trees  constantly  pruned  and  trimmed, 
and  in  many  other  ways  to  obstruct  their  natural  development  ; 
now  to  produce  symmetrical  forms,  after  the  fashion  of  old  French 
gardening,  and  again  to  prevent  symmetry  by  fanciful  creations, 
dwarfed  and  deformed  figures,  and  to  work  in  a way  utterly  incom- 
prehensible to  us.  There  is  now-a-days  a tendency  in  Europe  to 
imitate  this  sort  of  gardening  in  its  quaint  artificiality  ; but  it  is 
not  according  to  our  taste,  and  only  admissible  in  exceptional 
cases.  Our  gardeners  help  nature  ; the  Japanese  do  her  violence. 
But  Japanese  gardening  is  praised  in  many  books,  just  for  this 
unnatural  tendency,  while  to  us  it  appears  like  incomprehensible 
trifling  and  waste  of  effort. 

Dwarfing  or  enlarging  one  part  at  the  expense  of  the  other, 
variegation  and  cultivation  of  every  accident  or  trick  of  nature, 
are,  as  has  been  intimated,  the  careful  occupation  of  the  Japanese 
gardener.  He  distinguishes  himself  in  these  efforts,  and  even  be- 
comes, in  one  or  the  other,  a specialist.  He  works  with  great 
enjoyment  to  himself,  and  knows  also  that  he  is  pleasing  the  taste 
of  his  customers,  among  whom  he  counts  not  only  the  educated 
and  the  rich,  but  also  the  ordinary  labourer. 

The  Japanese  not  only  take  great  pleasure  in  this  artificial  de- 
formation, but  they  admire  and  collect  also  natural  malformations 
of  every  kind.  They  admire  a stone,  e.g.,  through  which  water  has 
worn  a hole,  or  an  old  decaying  tree-trunk  with  one  or  more  plants 
growing  out  of  a knothole  where  seeds  have  been  accidentally 
lodged.  This  is  due  to  the  same  intellectual  laziness,  and  is  an 
example  of  the  charm  which  striking  phenomena  have  for  many 
people  with  us  also,  and  which  the  uneducated  admire  every- 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


265 


where,  but  with  us  the  admiration  is  usually  diverted  from  nature 
to  other  objects. 

Dwarfing  or  Nanisation  is  the  name  which  we  give  to  the 
various  operations  for  producing  dwarfed  forms,  an  art  in  which  the 
Chinese  and  Japanese  are  masters,  and  which  they  employ  more 
with  ornamental  plants  than  with  fruit  trees.  Chinese  girls  cripple 
and  deform  their  feet  in  tiny  shoes,  and  the  art  and  trade  gardeners 
of  Eastern  Asia  frequently  check  the  growth  of  plants  by  forcing 
them  into  small  jars,  by  frequent  transplanting,  and  by  scanty 
nourishment  and  close  pruning.  Their  exertions  seem  directed 
either  to  reduction  of  size,  while  retaining  the  form,  or  to  the  pro- 
duction of  monstrosities  of  different  kinds. 

To  produce  a slow  growth  they  choose  particularly  small 
seeds  from  a poorly  developed  individual  plant.  Frequent  cutting 
back  has  been  found  even  more  effective,  also  planting  in  pots 
of  insufficient  size.  Twisting  the  twigs  and  stems  in  a horizontal 
spiral  direction  has  the  same  effect,  and  the  refrigeration  of  the 
ground  and  roots  by  evaporation,  using  porous  pots.  Grafting 
is  often  also  a means  to  this  end,  i.e.  it  serves  to  check  natural 
development.  It  is  employed  especially  in  the  many  varieties  of 
Momiji  {Acer  polymorphum ),  and  is  usually  effected  according  to 
the  oldest  methods  known  to  gardening — grafting  by  juxta- 
position, a sort  of  “ greffe  par  approche  ” as  it  is  called  by  the 
French.  The  cutting  which  is  to  be  engrafted  is  sharpened  on  one 
side  and  laid  in  an  incision  cut  diagonally  in  the  wild  tree,  or 
attached  to  the  wild  stock  by  a sort  of  splicing,  and  then  carefully 
bound. 

Some  of  the  results  obtained  in  Chinese  and  Japanese  gardening 
in  dwarfing  species  are  very  surprising.  Kaempfer  relates  that  he 
once  saw  growing  together  in  a small  box,  4 inches  long,  1^  inches 
broad,  and  6 inches  high,  a bamboo  cane,  a pine  tree,  and  a bloom- 
ming  Mume-plum  tree.  The  price  of  this  group  of  dwarfs  was 
1,200  Dutch  gulden,  or  nearly  .£100  : an  evidence  of  the  difficulty 
and  tediousness  of  the  accomplishment,  also  a token  of  the  high 
estimation  of  such  abnormal  forms ; for  what  nurseryman  in 
Europe  would  think  of  asking  one-tenth  of  this  sum  for  this  sort 
of  production  ? 

The  employment  of  this  peculiar  art  of  Nanisation  on  some  of 
the  conifers  is  very  popular,  especially  on  the  Matsu  {Pinus 
Massoniana  and  P.  densijlord),  the  Nagi  {Podocarpus  Nageia ) and 
Koyamaki  {Sciadopitys  verticillata),  also  on  Mume  (Prunus  Mume), 
Sakura  [P.  pseudocerasus ),  Kaki  {Diospyros  kaki ),  Momo  {Amyg- 
dalus  persica ),  Masaki  {Euonymus  japonicus ),  and  several  other 
ornamental  plants,  among  them  the  bamboo  cane.  Particularly 
scarce  varieties  of  such  dwarf  plants  are  put  up  in  finely  decorated 
blue  porcelain  pots,  and  bring  high  prices. 

Whoever  visits  a Japanese  art  and  trade-garden  in  spring  will 
notice  in  company  with  these  dwarf  forms,  yet  another  kind  of  popu- 


266 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


lar  plant-maiming,  which  is  usually  practised  on  the  Prunus  Mume. 
Young  and  blooming  shoots  from  stumps  of  30  to  100  c.m.  height 
are  wound  about  them,  or  bent  over  them  umbrella  fashion.  Often 
the  trunk  is  cut  down  even  with  the  ground,  so  that  the  small, 
blooming  offshoot  looks  like  an  independent  tree. 

Variegation. — Many  readers  of  these  pages  will  remember  the 
time  when  beside  the  common  ribbon  grass  ( Phqjaris  arundinacea , 
L.,  var.  picta)  in  our  gardens  and  public  parks  only  a few  other 
plants  were  found  in  which  the  leaves  departed  from  the  normal 
green  colour.  But  now-a-days  there  are  numerous  species  which 
show  the  so-called  variegation  (appearing  now  in  this  way  and  now 
in  that),  in  the  form  of  white,  yellow  and  brown  spots  or  stripes 
on  the  green  leaf-ground.  No  other  land  has  furnished  nearly  so 
great  a number  of  these  varieties  as  Japan.  This  peculiar  tendency 
of  many  of  its  ornamental  plants  continues  even  with  us,  and  has 
enriched  our  gardens  with  many  kinds  of  variegation.  Siebold 
attributes  it  to  the  influence  of  the  night  frost,  but  without  sub- 
stantiating the  opinion.1 

Out  of  the  great  number  of  such  Japanese  plants,  with  striking 
variegation,  I wdll  name  only  Pines,  Juniper,  Retinispora,  Thujopsis, 
Podocarpus,  Eurya,  Laurus,  Elseagnus,  Aucuba.Pittosporum,  Aralia, 
Salisburia,  Euonymus,  Sciadopitys,  Eulalia,  Weigelia.  At  the 
Paris  Universal  Exhibition  in  1878,  the  Japanese  surprised  us  still 
further  with  variegated  Eriobotrya,  and  Andromeda  japonica. 

Ornamental  plants,  like  other  fancies  of  amateurs,  are  subject  to 
fashion.  The  group  of  variegated  foliage  plants  unquestionably 
belongs  to  the  fashionable  articles  of  our  present  ornamental  gar- 
dening. They  should  be  used  sparingly,  however,  and  with  taste, 
in  landscape  gardening,  otherwise  they  become  wearisome,  for 
many  of  them  are  not  at  all  beautiful,  and  cannot  be  considered  a 
real  addition.  A few  years  ago,  in  the  park  at  the  Universal  Ex- 
hibition in  Antwerp,  there  was  a bed  composed  entirely  of  bushes 
of  the  Euonymus  japonicus,  showing  white  and  yellow-flecked 
leaves  in  proximity  to  many  simple  green  leaves,  the  combined 
effect  of  which  did  not  please  people  of  educated  taste  nearly  so 
well  as  a similar  group  having  no  such  mottled  appearance. 

The  arrangment  and  colouring  of  bouquets  is  not  understood  by 
the  Japanese.  The  separation  of  flowers  from  their  stems  and 
gathering  them  in  bunches  is  not  to  their  taste.  They  admire  far 
more  their  individual  beauty  and  enjoy  their  natural  combinations, 
— fhe  lovely  blossoms  (Hana)  and  leaves  (Ha)  on  their  stalks  (Ko- 
yeda)  or  slender  twigs,  the  iris  and  the  lotus  flower  on  its  long  stem 

1 “ C’est  surtout  1’influence  du  froid,  qui  a produitles  varietes  nombreuses  des 
plantes  panachees  de  blanc  et  de  jaune.  C’est  la  gelde,  qui,  n’etant  pas  assez 
lorte  pour  ddtruire  toute  vegetation  des  plantes  sus-tropicales,  change  le  coloris 
de  leur  feuillage  et  m£me  de  leurs  tiges  ; c’est  done  la  gelee  qui  couvre  les 
feuilles  de  flocons  d’une  neige  perpetuelle — qui  produit  des  plantes  panachees.” — 
Sur  1’dtat  de  l’horticulture  au  Japon,  p.  2.  Leide,  1863. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


267 


(Kuki).  One  would  scarcely  suppose  that  under  such  circumstances 
there  could  be  such  a thing  as  “ the  art  of  arranging  flowers  ” in 
set  pieces.  Nevertheless  Japanese  literature  possesses  under  this 
or  similar  titles  a number  of  works  full  of  illustrations  in  which, 
however,  the  many  forms  of  Hana-ike  or  flower-vase  play  a con- 
spicuous part,  and  a labouring  man,  obliged  to  content  himself  with 
a cylinder  vase  of  bamboo  cane,  or  an  earthen  vessel,  can  learn 
but  little  to  his  advantage. 

The  enjoyment  of  beautiful  flowers  is  common  to  all  the  Japanese 
people.  Even  the  humble  labourer  is  a customer  at  the  gardens 
where  flowers  are  kept  for  sale.  In  view  of  this,  Hana-ichi,  or 
flower  markets,  are  often  held  on  summer  evenings,  lighted  with 
torches  of  pitch  and  many-coloured  lanterns.  They  attract  the 
poorer  classes  especially,  and  afford  them  an  opportunity  to  gain 
a flowering  sprig  of  the  most  popular  plants,  which  bloom  at  this 
time. 

There  is  perhaps  no  other  nation  of  which  all  classes  enjoy  nature, 
and  especially  her  flora  gifts,  to  such  a degree.  This  shows  itself 
particularly  at  times  when  this  or  that  favourite  flower  is  blooming 
in  the  open  fields.  With  us,  in  the  outskirts  of  our  cities,  the 
different  resorts  attract  great  numbers  of  people  on  Sunday  and 
other  festivals.  But  in  the  Japanese  cities  it  is  a much  more  com- 
mon sight  at  times  to  see  the  streets  full  of  merry  men  and  women 
of  all  ages  and  ranks,  dressed  in  holiday  attire,  seeking  here  the 
blooming  cherry-trees  on  the  hill,  there  the  sword  lily  in  the  open 
field,  and  yonder  a garden  of  chrysanthemums,  or  the  beautiful 
autumn  leaves  of  the  maple  and  other  plants. 

If  we  consider  further  that  this  love  for  flowers  is  no  new  thing 
with  the  Japanese,  but  existed  long  ago,  when  our  whole  civiliza- 
tion was  in  its  swaddling  clothes,  we  can  easily  estimate  something 
of  the  influence  it  has  exerted  from  the  beginning.  More  than  a 
thousand  years  ago,  the  poet  Mitsune,  whose  verse  on  the  fragrance 
of  the  Mume  is  quoted  on  the  next  page,  wrote  as  follows  con- 
cerning the  Fuji,  or  Glycine  ( Wistaria  chinensis)  that  was  blos- 
soming on  his  dwelling. 

“ So,  wie  die  Woge  zum  Strand,  so  kehren  die  Leute  stets  wieder, 
Wandelnd  am  Hause  vorbei,  staunen  den  Fuji  sie  an.”1 

The  number  of  species  and  sub-species  of  the  ornamental  plants 
of  Japan  is  very  great,  but  only  a small  selection  have  become 
especially  popular.  The  rose  is  not  one  of  these,  and  even  the 
camellia,  notwithstanding  it  is  so  much  cultivated,  does  not  rank 
among  the  highest.  Their  favourites,  which  are  associated  with 
their  civilization,  their  festival  seasons,  their  entire  life,  and  are 
constantly  reappearing  in  their  art-industry  as  patterns,  were  long 

1 “ Waga  yado  ni  | sakeru  fuji  nami  | tachi  kaeri  | sugigate  ni  nomi  | hito  no 
miruramu.” — R.  Lange,  Old  Japanese  Spring-ballads.  Berlin,  Weidmann,  1884. 


268 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


ago  arranged,  according  to  their  flowering  seasons,  in  a flower 
calendar,  at  a time  when  no  one  in  our  country  would  have  thought 
of  such  a work. 

In  the  old  reckoning  of  time  by  lunar  years,  borrowed  from  the 
Chinese,  Guwan-jitsu,  or  New  Year’s  Day,  occurred  in  the  middle 
or  at  the  end  of  February,  and  with  it  began  “the  lovely  month,” 
Mutzuki.  The  festival  of  the  New  Year  consequently  became  a 
time  for  rejoicing  over  the  newly  awakened  forces  of  nature,  and 
was  celebrated  in  many  ways  both  without  and  within  doors. 
Flora  brought  to  the  merry  making  the  first  flowers  of  spring  in  all 
their  beauty,  and  Uguisu,  the  nightingale,  in  the  mild  evenings, 
made  glad  the  pleasure  gardens  or  temple  groves  with  her  lovely 
song.1  Of  plants,  the  white  and  red  blossoms  of  the  Mume  ( Primus 
Mume , S.  and  Z.)  contributed  not  a little  to  the  festal  mood,  appear- 
ing as  they  do  at  this  season,  as  heralds  of  spring  in  advance  of 
the  leaves.  No  Japanese  house  was  without  them.  We  greet  our 
primrose  ( Primula  veris,  L.)  every  year  afresh,  and  rejoice  in  its 
appearance.  The  Mume  is  in  much  greater  degree  the  favourite 
of  the  Japanese  people  and  inspires  them  with  longing  and  delight. 
Poets  praise  its  blossoms  more  even  for  their  lovely  fragrance,  ex- 
haling especially  at  night,  than  for  their  number  and  colour. 

“ Schwer  erkennst  Du  im  Glanze  des  Mondes  die  Bliithe  der  Pflaume. 

Aber  Du  findest  sie  gleich,  gehst  Du  dem  Dufte  nur  nach.” 

MlTSUNE.2 

The  Uguisu,  or  Japanese  nightingale  ( Cettia  cantatis,  T.  and 
Schl.),  joins  the  poet  in  spring,  and  sings  as  if  rejoicingly  over 
the  year’s  first-blown  perfume,  and  mourning  over  the  speedy 
withering.  And  the  pictorial  art  of  the  country,  more  developed 
than  its  modest  poetry,  has  bound  the  Mume  and  the  nightingale, 
or  Uguisu,  together,  and  represented  them  in  picture  and  in  plastic 
form  in  the  various  creations  of  art-industry.  The  Mume  thus 
devoid  of  leaves  resembles  the  blooming  branches  of  our  black- 
thorn. 

Beside  the  Mume,  the  Japanese  gardener  at  New  Year’s  time 
bring  also  much  to  the  market,  the  Rengyo  {Forsythia  suspensa, 
Vahl)  with  branches  hanging  full  of  yellow  bells.  This  plant  has 
been  introduced  into  Europe  from  Japan,  but  is  as  little  at  home 
there  as  the  Mume,  and  the  following  species  which,  like  it,  have 
their  origin  in  China. 

The  Dodan  (Enkianthus  japonicus , Hook.),  which  is  cultivated  in 
gardens  on  account  of  the  beautiful  red  colour  of  its  leaves  in 
autumn,  is  also  used  for  decorating  the  houses  at  the  New  Year’s 
festival.  It  does  not  bloom  in  the  open  air  till  one  or  two  months 

1 In  accepting  our  calendar,  and  moving  the  New  Year’s  festival  into  the 
rough  weather  of  January,  it  has  lost  a great  part  of  its  earlier  poetic  charm. 

2 “Tsukiyo  ni  wa  | sore  tomo  miye  zu  | mume  no  hana  | ka  wo  tazunete  zo  | 
shiru  bekari  keru.” — Lange,  Old  Japanese  Spring  Ballads,  p.  30. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


269 


later,  and  must  be  grown  in  the  florist’s  hothouse  for  this  purpose, 
as  in  China. 

In  March,  the  second  month  of  the  old  Japanese  year,  the 
flowers  of  the  Momo,  or  peach  tree  ( Amygdalus  persica,  L.)  follow 
the  Mume,  and  towards  the  end  of  the  month  those  of  the  Higan- 
sakura  ( Prunus  subhirtella , Miq.)  are  seen.  Several  Magnolias, 
too,  unfold  their  blossoms  at  this  time,  before  their  leaves  come 
forth.  Prominent  among  them,  Magnolia  conspicua , Salisb.  (M. 
Yulan,  Desf.),  the  Hakuren,  or  white  lotus  flower  of  Japan,  and  the 
Kobushi  (M.  Kobus,  D.  C.). 

April  is  the  flowering  time  of  the  second  great  favourite  of  the 
year — the  Sakura  ( Primus  pseitdocerasns , Lindl.).  This  is  called 
the  Japanese  cherry-tree,  because  its  whole  appearance  and  flower 
resemble  the  cherry ; but  its  fruit  is  not  pleasant  to  the  taste,  and 
not  larger  than  that  of  our  Prunus  Padus  (see  also  p.  249).  The 
wild  original  variety,  which  grows  extensively  in  the  mountain 
forests,  is  called  Yama-sakura.  A great  number  of  varieties, 
with  pink  and  white  blossoms,  have  been  developed  from  this  tree, 
among  which  those  with  very  full  flowers  are  especially  noticeable. 

The  Sakura  is  sung  by  Japanese  poets  almost  as  much  as  the 
Mume,  and  copied  likewise  in  art-industry.  For  this,  the  simple 
flower  of  the  Yama-sakura  is  always  chosen,  and  may  be  easily 
recognised  in  decorations  by  the  accompanying  leaves. 

The  soft  air  of  the  south-western  monsoon  prevails  at  the  flower- 
ing time  of  the  Sakura.  Nature  is  then  at  her  best,  and  invites 
again  into  the  open  air.  It  is  an  old  custom  and  pleasure  of  the 
most  innocent  sort,  to  wander  forth  at  this  time  by  families,  and 
admire  the  Sakura — a pleasure  in  which  everybody  shares.  It  is 
a delight  even  for  the  stranger  to  see  so  many  happy,  gaily 
dressed  people.  He,  too,  follows  with  the  crowd  toward  Muko- 
jima,  Uyeno,  Oji,  and  different  other  places  in  and  around  Tokio 
where  the  Sakura  grows  in  greatest  quantities.  The  Sakura  of 
Yoshino  in  Yamato  has  also  an  old  reputation.  So  by  Tomonori 
more  than  a thousand  years  ago,  of  whom  a couplet  runs  this  way : 

“ Wenn  ich  auf  Yoshino’s  Berg  die  Bliithe  der  Kirsche  erblicke, 

Tauscht  mich  ein  lieblicher  Trug,  denn  sie  erscheinfin  wie  Schnee.” 1 

A kindred  species  appears  here  and  there  in  gardens  about  the 
end  of  May — the  Niwa-sakura  (Garden  Sakura),  or  Ko-sakura 
(Little  Sakura),  also  in  full  bloom.  It  is  the  Japanese  dwarf  cherry- 
tree  {Prunus  japonica , Thunb.),  resembling  Amygdalus  nana  in  its 
bushy  appearance. 

The  Yamabuki  (. Kerria  japonica , D.C.)  has  earlier,  and  at  the 
same  time  as  the  Sakura,  unfolded  its  yellow  blooms.  The  wild 
bush  is  very  frequent  in  the  mountain  forests  and  on  the  river 

1 “ Miyoshino  no  | yamabe  ni  sakeru  sakurabana  | yuki  ka  to  nomi  20  | aya- 
metari  keru.” — Lange,  Old  Japanese  Spring  Ballads.  Berlin,  1884. 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


270 


banks  of  Middle  and  Northern  Japan,  but  much  more  rare  in 
the  South.  The  double  variety  was  imported  into  Europe  during 
the  last  century,  while  the  single  form  has  come  to  us  only  recently. 

In  May,  the  magnificent  blossoms  of  the  Botan  ( Pceonia  Montan , 
Sims.)  appear  ; also  those  of  the  Fuji  ( Wistaria  chinensis , S.  and  Z.), 
the  Kiri  ( Paulownia  imperialis , S.  and  Z.)  and  the  Tsutsuji  ( Azalea 
indica , L.).  The  last  of  these  four  ornamental  plants  is  the  most 
extensively  cultivated  and  popular.  The  red-blossomed  variety  pre- 
dominates, especially  in  a wild  state.  In  the  spring,  in  company 
with  Deutzia,  it  adorns  not  merely  the  uncultivated  sunny  slopes 
all  through  Japan,  and  likewise  China,  but  is  found  in  almost  every 
garden.  It  blooms  in  April,  on  Kiushiu  (and  is  used  very  much 
for  decorating  graves,  its  blossoming  branches  being  placed  in 
bamboo  vases);  in  Middle  Hondo,  in  May  ; and  still  farther  north, 
and  higher  up  in  the  mountains,  not  till  June.  A large  number  of 
kindred  species,  among  them  some  of  great  fragrance,  must  be 
reckoned  with  them,  some  of  which  have  been  transplanted  into 
gardens.  Among  these  are  the  Rhododendroit  (Azalea)  macro- 
stemon,  Maxim.,  R.  ledifolium , Don.,  R.  sublanceolatum , Miq.,  R. 
macrosepalum,  Maxim.,  R.  sinense , Sweet,  and  several  others. 

The  noble  blossoms  of  several  kinds  of  Iris  delight  the  lovers  of 
flowers  in  June — particularly  the  Hana-shobu  ( Iris  Icevigata , Fisch.) 
and  Ayame  ( Iris  setosa,  Pall,  and  I.  sibricia,  L.).  A speciality  is 
made  of  their  cultivation  in  several  places  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Tdkio.  There  are  low-lying  open  fields,  eg.,  near  Meguro,  and 
especially  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Sumida-gawa  at  Hori-kiri, 
which,  toward  the  end  of  the  month,  are  all  a-bloom  with  them  ; 
and  many  who  delight  in  flowers,  who  wandered  out  to  Mukojima, 
in  April,  to  enjoy  the  blossoming  Sakura,  now  pass  on  by  the  long 
avenue  of  these  trees  to  Hori-kiri  to  admire  the  flowering  Shobu 
(Hana-shobu).  When  this  season  is  over,  and  the  summer  heat 
has  reached  its  greatest  height,  in  J uly,  then  comes  another,  and 
more  esteemed  favourite,  the  lotus-flower,  Hasu-no-hana,  or  Renge 
( Nelumbo  nucifera,  Gaertn.).1  Mention  has  already  been  made  of  the 
edible,  long-branched  roots  and  nut-like  seeds  of  this  the  most  in- 
teresting and  splendid  of  water  plants.  It  only  remains  to  note  its 
significance  in  the  worship  of  Buddha,  and  as  an  ornamental  plant. 
Its  original  home  was  without  doubt  the  Indian  monsoon  district, 
and  its  cultivation  and  estimation  very  ancient.  It  was  formerly, 
together  with  the  fishes  and  turtles  in  sacred  tanks,  dedicated  to 
Civa,  who,  according  to  an  old  Indian  legend,  sat  upon  its  leaves 
looking  on  when  the  great  flood  swallowed  up  everything.  Bud- 
dhism took  it  later  as  the  symbol  of  its  teachings.  As  it  lifts  up 
its  buds  out  of  the  slimy  ground  to  a greater  or  less  height  above 
the  water,  unfolding  its  beautiful  leaves  and  flowers,  on  whose  spot- 
less petals  no  traces  are  to  be  found  of  the  mire  from  which  it  has 

1 The  plant  is  called  Hasu  ; its  rhizoma,  Renkon  ; the  seed,  Hasu-no-mi ; the 
leaf,  Hasu-no-ha  ; and  the  swamp  or  pond  in  which  it  grows,  Hasu-no-ike. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


271 


sprung,  so  the  souls  of  men,  according  to  Buddhist  faith,  rise  from 
the  slime  of  sin,  by  their  own  power  and  effort,  to  different  heights, 
and  reach  the  blessedness  of  Nirvana.  Buddha  is  represented 
sitting  on  an  open  lotus  flower,  the  emblem  of  purity,  and  his 
temples  and  altars  are  adorned  with  vases  and  imitations  of  blos- 
soming lotus  plants  in  bronze,  wood  or  clay.  In  view  of  these 
facts,  we  may  accept  the  belief  that  the  distribution  of  this  honoured 
plant  in  the  countries  of  Chinese  culture  in  Eastern  Asia  also  fol- 
lowed close  upon  the  spread  of  Buddhism. 

I do  not  yet  know  for  a certainty  whether  the  Egyptian  lotus, 
mentioned  by  several  classic  writers  of  ancient  times,  is  the  same 
as  ours,  or  a nearly  related  plant.  Its  seeds,  the  Pythagoras  or 
Egyptian  beans  ( Fabce  cegyptiacce , Plin.),  were  eaten,  like  those 
of  the  Indian  lotus  in  monsoon  lands.  Theophrast  compares  its 
fruit  (Torus)  very  aptly  to  a round  wasp’s-nest,  and  Herodotus  to 
a large  poppy  head,  but  the  description  of  its  roots  by  the  latter 
does  not  at  all  fit  the  rhizoma  of  the  holy  lotus  of  Asia. 

Sir  Joseph  Banks  brought  the  first  seeds  of  the  latter  from  India 
into  England  in  1787.  They  were  called  “Sacred  Indian  Beans.” 
Since  then  the  plant  has  been  cultivated  in  warm  aquariums  in 
nearly  all  European  countries  and  in  their  Botanical  Gardens, 
occasionally  in  open  ponds  in  Mediterranean  regions,  and  at  mid- 
summer reaches  its  highest  perfection.  In  Eastern  Asia  the  pre- 
dominating most  widely  cultivated  species  has  pink  blossoms,  but 
in  Japan  and  China  there  is  another  variety,  whose  flowers  of  purest 
white  are  no  less  beautiful.1 

According  to  Fortune,  a great  number  of  these  water-lilies  grow 
on  the  banks  of  the  river  above  and  below  Canton,  which  are  kept 
in  dams  like  the  rice-fields.  He  writes : “ This  plant  is  cultivated 
partly  for  decorative  purposes,  partly  for  its  roots,  which  are 
brought  to  market  in  great  numbers  and  are  much  liked  by  the 
Chinese.”  It  is  the  same  in  Japan,  as  before  noted. 

In  midsummer  the  water-surfaces  of  old  moats  and  ponds  in 
Tokio  are  adorned  with  numberless  leaves  and  flowers  of  the  lotus 
plant.  While  nearly  all  the  other  Nymphaeaceae  spread  out  their 
dull  green  leaves  flat  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  the  lotus  lifts 
hers,  as  she  does  her  flowers,  on  long  stems  high  above  it.  A 
beautiful  green  colour,  fine  veining  and  shell-like  arching  and 
cavity  distinguishes  the  leaves  also,  and  they  are  scarcely  less 
beautiful  when  the  dewdrops  lie  upon  them  in  the  morning  like 
thousands  of  pearls,  than  when  these  are  chased  away  by  the 
beams  of  the  rising  sun.  But  now  the  countless  buds  and  tulip-like 
flowers  unfold.  Unfortunately,  the  plant  is  an  ornament  of  standing 
waters  only  during  the  summer  and  autumn  months,  and  not 


1 Haku-ren, — “ white  lotus  flower,” — as  remarked  above,  is  also  the  designa- 
tion of  the  blossom  of  the  Magnolia  Yulan , Desf.,  and  there  is  indeed  great 
similarity  between  the  two. 


272 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY. 


through  the  long  winter,  when  their  dead  withered  leaves  offend  the 
sight. 

In  August  and  September,  the  flowering  season  of  the  lotus  is 
followed  by  that  of  the  so-called  “ Seven  Autumn-plants  ” (Aki- 
nona-na-kusa).  These  are  Hagi  (varieties  of  Lespedeza  and  Des- 
modium),  Fuy6  ( Hibiscus  mutabilis,  L.),  Omina-meshi  ( Patrinia 
scabioscefolia,  Link.),  Fuji-bakama  ( Eupatorium  chinense , L.,  and  E. 
japonicum,  Thunb.),  Kikiyo  (Platycodon  grandiflorum,  D.  C.),  the  two 
grasses  Susuki  (. Eulalia  japonica , Trim.)  and  Kara-kaya  (A  nthistiria 
arguens , Wild.).  All,  except  the  Hibiscus,  adorn  the  flower-meadows, 
or  Kusa-wara,  in  midsummer  and  autumn.  Hagi,  particularly 
Lespedeza  cyrtobotiya  and  Desmodium  penduliflorum,  Oud.,  with  their 
leaves  resembling  Citysus,  and  their  violet  blossoms,  also  Fuyo, 
Ominameshi  and  Susuki  are  very  popular  as  decorative  designs  in 
art-industry.  The  Tamano-o  ( Sedum  Sieboldi,  Sweet)  blossoms  as 
a pot  plant  in  Japan,  as  with  us,  in  September  and  October. 

While  the  blooming  Mume  beautifies  the  New  Year’s  spring 
festival,  the  first  of  the  five  great  feasts  of  the  year,  the  Kiku-no- 
hana,  or  chrysanthemum  flower,  is  dedicated  to  the  last  of  these 
secular  festivals,  which  occurs  on  the  9th  day  of  the  9th  month 
old  reckoning,  or  toward  the  end  of  October,  in  the  new.  This 
Kiku-no-sekku,  or  Chrysanthemum  festival,  draws  the  joyous,  happy 
crowds  to  the  flower- markets  and  into  the  large  gardens  which 
are  celebrated  for  the  cultivation  of  Chrysanthemum  (Pyrethrum) 
indicum , L.,  Ch.  sinense , Sabin,  and  kindred  species.  Kiku  (Chrys- 
anthemum) rich  in  variety  and  colour,  the  favourite  of  all  the 
autumn  Flora  of  Japan  and  China,  is  hardy  and  easy  to  cultivate. 
The  flowers  of  the  different  varieties  are  as  numerous  and  mani- 
fold in  colour,  size  and  form,  as  are  asters  with  us,  and  are  of 
very  ancient  cultivation.  Many  gardeners  make  a specialty  of 
them  and  become  widely  known  thereby.  The  Kiku  beds  of 
Sugamo  on  the  Nakasendo,  for  instance,  attract  many  admirers 
in  the  early  part  of  November.  Kiku-no-hana  is  as  much  liked 
in  art  as  in  nature,  and  has  no  rival  as  a pattern  in  the  decoration 
of  pottery. 

The  arms  of  the  kingdom,  called  Kiku-no-hana-mon  (see  vol.  i.) 
consist  of  an  outspread,  wheel-like  chrysanthemum  of  16  petals 
radiating  from  a small  central  circle,  and  at  the  outer  edge  are 
bound  together  by  16  little  arches.  It  is  an  emblem  of  the  sun 
and  is  the  imperial  insignia  on  cockades,  banners,  documents  and 
coins.  In  1784  a number  of  varieties  of  the  Kiku  were  brought  to 
Europe  from  India  and  China,  but  they  have  not  yet  driven  the 
asters  and  other  popular  autumn  flowers  from  the  field. 

Toward  the  end  of  October  and  beginning  of  November,  when 
the  rough  monsoon  of  winter  blows  from  the  north  and  the  land- 
scape has  taken  on  quite  another  character  in  the  field  and  wood, 
the  Japanese  lover  of  nature  makes  his  last  holiday  excursion,  to 
see  the  Momiji  ( Acer  polymorphum,  S.  and  Z.).  The  maples  most 


HORTICULTURE. 


273 


extolled  and  sung  are  those  of  the  Tatsuta-gawa,  the  Tatsuta- 
momiji  at  Tatsuta  in  Yamato.  The  Momiji  in  their  motley  or 
simple  red  autumn  colours  are  also  favourite  subjects  for  re- 
presentation with  Japanese  artists.  Besides  them,  the  Dodan 
( Enkianthus  japonicus,  Hooker),  the  Azaleas  and  other  garden 
plants  are  noted  for  the  beautiful  colouring  of  their  leaves  before 
they  fall.  The  autumn  dress  of  the  foliaceous  forest  is  much  more 
varied  and  rich  in  colour  than  even  that  of  the  Atlantic  forests  of 
North  America,  so  much  praised  (see  vol.  i.  p.  137).  When  this 
has  disappeared  and  the  winter  rest  has  begun,  the  Japanese  flower- 
calendar  still  points  to  a limited  number  of  fine  ornamental  plants 
which  for  the  most  part  have  been  domesticated  in  Europe  also, 
and  are  much  more  valued  here  than  in  their  East-Asiatic  home. 
These  are  chiefly  Yatsu-de  (A ralia  japonica,  Thunb.),  Hiragi  {Olea 
aquifolium , Thunb.),  and  Sasan-kuwa  ( Camellia  sasanqua , Thunb.) 
which  like  the  tea  bush  bloom  in  November  and  December,  and 
Tsubaki  ( Camellia  japonica , L.)  which,  as  an  out-of-door  plant, 
shows  its  first  flowers  in  January. 

Foliaceous  trees  are  only  exceptionally  found  as  umbrageous  trees 
in  the  Japanese  cities,  as  at  Niigata,  and  never  on  the  country 
roads.  In  many  places  these  roads  are  beautified  with  evergreen 
Coniferae  which  are  often  several  centuries  old  and  make  a grand 
impression.  Euonymus  radicans  or  some  wild  vine,  or  more  rarely 
the  ivy,  climbs  up  and  covers  their  powerful  trunks.  The  finest  of 
these  trees  is  the  Sugi  or  Cryptomeria,  which  appears  here  and 
there,  principally  around  Nikko.  The  great  Sugi-avenue,  of  which 
a phototype  is  given  vol.  i.  p.  150,  is  the  most  celebrated  and 
unique  of  kind.  Retinispora  too,  especially  Hi-no-ki  trees,  are  in 
some  places  put  to  this  use. 

The  Matsu,  or  pine,  ( Pinus  Massoniana  and  P.  densijlord),  is  the 
most  frequent  and  most  popular  umbrageous  tree  on  the  Japanese 
roads.  The  hand  of  the  gardener  in  this  case  has  not  changed 
its  figure.  This  great  tree,  the  favourite  of  the  Japanese  people, 
appears  here  in  its  most  picturesque  forms,  primitive  and  bizarre; 
with  trunks  straight  and  bent ; with  branches  often  twisted  in 
every  direction,  knotty  and  extended,  and  covered  with  a close 
mass  of  dark  green  needles.  There  is  no  symmetry,  but  the  eye  is 
pleased,  and  rests  with  satisfaction  upon  these  primeval,  powerful 
and  picturesque  figures — these  silent  witnesses  of  a long  past  time. 
How  many  storms  they  have  defied — how  many  designs  for  the 
beautifying  of  nunberless  specimens  of  art  industry  they  have 
furnished — how  many  eyes  and  hearts  they  have  rejoiced ! This 
is  the  tree  which,  bold  and  strong,  speaks  most  surely  of  the 
preference  of  the  people  for  odd,  irregular  form  ; but  on  the  other 
hand,  when  it  appears  singly  in  the  garden  and  temple  grove,  it  is 
more  than  all  others  the  subject  of  the  gardener’s  moods  and 
tricks.  Here  it  has  been  forced  into  all  possible  dwarfed  and 
abnormal  shapes,  which  excite  not  a little  astonishment  at  what 

II.  T 


274 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


seems  to  us,  the  incomprehensible  taste  which  finds  pleasure  in 
such  unnatural  forms. 

8.  Acclimatization  and  Extension  of  Japanese  Orna- 
mental and  Useful  Plants  in  Europe. 

The  acclimatization  of  a plant  is  its  adaptation  to  the  climate 
and  soil  of  a strange  locality.  It  is  evident  that  its  naturalization 
will  be  the  easier  the  more  closely  the  new  dwelling-place  conforms 
in  both  these  particulars  to  the  old  ; and,  on  the  other  hand,  that 
it  must  be  difficult  in  most  cases,  if  not  impossible,  wherever  these 
are  widely  divergent.  For  the  inner  structure  of  the  plant,  and 
its  whole  development,  depend  most  intimately  on  the  conditions 
of  its  nourishment  by  climate  and  soil. 

Summer  growths,  ^nd  all  perennial  plants  which  are  propagated 
from  seeds,  can  never  be  naturalized  where  the  seed-germ  does  not 
reach  its  full  ripeness.  Others  are  not  acclimatisable  where,  from 
time  to  time  during  the  winter  they  freeze,  however  favourable 
their  summer  development  may  be.  The  winter  of  1879-80,  for 
instance,  in  France  and  Germany,  destroyed  a great  number  of 
California  Conifers,  which  for  several  decades  had  been  growing 
most  successfully,  and  showed  plainly  that  their  complete  naturaliz- 
ation is  impossible  with  us.  Trees,  however,  which  are  propagated 
from  their  roots,  will  grow  where  they  cannot  ripen  their  seeds,  and 
indeed  where  they  partly  freeze  in  severe  winters.  The  upper 
perishable  part  of  the  common  broom  was  killed  by  the  cold  in 
many  parts  of  Germany  in  December,  1879,  but  in  the  following 
summer  the  sound  roots  made  a complete  reparation,  and  this  has 
been  true  also  with  Kerria  japonica.  Another  Japanese  plant, 
Paulownia  imperialis,  thrives  well  in  England,  but  rarely  produces 
flowers,  and  never  seeds  capable  of  germinating.  It  is  easily  pro- 
pagated however  from  the  roots,  as  is  the  case  with  the  large 
bamboo  cane  of  Japan,  and  may  be  naturalized  to  a limited  extent. 

It  is  very  important  that  the  conditions  under  which  a plant  grows 
and  thrives  in  its  home  be  well  understood  before  making  attempts 
to  cultivate  it  elsewhere.  Often  this  rule  is  not  observed,  and  one 
learns,  by  many  useless  efforts  and  dear  experience,  what  might 
have  been  obtained  by  a much  shorter  and  cheaper  way.  The  story 
of  the  introduction  of  Aucuba,  and  many  other  popular  Japanese 
ornamental  plants,  furnishes  many  instructive  suggestions. 

On  the  other  hand,  experience  shows  too  that  many  plants  have 
a very  extensible  habitat,  i.e.  are  less  dainty  in  respect  to  their 
demands  upon  climate  and  soil,  while  others  are  very  choice  in 
these  respects.  Only  a trial  can  decide  how  far  a plant  will  ac- 
commodate itself  to  its  environment.  Of  two,  which  have  the 
same  home,  growing  near  each  other  on  the  same  ground,  and 
under  the  same  climatic  influences,  one  will  easily  domesticate 
itself  on  a foreign  soil,  the  other  not  at  all.  As  I have  already 


ACCLIMATIZATION,  ETC. 


275 


remarked  on  page  160,  in  connection  with  the  lacquer  tree,  this 
plant  proved  quite  hardy  enough  to  endure  winters  in  Germany. 
But  in  Japan  it  is  found  in  the  neighbourhood  of,  and  cultivated 
side  by  side  with  the  camellia,  Olea  aquifolium,  and  other  orna- 
mental plants  which  are  there  sometimes  exposed  to  night  frosts 
reaching  — 120  C.,  but  in  Europe  will  not  live  out  of  doors  north  of 
the  Alps. 

As  the  Camphor-laurel  is  indigenous  to  a country  having  much 
summer  rain,  and  in  winter  undergoes  night  frosts  in  which  the 
mercury  in  the  thermometer  occasionally  sinks  to  — g°  C.,  its  thriv- 
ing condition  on  the  North  Italian  lakes  and  the  Riviera  is  easily 
comprehended.  That  it  does  well  also  in  the  hot,  dry,  atmosphere 
of  Egypt  and  the  Canaries,  shows  its  power  of  adaptation  in  a 
direction  in  which  not  many  Japanese  plants  can  follow  it. 

The  grape  vine  thrives  to  a certain  extent  in  many  different 
climates  and  soils,  but  how  largely  is  the  character  of  its  fruit 
changed  thereby ! To  take  still  another  example,  the  varied  con- 
ditions of  the  poppy  ( papaver  somniferum ),  whose  capsules  contain 
with  us  only  traces  of  the  well-known  opium  alkaloids,  while  in  warm 
countries,  like  Asia  Minor,  Egypt,  and  India,  it  is  cultivated  solely 
for  its  opium,  which  varies  significantly  in  its  chemical  composition 
according  to  the  land  which  produces  it. 

From  these  few  examples,  to  which  many  more  might  be  added, 
it  is  satisfactorily  shown  that  the  ability  of  a plant  to  adapt  itself 
is  much  greater  than  its  full  acclimatization,  if  we  understand  by 
the  former  the  thriving  in  changed  climate  and  soil  without  de- 
generation, i.e.,  without  essentially  altering  its  original  character. 

Annuals  acclimatise  themselves  easier  than  perennial  plants.- 
This  is  an  old  experience  and  easy  of  comprehension.  A number 
of  well  known  weeds  have  become  scattered  over  a large  part  of 
the  earth  with  our  garden  and  field  fruits.  They  spread  luxuriantly 
in  climates  vastly  different  from  ours,  as  do  many  of  our  grains  and 
vegetables,  for  the  main  thing  with  them  is,  next  to  a certain  degree 
of  moisture,  the  presence  of  sufficient  warmth  to  ripen  their  seeds. 

With  wood  growths  the  matter  is  more  complicated.  Their 
perfect  acclimatization  depends  on  both  of  the  principal  seasons  of 
the  year,  and  much  more  on  the  extreme  than  the  middle  tem- 
peratures. They  must  at  least  prove  themselves  hardy  against  the 
winter’s  cold.  Their  power  to  withstand  unusual  cold  is  conditioned, 
partly  on  the  full  ripening  of  their  wood  in  autumn,  and  that 
vegetation  shall  not  at  this  season  receive  a fresh  impulse  from 
unusual  heat.  For  when  this  happens,  a new  circulation  of  the  sap 
begins,  the  preparation  for  winter  is  lost,  and  the  plant  consequently 
can  endure  but  little.  It  finds  itself  then  in  the  condition  of  a 
animal  in  northern  regions  without  its  winter  coat.  Therefore  one 
cannot  condemn  a plant  as  not  adapted  to  cultivation  because  it 
succumbs  to  unusual  cold,  coupled  with  other  unfavourable  pre- 
liminary conditions.  No  one  will  maintain  that  rape  or  clover  are 


276 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


not  suited  to  our  climate,  because  they  at  times  fail  in  the  rigour  of 
our  winter,  or  that  the  olive  tree  is  not  really  acclimatized  in  Spain, 
because  some  years  ago  an  unusual  November  frost  created  con- 
siderable desolation  in  the  olive  groves  of  Andalusia. 

No  other  land,  the  United  States  of  North  America  hardly 
excepted,  has  furnished  us  so  large  a number  of  fine  ornamental 
plants  as  Japan.  Our  landscape  gardening  has  gained  much  from 
their  introduction,  which  has  taken  place  mostly  within  a hundred, 
indeed  during  the  last  fifty,  years.  Blooming  Camellias,  Azaleas, 
Forsythia,  Kerria,  Spiraea,  apple  and  plum  varieties,  belong  to  the 
first  spring  adornments  of  our  flower  stands  and  gardens.  Beautiful 
foliage  plants,  like  Azalea,  Aucuba,  and  Sedum  Sieboldi,  and  several 
Conifers  decorate  them  the  year  through,  and  it  is  scarcely  possible 
to  specify  the  great  number  of  Japanese  plants  which  delight  us 
during  the  summer  by  their  lovely  flowers.  I note  only  the  Paeony, 
Wistaria,  and  Paulownia,  the  several  species  of  Weigelia,  Clematis, 
Hydrangea,  Philadelphus,  Deutzia,  and  Spiraea,  the  Lilies,  Panther 
Lilies,  and  Funkia.  What  abundance  and  beauty  of  blossoms  they 
develop — how  many  gardens  and  parks  they  adorn  ! And  when 
we  cross  the  Alps  and  in  the  lovely  gardens  and  parks  of  the 
Mediterranean  review  their  chief  ornaments,  we  find  the  very  same, 
and  among  them  a number  of  other  Japanese  immigrants  for  whom 
our  winter  is  too  severe,  while  there  they  thrive  at  their  best,  and 
contribute  materially  to  the  peculiar  and  attractive  plant  cultiva- 
tion. 

The  evergreen  trees  and  bushes  from  Japan — I refer  now  only  to 
Eriobotrya,Cinnamomum  camphora,  Euonymus,  Ligustrum,  and  the 
many  Conifers — proved  themselves  better  able  to  resist  the  severe 
winter  of  1879-80  in  Northern  Italy  and  Southern  France,  than 
many  of  the  oldest  indigenous  growths,  e.g.  ibex,  olive,  myrtle  and 
orange.  It  is  no  wonder  that  their  cultivation  becomes  constantly 
more  extended. 

It  is  not  possible  sharply  to  distinguish  the  ornamental  plants 
originating  in  Japan  from  those  of.  China.  This  is  not  only  be- 
cause the  Flora  of  both  countries  show  so  many  common  varieties, 
and  this  near  relationship  of  taste  is  seen  more  noticeably  in  culti- 
vated plants,  but  because  the  same  variety  is  often  introduced  into 
gardening  not  only  from  Japan,  but  also  from  China. 

It  is  often  difficult,  and  even  impossible  in  many  cases,  to  find  out 
the  time  and  manner  of  the  importation  of  at  least  300  varieties, 
still  there  are  accounts  enough  (I  refer  only  to  those  in  “ Ait.  Hortus 
Kewensis”)  to  make  it  certain  that  during  the  Portuguese  trade 
with  Eastern  Asia,  not  one  of  the  ornamental  plants  of  that 
land  was  naturalized  in  Europe.  Not  a single  specimen  from 
China  or  Japan  is  known  to  have  been  cultivated  in  Europe  before 
the  eighteenth  century,  and  of  but  very  few — Camellia  japonica, 
Cinnamomum  camphora,  Hibiscus  manihot,  Dianthus  japonicus, 
and  Elaeagnus  latifolia — that  their  culture  began  before  1750. 


ACCLIMATIZATION, \ ETC. 


277 


From  this  time  the  importation  of  new  varieties  increased.  For 
example,  Chrysanthemum  indicum  and  Gardenia  florida  were  in- 
troduced into  England  in  1754,  and  during  the  same  year  the  first 
two  out-of-door  trees  were  imported,  which  have  found  such  a 
wide  extension  in  Europe,  viz.,  Sophora  japonica,  and  Salisburia 
adianthifolia. 

During  the  last  two  decades  of  the  last  century,  Sir  Joseph 
Banks,  the  friend  of  Solander,  and  with  him  the  companion  of 
Cook  on  his  first  voyage  round  the  world,  ranked  next  to  Thunberg 
in  his  exertions  for  the  introduction  of  Eastern  Asiatic  plants.  He 
brought  first  into  Europe,  among  others,  A.  Paeonia  Moutan,  Nelum- 
bium  speciosum,  Pyrus  Japonica,  Eriobotrya  japonica,  Hydrangea 
hortensis,  Diospyrbs  Kaki,  and  Rhus  semialata.  In  this  century, 
P.  von  Siebold,  Fortune,  and  Veitch  are  prominent  in  the  introduc- 
tion of  Chinese  and  Japanese  ornamental  plants.  They  brought 
chiefly  Japanese  varieties  of  pot  plants  with  variegated  leaves  to 
the  Netherlands  or  to  England.  And  Maximowicz,  the  thorough 
investigator  and  connoisseur  of  the  rich  plant- world  of  Japan  and 
of  Eastern  Asia  in  general,  successfully  exerted  himself  to  import 
several  ornamental  Japanese  plants  into  Europe.  I refer  only  to 
several  fine  Rhododendron  (Azalea)  varieties  which  were  brought 
by  him  to  St.  Petersburg,  and  from  there  spread  towards  the 
west. 

Instead  of  enumerating  the  long  list  of  Japanese  ornamental 
plants,  which  would  be  without  meaning  to  the  novice,  and  super- 
fluous to  connoisseurs,  I will  limit  myself  to  a few  widely  spread  and 
popular  species,  giving  several  facts  concerning  them  which  may  be 
of  interest  to  lovers  of  flowers.  I begin  the  with  plant  which  stands 
first,  not  only  in  the  order  of  popularity,  but  also  of  the  time  of 
introduction  ; viz.  Camellia  japonica , L.,  the  Tsubaki  of  the  Japanese. 
The  considerable  size  which  this  shrub  attains  in  Japan,  the  use 
and  value  of  its  wood,  and  the  oil  prepared  from  its  nuts,  have 
been  previously  mentioned.  The  wild  variety  belonging  to  the 
forest  is  called  Yama-tsubaki.  Its  simple  red  flowers  open  only  in 
a bell,  and  not  a wheel,  form.  Kaempfer,  Thunberg,  and  Siebold  go 
too  far,  when  they  maintain  that  Yama-tsubaki  is  spread  over  the 
whole  of  Japan  and  forms  dense  forests. 

As  mentioned  in  vol.  i.  p.  164,  this  camellia  grows  in  southern 
Japan  to  a tree  of  considerable  size,  10  m.  high,  and  i|  m.  in 
circumference,  and  in  the  mountain  forests  of  Kiushiu  and  Shikoku, 
under  favourable  circumstances,  up  to  1,000  m.  above  sea  level,  so 
that  here  it  exceeds  the  lower  limits  of  the  beech.  I found  once 
in  April,  to  my  surprise,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Sasagami-t6ge 
in  Shikoku  a large  camellia  tree  900  m.  above  the  sea  level,  whose 
blossoms  had  fallen  and  lay  on  the  ground  with  beech  leaves  and 
blooming  Asperula  odorata.  Farther  north  and  more  removed 
from  the  influences  of  the  Kuro-shiwo,  this  high  limit  of  the  wild 
growing  camellia  falls  rapidly,  and  its  dimensions  decrease  also. 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


It  becomes  a mere  bush  such  as  we  find  it  in  our  plant-houses. 
Choshi-no-kuchi  on  the  Pacific  coast  and  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tone- 
gawa,  near  the  36th  parallel,  is  the  northern  limit  of  Yama-tsubaki. 
Still  I have  found  it  in  Western  Hondo  near  the  Japan  Sea,  a 
little  lower  than  the  38th  parallel,  and  in  the  hill  forests  of 
Northern  Echigo,  where  it  forms  an  under-brush  about  a meter  in 
height.1 

The  camellia,  cultivated  for  its  oil  or  for  ornamental  purposes, 
appears  as  an  out-of-door  plant  around  Hakodate,  in  Northern 
Hondo,  generally  in  tree  form  with  single  red  flowers  like  the  wild 
varieties,  or  it  is  a bush  in  a number  of  species,  part  of  which  have 
single  and  part  double  flowers,  but  not  in  such  a large  number 
of  varieties  as  our  hothouses  show. 

Since  very  ancient  times  the  camellia  has  been  prized  and  culti- 
vated in  China  as  a decorative  plant.  It  is  not  known  when  and 
from  what  point  it  was  brought  to  the  island  of  Luzon.  The 
Moravian  Jesuit,  George  J.  Kamel  (Camellus),  who  visited  Manila 
in  the  17th  century,  and  later  published  a “ Historia  Stirpium 
Insulse  Luzonis,”  first  mentioned  the  plant  in  this  book.  It  was  in 
1737  named  in  his  honour  by  Linnaeus  in  his  work  “Genera  plan- 
tarum.”  The  earliest  picture  of  the  camellia  appeared  in  1702  in 
Petiver’s  “ Gasophylacium.”  2 

In  1739  the  camellia  was  transplanted  from  Manila  to  the 
Jardin  del  Buen  Retiro  at  Madrid.  At  that  time,  however,  the 
single  red-blossomed  variety  had  already  been  introduced  in  Eng- 
land by  Robert  James  Lord  Petre,  and  was  known  as  the  Japanese 
rose. 

Lagerstrom,  director  of  the  Swedish  East  India  Company, brought 
the  first  two  varieties  to  Upsala  in  1745,  but  still  Tsubaki  was  a 
rarity  in  Europe  up  to  one  hundred  years  ago.  Most  of  the 
numerous  varieties  have  been  brought  from  China  and  Japan 
during  this  present  century,  or  gradually  formed  by  our  nursery- 
men. 

In  the  cold  houses  and  forcing  houses  of  the  temperate  and 
colder  countries  of  Europe,  where  the  conditions  of  its  growth 
are  well  understood  and  followed,  the  number  of  varieties  of  the 
camellia  is  much  greater,  as  has  been  said  before,  than  in  Eastern 
Asia.3 

1 It  may  perhaps  interest  some  readers  acquainted  with  Japan,  to  learn  more 
about  this  growth.  It  is  on  the  way  from  Gatsuke  on  the  Japan  Sea,  to  Naka- 
mura, lying  inland  2 ri.  25  cho.  The  environs  are  distinguished  by  a large 
number  of  lacquer-tree  plantations.  The  numerous  camellia  bushes,  many  of 
which  had  beautifully  formed  buds  in  the  early  part  of  November,  with  their 
dark-green  leaves,  contrast  well  against  the  bare  trees  and  bushes  which  are 
scattered  among  them. 

2 See  Seemann  ; “ Synopsis  of  the  Genera  Camellia  and  Thea.”  Transact. 
Linn.  Society,  xxii.  p.  342. 

3 Such  camellia  bloom  as  the  Palm  garden  at  Frankfort,  for  instance,  offers 
its  visitors  in  spring,  cannot  be  found  in  Japan. 


ACCLIMATIZATION,  ETC. 


279 


The  peculiar  climate  of  the  Mediterranean  district,  with  its  long, 
dry  summer  heat,  is  not  favourable  to  the  camellia.  It  is  really 
easier  and  cheaper  to  bring  their  flowers  to  perfection  in  St.  Peters- 
burg or  Berlin,  than  in  Seville,  for  instance,  in  whose  hot  and  dry 
summer  it  never  develops  into  a tree,  but  grows  only  2 to  3 m. 
high.  It  does  not  thrive  in  Lisbon  either,  but  grows  well  in  the 
moister  air  of  Cintra.  Here,  low  camellia  bushes  in  full  bloom 
may  be  seen  in  March  and  April  by  some  cool  brook-side  in  the 
beautiful  parks  of  Montserrat  and  of  Penha,  also  in  Malaga.  But 
the  bushes  must  be  shaded  during  the  summer  and  kept  as  cool 
as  possible. 

In  Florence,  the  camellia  needs  a certain  protection  from  the 
cold,  as  roses  with  us.  But  in  and  around  Constantinople,  where 
fifteen  years  ago  it  was  planted  in  open  spaces,  it  proved  itself  quite 
capable  of  resisting  the  severe  winter  of  1879-80.  At  the  same  time 
in  Naples,  outdoor  plants  such  as  the  Pelargonium,  Myrtle,  Oleander 
and  many  other  indigenous  or  long  ago  naturalized  species,  perished, 
but  not  the  camellia. 

The  Riviera,  and  the  shores  of  the  Northern  Italian  Lakes  offer 
unquestionably  more  favourable  conditions  to  the  camellia  and  a 
large  number  of  other  Japanese  plants,  e.g.  the  Camphor-laurel 
and  most  Japanese  Conifers,  than  any  other  part  of  Europe.  The 
Tsubaki  thrives  here  without  protection  almost  as  well  as  in  its 
Japanese  home.  At  the  Villa  Charlotte  for  instance,  there  are  trees 
of  8 m.  height  and  18  cm.  circumference.  It  blossoms  here,  as  at 
home,  sometimes  in  mid-winter,  but  in  greatest  abundance  during 
the  spring  months,  and  here  too,  later  on,  its  fruits  ripen  in  per- 
fection. 

Pyrus  japonica,  Thunb.,  Jap.  Boke  and  Yama-boke.  This 
genuine  Japanese  quince-bush  grows  2 to  3 m.  high  and  is  one  ot 
the  first  and  greatest  ornaments  of  our  gardens.  In  its  wealth 
of  blossoms  it  is  more  beautiful  and  lasting  than  Forsythia,  as  well 
as  much  more  hardy  and  wide-spread.  The  large  fire-red  blossoms 
appear  before  or  with  the  leaves,  and  cover  the  naked  branches. 
Besides  this  original  kind  which  blossoms  in  the  woods  and  parks 
of  Japan,  as  well. as  here,  in  April,  (a  month  earlier  in  the  south, 
later  in  the  mountains),  we  have  several  varieties  with  light-coloured 
flowers,  which  are  not  as  beautiful,  however,  as  the  former.  The 
bush  is  easily  cultivated  when  its  stands  alone  and  can  develop 
symmetrically.  It  was  introduced  into  England  by  Sir  Joseph 
Banks  in  1796,  and  has  thence  extended  very  widely.  It  is  not 
found  so  frequently  on  the  other  side  of  the  Alps  and  Pyrenees, 
although  it  flourishes  in  the  south.  In  some  of  the  park-like 
gardens  of  Malaga  it  blossoms  as  abundantly  and  as  beautifully  as 
with  us,  toward  the  end  of  March,  and  around  T6kio  a month 
later. 

Wistaria  chinensis,  S.  and  Z.  ( Glycine  chinensis,  Sims),  Jap.  Fuji. 
The  flowering  of  the  fruit  trees  is  scarcely  over  in  spring  before 


280 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


the  beautiful  blue  clusters  of  the  Glycine  appear.  They  blossom 
about  the  middle  of  May,  at  the  same  time  with  the  Syringa, 
horse-chestnut,  and  bush  pseony.  In  the  mild  districts  of  Ger- 
many, near  the  Rhine  and  Main,  the  Wistaria  endures  the  winter 
excellently  in  the  open  air.  It  is  trained  on  houses  and  arbours 
and  is  noted  everywhere  for  rapid  growth  and  the  strong  inclina- 
tion to  turn  its  slender  branches  from  left  to  right.  Several  strong 
shoots  are  often  wound  together  in  a evenly  twisted  cable  that 
becomes  impossible  to  unloose  as  it  grows  larger.  The  Wistaria 
adapts  itself  well  in  Mediterranean  countries,  where  it  often  creeps 
over  the  trunks  of  other  ornamental  plants,  such  as  Shinus  molle. 
And  when  its  young  bright-green  leaves  mingle  with  the  dark- 
green  foliage  of  its  supports,  and  the  abundant  flower  clusters 
hang  from  the  crown  of  the  latter  in  March  and  April,  the  sight  is 
peculiar  and  often  very  beautiful.  With  us  this  plant  blossoms 
often  for  the  second  time  in  late  summer,  but  less  abundantly  than 
in  spring. 

The  Latin  name  indicates  that  the  Glycine  had  its  origin  in 
China.  It  is  an  old  and  very  popular  plant  in  Japan,  however,  as 
has  been  said  before,  but  grows  wild  also  very  extensively  in  the 
deciduous  forests  of  the  mountains.  In  order  to  display  its  long 
cylindrical  flower  clusters  to  better  advantage  in  Japan,  it  is  trained 
horizontally  along  arbours.  As  has  been  remarked  on  p.  226, 
some  ten  years  since  there  was  a specimen  at  Nakanobu  in  the 
vicinity  of  Tdkio  which  was  said  to  be  250  years  old.  Its  low 
powerful  and  rugged  trunk  measured  2'45  m.  in  circumference 
before  branching.  The  branches  reached  out  2J  m.  over  a large 
court,  and  when  the  many  hundreds  of  long,  drooping  flower 
clusters  appeared,  it  drew  many  spectators  from  the  capital. 

A specimen  of  Wistaria  planted  in  1845  against  a house-wall  in 
Versailles,  shows  the  rapid  growth  of  the  plant  in  Europe.  Ac- 
cording to  the  Revue  Horticole  of  1878,  it  had  then,  after  33  years, 
reached  a circumference  of  i'20  m.  and  formed  branches  75  m. 
long.  Wittmack  1 mentions  another  Glycine  at  the  Villa  Giula  on 
Lake  Como,  which  had  a trunk-diameter  of  35  cm.  (circumference 
no  m.),  and  covered  with  its  branches  a wall-surface  of  40  m. 
length  to  the  top  of  the  house. 

Paulownia  imperialism  S.  and  Z.  (JP.  tomentosa , Ascherson),  Jap. 
Kiri.  This  notable  tree,  which  is  cultivated  so  largely  (see  p.  245) 
and  so  greatly  prized  in  Japan  on  account  of  its  light  wood,  is  also 
found  very  frequently  in  gardens  and  public  parks  in  the  warm 
parts  of  Europe.  Its  large  fragrant  blue  flowers  appear  in  May 
before  the  leaves,  and  resemble  in  form  those  of  the  “ lion’s  mouth.” 
One  of  its  peculiarities  is  that  toward  the  end  of  summer  it  forms 
the  flower  buds  of  the  next  season  on  the  end  of  its  branches. 
In  England,  these  buds  die  during  the  winter,  and  the  flowers  are 

1 Wittmack;  “Die  Garten  Oberitaliens.”  Berlin,  iSSr 


ACCLIMATIZATION, , ETC. 


28: 


therefore  few  in  number.  It  is  often  the  case  in  Germany  also,  as 
for  example  after  the  mild  winter  of  1883-84,  scarcely  any  blossoms 
came  to  perfection. 

The  large  heart-shaped  leaves  resemble  those  of  the  kindred 
Catalpa  varieties,  are  large  and  darker  green,  however,  and  appear 
earlier.  When  propagated  by  shoots  from  the  root,  the  growth  is 
surprising,  and  the  leaves  attain  enormous  size.  In  the  summer  of 
of  1885,  such  a shoot,  near  the  railway  station  at  Godesberg,  near 
Bonn,  measured  2'8  m.  in  height  and  17*5  cm.  in  circumference. 
Single  leaves  on  stems  42  cm.  long  and  8 cm.  in  circumference  were 
80  to  90  cm.  long  and  over  60  cm.  broad.  But,  notwithstanding  its 
surprising  growth,  the  Paulownia  has  no  great  popularity  with  us. 
The  tree  is  too  bare  at  the  flowering  season,  and  it  sheds  its 
branches  too  easily  to  preserve  a pleasing  symmetrical  form.  It 
happens,  therefore,  that  only  the  old  specimens  are  generally  found 
whose  trunks  have  a circumference  of  about  2 m.  After  the  tree 
was  introduced  into  France,  in  1834,  many  of  them  were  soon 
taken  thence  into  other  countries.  The  Paulownia  was  formerly 
cultivated  on  some  of  the  Paris  boulevards,  but  has  been  removed. 
It  is  frequent  as  an  umbrageous  tree  in  Florence,  e.g.,  on  the  road 
to  Fiesole,  where,  toward  the  end  of  April,  the  air  is  filled  with  the 
fragrance  of  its  blossoms.  Large  Paulownia  and  Eucalyptus  trees 
are  most  prominent  of  all  in  the  public  park  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  railway  station  at  Cordova.  But  here,  as  elsewhere  in  Medi- 
terranean regions,  one  has  the  impression  that  the  energy  with 
which  Kiri  was  cultivated  40  or  50  years  ago  is  a thing  of  the 
past. 

Pceonia  Moutan , Sims,  Jap.  Botan,  is  found  in  many  varieties, 
most  of  them  introduced  by  Fortune,  P.  albijiora , Pall.,  Jap.  Shaku- 
yaku,  less  frequently.  It  is  not  the  rose,  but  Botan,  and  the  kindred 
Shakuyaku,  which  is  praised  by  the  poets  in  Chinese  literature 
as  the  queen  of  flowers.  It  is  spoken  of  also  in  the  “Memoires 
des  Chinois,”  Paris,  1877,  as  the  pride  and  glory  of  China.  And 
correspondingly  it  is  one  of  the  most  popular  modes  for  decoration 
in  Chinese  and  Japanese  art  industry.  The  great  healing  power 
ascribed  for  ages  to  its  roots  (see  p.  136),  together  with  its  beautiful 
leaves  and  flowers,  may  have  contributed  to  its  high  esteem.  Both 
varieties  of  paeony,  known  in  our  gardens  by  the  common  designa- 
tion, P.  arborea,  Don.,  are  classed  with  the  most  beautiful  spring 
flowers.  Fragrance  is  denied  them,  however,  as  it  is  to  all  the  other 
' paeonies.  Their  first  introduction  from  China  into  England  was  in 
1789,  and  is  attributed,  as  I have  already  mentioned,  to  Sir  Joseph 
Banks.  He  brought  to  Europe,  the  year  before,  also, — 

Hydrangea  hortensis,  Smith  (. Hortensia  opuloides,  Lamk.),  Jap. 
Ajisai.  Few  of  the  older  importations  from  Eastern  Asia  have 
been  more  quickly  and  widely  extended  than  this  Hortensia.  We 
have  a great  many  varieties,  whose  original,  simple  forms  are  found 
in  the  forests  of  China,  and  more  frequently  in  those  of  Japan.  In 


282 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


Germany  it  is  known  as  a pot-plant  generally,  as  it  needs  protec- 
tion from  our  severe  winter  weather.  It  thrives  well  in  the  ground 
south  of  the  Alps,  and  without  any  special  cultivation.  Besides  its 
many  varieties,  we  have  also  lately  cultivated — 

Hydrangea  paniculata , Sieb.,  a tall  bush  known  among  the 
Japanese  by  the  names  Shiro-utsugi  and  Nori-no-ki,  which  with  us 
is  quite  proof  against  the  winter.  At  home  it  grows  in  the  moun- 
tain forests  to  an  elevation  of  1,500  m.,  and  is  gathered  for  its 
mucilaginous  inner  bark,  which  is  used  in  making  paper.  Its 
flowering  season  is  in  midsummer,  like  that  of  Hortensia. 

Macleya  cordata , R.  Brown,  Jap.  Chanpagiku  and  Takeni-gusa. 
This  perennial,  herbaceous,  ornamental  plant  from  China  and 
Japan,  attracts  attention  by  its  figure  and  the  form  and  colour  of 
its  leaves.  It  belongs  to  the  Papaveraceae  family,  is  cultivated  in 
gardens  and  parks  from  the  Mediterranean  to  England,  and  lately 
often  seen  in  Germany  also.  The  perennial  roots  send  out  each 
year  a stiff  stalk,  up  to  2 m.  in  height,  which,  late  in  summer,  bears 
on  its  very  end  a long  flower-spike.  The  deeply  indented  leaves 
and  the  white  down  which  covers  the  entire  plant  are  its  most 
noteworthy  features.  There  are  few  herbaceous  plants  which  are 
so  majestic  and  ornamental  in  appearance. 

Polygonum  cuspidatum , Sieb.,  Jap.  Itadori.  This  species  is  noted, 
even  more  than  the  preceding,  for  its  exceptionally  rapid  and 
fine  development.  Many  dozens  of  strong  stalks  shoot  up,  like 
asparagus,  2 to  3 m.  high,  early  in  the  spring,  from  a perennial  root 
having  a pad-like  appearance  and  thick,  branching  rootlets.  With 
their  fine  foliage  they  form  a close,  tall  bush  of  fine  effect,  es- 
pecially when  standing  alone  and  developing  freely  on  all  sides. 

The  plant  in  Japan  belongs  to  the  mountain  forests  and  the  far 
north,  so  that  its  easy  cultivation  with  us  is  quite  certain. 

Aucuba  japonica,  Thunb.,  Jap.  Ao-ki.1  This  well-known  orna- 
mental bush  fulfils  nearly  every  condition  of  a good  foliage  plant. 
It  is  moderately  hardy,  and  combines  with  this  quality  rapid 
growth,  thick  branches,  and  an  abundance  of  large,  shiny,  evergreen 
leaves.  The  female  tree,  in  summer,  in  addition  to  this  beautiful 
and  abundant  foliage,  bears  fine  scarlet  berries  which  resemble  the 
larger  and  kindred  cornel  cherries,  but  do  not  find  a use,  like 
them.  The  brownish  dioecious  blossoms,  whose  panicles  appear  in 
May  on  the  ends  of  the  twigs,  are  not  at  all  conspicuous. 

Besides  the  camellia,  there  is  scarcely  another  of  the  numerous 
Japanese  ornamental  plants  so  popular  and  so  widely  spread  as  the 
Aucuba.  Nature,  accident,  and  cultivation  have  given  it  in  its 
own  home,  and  even  with  us,  a number  of  sub-species  which  are 

1 It  takes  its  Japanese  name,  Ao-ki,  “ green  tree,”  from  the  green  colour  of  the 
branches.  Aucuba  may  be  a corruption  of  Ao-ba,  or  “green  leaf,”  or  Ao- 
ki-ba,  i.e.  “green-tree  leave,”  but  is  not  used  in  Japan.  The  plant  is  always 
bush-like  in  its  own  home,  so  that  Thunberg’s  designation  of  “ Arbor  magna  ” 
is  decidedly  erroneous. 


ACCLIMATIZATION,  ETC. 


283 


distinguished  chiefly  by  the  size,  form,  and  variegation  of  their 
leaves. 

Japan  and  China  are  the  home  of  the  original  single  species.  It 
is  found  in  those  countries  with  the  variegated  variety  also  as  a 
bush  1 to  2 m.  high,  quite  frequently,  especially  in  the  bushy  forests 
of  hilly  parts  of  the  country,  also  cultivated  in  temple  groves  and 
gardens.  The  story  of  its  introduction  into  Western  lands  is 
not  without  interest.  Thunberg’s  first  description  of  the  plant 
appeared  in  1784.  A year  before,  John  Graeffer  had  brought 
to  England1  a female  specimen  with  variegated  leaves  (. Aucuba 
japonica,  var.  punctata ) (unequal  yellowish  white  spots  scattered 
over  the  yellowish  green  of  the  leaf’s  surface).  From  this  plant 
have  sprung  nearly  all  the  innumerable  bushes  which  are  now  to 
be  found  in  Europe  and  North  America,  either  in  the  open  air  or 
as  ornamental  plants  in  the  house.  They  are  propagated  every- 
where, and  very  easily  by  means  of  slips.  At  first  the  Aucuba  was 
cared  for  very  tenderly  in  hothouses,  as  in  France ; but  it  was 
found  that  the  plant  was  better  adapted  to  the  cold  house,  and 
finally  it  was  ventured  out  of  doors.  The  moist  atmosphere  of 
England,  with  its  mild  winters  and  cool,  damp  summers,  is  most 
favourable  to  its  growth.  It  is  more  frequent  in  London  than  any 
other  evergreen,  even  in  the  humblest  gardens,  and  one  may  find  finer 
specimens  of  it  there  than  even  in  Japan.  In  the  Netherlands,  also, 
and  France,  and  in  the  warmer  portions  of  Germany,  especially  at 
Bonn  and  thereabouts,  Aucuba  plays  an  important  part  as  an  ever- 
green out-of-door  plant,  and  is  seen  much  oftener  than  the  cherry 
laurel,  the  Ilex,  and  others.  It  freezes  in  other  parts  of  Germany 
in  winter,  and  although,  as  a rule,  it  starts  up  again  from  the  roots, 
cannot  be  well  cultivated  out  of  doors.  The  dry,  hot  summers  of 
Southern  Europe  are  also  unfavourable.  In  Northern  Italy  and 
the  South  of  France  it  is  seen  extensively,  but  farther  south  it  falls 
off  rapidly,  and  is  at  last  only  found  where  it  can  be  specially  pro- 
tected, and  in  shady  places. 

For  more  than  a hundred  years  this  female  Aucuba  has  been 
cultivated  in  its  many  varieties  with  variegated  leaves.  But  grown 
either  in  the  changeable  air  of  the  house,  or  out  of  doors  in  the 
greatest  variety  of  soil  and  treatment,  it  has  not  materially  altered 
its  original  variegated  form,  nor  in  one  leaf  even,  to  say  nothing 
of  its  entire  individuality,  returned  to  its  former  simple  green 
colouring.  Can  this  variegation,  so  constant  in  appearance,  be 
simply  a disease  ? 

Up  to  1862,  only  this  female  Aucuba  (plant  veuve,  as  it  is 
called  by  Siebold)  was  known  in  Europe.  At  that  time  Fortune 
found  the  male  plant  in  China,  also  the  single  green-leaved  original, 
and  sent  both  to  England.  Siebold  also,  at  that  time,  made 
the  Dutch  gardeners  acquainted  with  the  original  plant  from 


* Alton  : “ Hortus  Kewensis,”  V.  p.  257. 


284 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


Japan.  This  is  the  reason  why  the  number  of  single  green-leaved 
and  male  specimens  is  so  much  smaller  than  those  of  the  female, 
variegated  plants.  Later,  a new  species,  Aucuba  himalaica , 
Hooker,  has  been  introduced  as  a decorative  plant,  which,  however, 
has  not  begun  to  contest  the  field  with  the  older  varieties. 

Fatsia  japonica , Decn.  and  Planch.  ( Aralia  japonica , Thunb., 
A.  Sieboldi , Hort.).  The  Japanese  call  this  plant  Yatsu-de,  i.e.. 
Eight  Fingers — a name  which  comes  from  the  eight  lobes  at  the 
end  of  the  great  shiny  green  leaves.  Many  of  them,  especially 
with  us,  are  only  seven-lobed,  though  sometimes  having  nine  lobes. 
The  name  Fatsia  may  perhaps  be  corrupted  from  the  Japanese 
designation.  This  beautiful  ornamental  plant,  of  luxuriant  tropical 
appearance,  after  its  introduction  into  Europe,  passed,  like  the 
Aucuba,  from  the  hot-house  to  the  cold-house  and  the  flower-stand, 
and  contests  with  it  for  the  supremacy  in  popular  taste  and  in  ease 
of  cultivation.  It  is  found  wild  here  and  there  in  Southern  and 
Middle  Japan,  but  more  often  as  a decorative  plant  in  court-yards, 
gardens,  and  temple  groves.  There  it  blossoms,  as  with  us,  in 
November  and  December,  and  ripens  its  black  berries  in  March. 

It  is  much  cultivated  in  Mediterranean  countries,  though  it  is 
necessary  there  to  shade  it  in  the  hot,  dry  summer.  It  has  proved 
hardy  in  England  also,  but  seldom  blossoms.  On  our  flower- 
stands  it  reaches  a height  of  2 to  3 m.,  and  compares  well  in  size 
and  beautiful  leaf-decoration  with  the  finest  specimens  in  Japan. 

Owing  to  the  great  popularity  of  conifers  in  our  modern  land- 
scape-gardening, and  the  peculiar  beauty  of  many  Japanese 
kinds,  their  introduction  and  distribution  has  bden  actively 
carried  on  in  many  places.  The  first  one  brought  to  Europe  was 
Gingko  biloba,  L.,  and  it  has  shown  itself  exceedingly  well  adapted 
to  cultivation  here.  It  is  the  oldest  known  from  the  shores  of  the 
North  and  Baltic  Seas  to  those  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  with- 
stands the  winter  cold  of  Germany  as  well  as  the  summer  heat  of 
the  southern  European  peninsulas.  The  several  varieties  of  Biota 
orientalis  were  some  time  ago  introduced  in  our  country  by  way  of 
Hither  Asia. 

During  the  devastating  winter  of  1879-80,  most  of  the  Japanese 
conifers  in  Europe  proved  themselves  much  better  able  to  resist 
the  cold  than  those  which  had  been  brought  to  us  from  the  forests 
of  the  Pacific  coast  of  North  America.  The  hardiest  of  all,  apart 
from  the  two  already  named,  were  Taxus  cuspidata.  S.  and  Z., 
Chamoecyparis  obtusa,  S.  and  Z.,  Ch.  pisifera , S.  and  Z.,  Thujopsis 
dolabrata,  S.  and  Z.,  Abies polita,  S.  and  Z.,  A.  tsuga,  S.  and  Z.,  and 
Larix  leptolepis , Gord.  The  adaptation  of  these  species  to  forestry 
can  scarcely  be  doubted.  Nevertheless  Abies  fimia , like  all  the 
Japanese  firs  of  the  Picea  tribe,  shows  little  advantage  over  our 
“ Edeltanne,”  and  the  same  is  true  of  Taxus  cuspidata  in  com- 
parison with  our  yew.  The  five  other  kinds  mentioned,  however, 
furnish  very  valuable  woods,  whose  useful  properties  are  greater 


ACCLIMATIZATION,  ETC. 


285 


than  those  of  our  well-known  forest  trees.  They  are  well  worth 
cultivating,  and  may  be  introduced  to  supply  gaps  in  the  qualities 
of  our  woods.  (See  also  pp.  234-241.) 

Cryptomeria  japonica , Don.,  and  Sciadopitys  verticillata , S.  and  Z., 
which  thrive  out  of  doors  only  in  a specially  favourable  part  of 
the  Rhine  district  between  Basel  and  Diisseldorf,  are  much  more 
sensitive  to  our  German  winters.  We  could  not  expect  to  make 
their  cultivation  a source  of  wood  supply,  even  if  it  were  especi- 
ally desirable.  In  Marburg  some  attempts  made  with  the  two 
most  common  Japanese  pines  {P inns  Massoniana  and  P.  dentijiora. ) 
showed  that  their  development  here  is  very  slow,  and  that  they 
cannot  endure  more  than  20°  C.  of  cold.  The  idea  of  planting  the 
exceedingly  useful  black  pines  ( A . Massoniana ) on  the  North 
German  sand  dunes  seems  to  promise  no  very  favourable  results.1 

Of  the  deciduous  trees  which  recommend  themselves  partly  on 
account  of  their  valuable  wood,  and  partly  because  of  their  beauti- 
ful foliage,  the  following  seem  best  adapted  to  cultivation  in 
Europe  : — Zelkowa  Keaki,  S.  and  Z.  (Keaki),  Magnolia  hypolenca , 
S.  and  Z.  (Ho-no-ki),  Cercidiphyllum  japonicum,  S.  and  Z.  (Katsura), 
Acer  cratcegifolium , S.  and  Z.  (Hana-no-ki),  AEsculos  turbinata , 
Blume  (Tochi).  They  grow  in  the  rough  atmosphere  of  the  moun- 
tains and  northern  portions  of  Japan,  and  justify  the  belief  that 
they  may  be,  at  least  in  part,  acclimatized  in  Germany. 

There  remain  still  to  be  noticed  a number  of  Japanese  plants  in 
the  gardens  and  public  parks  of  the  countries  along  the  Mediterra- 
nean Sea. 

There  is  no  lack  of  warmth  and  light  in  this  region,  but  moisture, 
a third  important  element  in  prosperous  plant-life,  is  often  wanting. 
When  this  is  the  case,  there  can  be  no  fine  sward  cultivation  with 
our  known  grasses,  and  various  halophytic  succulent  plants,  like 
Mesembryanthemum,  several  foreign  weeds  like  Commelina  and 
others  may  be  used  to  fill  up  the  sod.  Special  success  has  been 
attained  with  a simple  little  Japanese  lily,  the  Ja-no-hige,  “serpent’s 
beard”  ( Ophiopogon  japonicus , Garv.),  which  has  been  often  called 
by  gardeners  by  the  old  name  of  Convallaria  japonica  (Japanese 
lily  of  the  valley),  given  it  by  Thunberg.  The  kindred  Yabu-ran 
( O . Jaburan,  Loddig)  is  also  employed  for  this  purpose.  Even  now 
a fine  green  turf  made  in  this  way  can  be  seen  on  the  Italian  lakes, 
but  still  more  often  in  Southern  Italy,  Spain  and  Portugal.  I first 
found  the  modest  little  Yano-hige,  with  its  bluish  berries,  in  the 
shady  places  of  the  temple  grove  in  Uyeno  Tokio.  The  narrow, 
dark-green,  grass-like  leaves  of  the  plant  resemble  those  of  the 
several  lighter  Gagea  species.  Its  relationship  to  our  lily  of  the 
valley  is  not  very  close. 

North  of  the  Alps  and  the  Pyrenees,  the  quickset  hedges  are 

1 I expressed  myself  in  a similar  manner  in  a report  which  I had  to  give 
regarding  Japan  Conifers,  in  June,  1884,  to  His  Excellency,  the  Minister  of 
Agriculture  and  Forestry. 


286 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


generally  bare  in  winter,  and  their  commonest  material  is  the 
white-thorn.  In  Mediterranean  countries,  on  the  other  hand, 
many  evergreen  bushes  are  used,  as  here  and  there  the  myrtle, 
laurel,  Viburnum  Tinus,  Duran tha  Plumieri,  Ligustrum  japonica 
especially,  and  with  even  greater  preference,  Euonymus  japonicus, 
the  Japanese  Masa-ki.  In  fact  these  Euonymus  hedges  excel  all 
others  in  beauty  because  of  their  uniformity  and  closeness,  as 
well  as  the  abundance  of  their  magnificent  green  leaves.  Those 
hedges,  which  enclose  all  the  roads  in  Las  Delicias  at  Seville,  the 
public  parks  of  the  Corso,  and  the  left  bank  of  the  Guadalquivir, 
especially  are  surpassingly  beautiful.  They  are  kept  well  trimmed 
there  as  almost  everywhere,  and  are  about  one  meter  high  and 
broad.  This  plant  is  used  also  in  preference  for  bordering,  where 
we  generally  use  the  box.  Of  course  these  borders  are  kept  low 
and  narrow,  and  prettily  cut.  In  other  places  on  the  Iberian 
peninsula  also,  e.g.,  Madrid  and  Lisbon,  such  hedges  are  very 
common. 

The  hedges  made  of  the  Ligustrum  japonicum , Thunb.,  the  Ned- 
zumi-mochi  of  the  Japanese — for  example,  those  at  the  railway 
stations  at  Seville  and  Huelva,  and  also  some  in  Southern  France 
and  Northern  Italy — -resemble  in  colour  our  common  Liguster 
hedges,  which,  it  is  well  known,  retain  their  leaves  longer  than 
any  other  of  our  deciduous  shrubs.  The  young  leaves  are  at 
first  reddish  brown,  and  even  later  are  not  so  bright  and  fine  a 
green  as  those  of  the  Euonymus.  Their  colour  and  shape  is  most 
like  those  of  the  nearly-related  Syringa.  But  the  most  important 
use  of  both  these  evergreen  bushes  is  not  as  close  and  well-trained 
hedges,  but  as  ornamental  plants  for  gardens  and  public  parks. 
We  find  them  in  the  quadrangular  courtyard  of  the  Andalusian 
hotels  and  dwellings,  in  the  open  squares  of  almost  all  Southern 
European  cities,  and  in  every  public  park.  And  in  such  conditions 
the  J apanese  Liguster  very  often  passes  from  a bush  to  a tree,  with 
a trunk  8-10  m.  in  height,  and  of  80-100  cm.  circumference.  I saw 
some  such  at  San  Josd  near  Malaga,  in  Lisbon  also,  and  on  the  Plaza 
Mayor  near  the  royal  castle  at  Madrid.  In  Italy,  where  the  plant 
is  also  very  widely  distributed,  its  dimensions  are  much  smaller. 
Euonymus  japonicus  is  less  sensitive  to  cold,  and  thrives  in  South- 
ern France  and  in  the  parks  of  Paris.  One  finds  there  not  only 
the  simple  original  variety,  but  the  many  variegated  varieties  also, 
in  particular  E.  Jap.  sulferea. 

I take  this  opportunity  of  mentioning  several  other  evergreen 
Japanese  ornamental  bushes  which  are  often  found  in  company 
with  the  foregoing,  and  have  also  found  a wide  distribution  in 
Southern  Europe.  These  are  Photinia  serrulata , Lindl.  ( Cratoegus 
glabra , Thunb.),  Jap.  Aka-megashi,  Pittosporum  Tobira,  Ait.,  Jap. 
Tobira,  and  Olea  fragrans,  Thunb.,  Jap.  Moku-sei  and  To-sei. 
Fortune  says  of  the  Photinia  that  it  is  “ a noble,  ornamental  ever- 
green,” and  is  much  cultivated  in  gardens  and  near  the  temples  of 


ACCLIMATIZATION,  ETC. 


287 


Japan  and  China.  This  large,  wide-spreading  bush  is  found  in  many 
places  on  the  Iberian  peninsula,  and  no  open  space,  in  Madrid,  for 
example,  is  without  it.  Its  large  umbels  of  white  flowers  lend  it 
a special  charm  in  March  and  April.  Its  smooth,  serrated  and 
pointed  leaves  resemble  those  of  the  cherry-laurel  in  their  form 
and  size.  One  of  its  peculiarities  is  the  appearance  of  older 
purple  and  brownish  red  leaves  against  the  younger,  which  are  a 
beautiful  green. 

The  Tobira  was  introduced  into  our  hot  houses  in  1804  under 
the  name  Pittosporum  sinense.  It  grows  out  of  doors  in  Southern 
Europe,  as  in  Southern  Japan,  to  a bush  of  medium  height,  and 
during  the  past  two  decades  has  been  more  and  more  superseded 
by  its  more  stately  Australian  relative,  P.  undulatum.  The  latter 
is  specially  frequent  in  the  parks  of  Portugal,  and  particularly  in 
the  gardens  of  Lisbon.  It  grows  as  a beautifully  formed  tree,  of 
70-80  cm.  circumference  and  8-10  m.  in  height.  The  yellowish 
white  blossoms,  which  appear  in  spring,  have  a much  stronger  and 
more  agreeable  smell  than  the  pure  white  flowers  of  the  Tobira, 
which  appear  some  four  weeks  later.  The  regular  form  and  even 
distribution  of  its  leaves  also  make  it  more  ornamental  than  the 
Tobira,  whose  leaves  are  oval  and  crowded  together  at  the  end  of 
the  twigs.  Olea  fragrans , Thunb.,  although  imported  to  Europe 
from  Japan,  is  only  an  ornamental  plant  there,  originating  in 
China,  as  its  name,  T6-sei,  indicates.1  What  Pittosporum  undu- 
latum is  in  spring  to  the  gardens  of  Lisbon,  Malaga,  and  other 
Iberian  cities,  that  and  far  more  by  Olea  fragrans  becomes  in 
September  and  October  to  the  gardens  and  parks  of  Northern  and 
Middle  Italy.  Its  simple  white  blossoms  then  shed  their  fragrance 
far  and  near  in  the  gardens  on  Lakes  Como  and  Maggiore,  in 
Florence  and  the  Riviera.  In  Genoa  I remember  it  only  in  a 
little  park  near  Acqua  Sola. 

Besides  these,  there  is  a wild  olive  (. Elceagnus  umbellata,  Thunb., 
E.  rejlexa,  Morr.)  here  and  there  in  Northern  Italy,  eg.,  near 
Pallanza,  which  is  very  popular.  It  is  trained  upon  houses,  and 
more  still  on  the  garden  fences,  clothing  them  with  a beautiful 
green,  as  the  long,  winding  shoots  may  be  easily  twined  in  and 
out  through  the  iron  palings.  This  plant  grows  as  a medium- 
sized bush  very  extensively  in  the  Himalayas,  China  and  Japan, 
bearing  the  name  of  Gumi.  It  is  cultivated  also  as  an  ornamental 
shrub. 

Euonymus  radicans,  Sieb.,  Jap.  Tsuru-masaki,  serves  similar 
purposes.  Although  quite  hardy  in  the  warmer  parts  of  Ger- 
many, it  has  not  yet  received  due  consideration.  It  is  very 
widely  distributed  in  Japan  as  a bush.  If  it  finds  anything  on 
which  it  can  lean  however,  a tree,  or  rocky  slope  or  a wall,  its 
mode  of  life  resembles  that  of  the  ivy.  Providing  itself  quickly 

1 I refer  to  p.  123,  and  what  is  said  there  concerning  the  use  of  the  flowers 
of  the  Kwei-hwa  by  the  Chinese,  in  perfuming  tea. 


288 


AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 


with  tendrils  it  lays  tight  hold  of,  and  mounts  up  the  tall  pines  to 
the  very  top,  or  often  entirely  covers  the  wall  of  rocks  with  ever- 
green. In  the  Mediterranean  region  it  could  perform  the  same 
service  that  Ficus  repens  does  in  hot-houses,  clothing  the  naked 
masonry  with  foliage. 

Shizophragma  hydrangeoid.es , S.  and  Z.,  the  Shiro-tsuta-no-ki, 
or  “white  climbing  tree”  of  the  Japanese,  is  known  for  similar 
peculiarities  and  still  greater  hardiness.  It  is  one  of  the  largest 
climbers  of  the  mountain  forests  of  Japan,  with  a mossy  trunk 
attaining  40-60  cm.  in  circumference,  and  sometimes  mounts  up 
15-20  meters  high  on  the  rocks  and  old  trees. 

There  is  in  the  Mediterranean  countries  a beautiful  thornless 
climbing  rose,  Rosa  Banksice , R.  Br.,  the  Mokoko  of  Japan  and  China, 
which  is  more  of  a favourite  than  the  preceding  climbers  for  cover- 
ing surfaces.  Its  has  shiny,  evergreen  leaves,  and  double  yellow 
or  white  flowers  which  blossom  in  spring  and  in  small  irregular 
clusters  on  the  ends  of  the  branches.  The  yellow  variety  is  the 
most  beautiful  and  most  numerous,  and  is  seen  in  greatest  perfec- 
tion in  the  villa  gardens  on  the  North  Italian  lakes.  In  the  snug 
patios  of  Cordova,  Seville  and  other  Spanish  cities,  it  often  covers 
entire  walls,  and  is  seen  in  gardens  winding  itself,  like  the  Wistaria, 
through  the  crowns  of  the  ornamental  trees,  and  adorning  them  in 
a peculiar  fashion  with  its  abundance  of  blossoms. 

The  traveller  from  Northern  Europe,  in  visiting  the  beautiful 
gardens  of  Mediterranean  countries  is  struck  not  only  by  the 
luxuriant  abundance  of  plant-life,  the  motley  forms  and  colours  of 
the  deciduous  trees,  with  the  evergreens  from  all  sub-tropical  lands, 
but  more  than  all  by  the  appearance  of  the  palms  and  bamboos  in 
their  free  and  perfect  development.  If  he  seeks  the  homes  of 
these  exotic  plants,  he  will  find  among  the  palms,  in  addition  to 
the  Japanese  Shuro  ( Chamcerops  excelsa , Thunb.),  which  is  here 
perfectly  acclimated,  the  representatives  of  nearly  all  species  of 
the  non-tropical  regions  of  the  earth,  but  among  bamboos  chiefly 
the  Japanese  kinds.  These  latter  are  the  smaller  species  and 
sub-species  which  the  gardeners  generally  call  Bambusa  nigra , B. 
mitis,  B.  aurea,  B.  viridis  glaucescens,  B.  viridis  striata , B.  Fortunei, 
B.  pygmcea,  and  B.  Kumasasa.  The  Kuro-dake  or  black  bamboo 
is  unquestionably  the  most  striking  and  beautiful  of  all  (see  p.  230). 
It  grows  in  fine  wide-spreading  groups  on  Lake  Maggiore,  reaching 
its  full  development  at  6 m.  height  and  an  average  diameter  of  3^ 
cm.  According  to  Tschihatchef,1  in  the  Jardin  d’Essai  at  Algiers, 
it  sometimes  grows  400  mm.  in  twenty-four  hours. 

1 Tschihatchef : “Espagne,  Algdrie  et  Tunisie,”  p.  164. 


MINING. 


289 


u 


II. 


MINING > 

Incorrect  Representations  of  the  Mineral  Wealth  of  Japan.  Old 
Method  of  Mining , and  New  Attempts  to  Elevate  it.  Tabidar 
View  of  the  Productions  according  to  Number , Value,  and  most 
Important  Mines.  Further  Particulars  concerning  the  latter, 
and  the  single  Products.  Salt  and  Alum  Production.  Pro- 
ducts of  Clay-pits  and  Stone-quarries.  [Herewith  a Map.] 

The  statistical  reports  of  the  products  of  Japanese  mining  since 
the  Restoration  seem  strikingly  out  of  harmony  with  the  traditions, 
extending  back  to  the  times  of  Marco  Polo,  regarding  the  rich 
mineral  wealth  of  Japan,  and  especially  the  abundance  of  its 
precious  metals.  The  land  was  long  known  among  the  Chinese 
and  Arabs,  and  in  Europe  also,  as  the  Eldorado  of  the  far  East — 
“das  giildene  Ophir”as  Kaempfer  named  it.  According  to  Edrisi, 
the  very  dogs  of  the  country  wore  golden  collars,  and  according  to 
Marco  Polo  the  roofs,  floors  and  window  mouldings  in  the  royal 
palace  were  of  pure  gold.2 

1 i have  used  the  following  works  in  treating  this  subject,  as  a supplement  to 
my  own  observations  and  the  friendly  oral  communications  of  the  Engineers 
Bansa,  Reh  and  Vogel. 

1.  Brassert : “Das  japanische  Berggesetz  von  1873.”  Zeitschrift  fur  Berg- 
recht.  Bd.  xxv.  (1884),  p.  1. 

2.  Hagmaier : “ Reise  nach  Kosaka  and  Aufenthalt  daselbst.”  Mittheil.  d. 
deutsch.  Ges.  Ostasiens.  Bd.  ii.  p.  64. 

3.  Netto  : “Ueber  japanisches  Berg-  und  Hiittenwesen.”  Mitth.  der  deutsch. 
Ges.  Ostasiens.  Bd.  ii.  pp.  367-405. 

4.  Rosing : “ Das  Silberbergwerk  Innai  in  Japan.”  Zeitschr.  fur  Berg- 
Hiitten-  and  Salinenwesen.  Bd.  xxxii.  (1884),  p.  126. 

5.  Zappe  : “Der  Bergbau  Japans  und  seine  Haupterzeugnisse.”  Zeitschr. 
fur  Berg-  Hiitten-  und  Salinenwesen.  Bd.  xxvii.  (1879),  PP-  204-220. 

6.  “ Geological  Survey  of  Hokkaido.”  Reports  by  Lyman  and  by  Munroe. 

7.  Lyman  : “ Geological  Surveys  of  Japain.”  Reports. 

2 “ Chipangu  is  an  island  towards  the  east,  in  the  high  seas,  1,500  miles  from 

the  continent,  and  a very  large  island  it  is.  . . . I will  tell  you  a wonderful 

thing  about  the  Palace  of  the  Lord  of  that  Island.  He  has  a great  palace  which 
is  entirely  roofed  with  fine  gold,  just  as  churches  are  roofed  with  lead,  insomuch 
that  it  would  scarcely  be  possible  to  estimate  its  value.  Moreover  all  the 
pavements  of  the  palace  and  the  floors  of  its  chambers  are  entirely  of  gold,  in 
plates  like  slabs  of  stone,  a good  two-fingers  thick ; and  the  windows  also  are 
of  gold,  so  that  altogether  the  richness  of  the  Palace  is  past  all  bounds  and 
all  belief.” — Yule  : Marco  Polo,  vol.  ii.  p.  235. 

It  is  known  that  Columbus,  in  his  ever  memorable  western  voyage,  hoped  to 
secure  these  wonderful  treasures  of  Chipangu,  described  by  his  countryman. 

• 29t 


292 


MINING 


Even  after  Japan  was  really  known  and  the  ports  of  Macao, 
Manila  and  Batavia  were  successfully  brought  into  commercial 
relations  with  it,  the  export  of  silver  appeared  to  be  a further  and 
surer  proof  of  the  metallic  wealth  of  the  country.  But  this  ceased 
entirely  in  1642,  and  was  replaced  from  that  time  by  copper,  to 
the  great  advantage  of  the  Dutch. 

After  the  re-opening  of  Japan,  now  more  than  thirty  years  since, 
the  inhabitants  shared  only  too  gladly  the  general  belief  of  the 
foreigners.  It  was  true  that  their  old  mines  yielded  little  or  no 
profit,  but  this  was  owing,  so  said  many,  to  the  fact  that  the  means 
at  hand  and  employed  for  taking  out  the  supposed  treasures  were 
not  adequate  to  the  task.  The  thing  needful,  was  to  cast  off  the 
old  system  and  to  make  use  of  the  rich  experiences  and  scientific 
appliances  of  mining  in  the  Christian  lands  of  the  West. 

And  so  there  came  engineers  from  America,  England,  France 
and  Germany  successively  to  counsel  and  instruct,  but  after  a few 
years  and  the  expiration  of  contracts  they  were  generally  dismissed, 
for  the  conviction  deepened  that  it  was  not  in  their  power,  with  all 
their  science  and  experience,  to  assure  the  State  or  private  enterprise 
a new  and  large  source  of  revenue.  The  best  and  most  conscien- 
tious among  them  found  themselves  encompassed  with  difficulties 
and  hindrances  in  adapting  their  studies  and  experience  to  the 
situation  and  in  establishing  a scientific  industry.  I mention  only 
the  serious  difficulty  involved  in  not  understanding  the  language, 
and  the  impossibility  of  establishing  immediate  direct  intercourse ; 
the  crowd  of  useless  officials  that  surrounded  them  ; the  lack  of 
proper  means  of  transport,1  added  to  the  unsteadiness  and  con- 
stant desire  for  innovation  on  the  part  of  the  authorities,  who  could 
not  patiently  wait  till  the  reforms  begun  should  be  carried  through 
and  tested. 

The  Japanese  had  searched  their  country  for  valuable  minerals, 
and  had  exhausted  the  existing  mines,  far  more  than  was  believed 
at  the  beginning  of  the  new  era,  some  thirty  years  ago.  In  fact  I 
have  not  learned  that  one  of  the  many  foreign  engineers  was  able 
anywhere  to  discover  new  openings  or  beds  of  mineral.  The 
interest  of  the  nation  to  find  and  dig  up  the  treasures  of  the  earth 
had  been  from  early  times  a very  lively  one,  as  numerous  traces 
of  old  prospecting  and  mining,  and  a fairly  rich  literature  on  the 
subject,  plainly  show. 

Most  of  the  foreign  mining  engineers  who  were  called  to  Japan 
after  the  Perry  expedition,  to  assist  as  counsellors  and  enterprisers 

1 The  absence  of  well  adapted  means  of  intercourse,  and  the  great  distance  of 
most  mines  from  the  coal  supply,  made  the  smelting  of  their  products  more 
and  more  difficult  and  expensive.  For  reasons  which  have  been  mentioned,  this 
process  must  take  place  in  the  neighbourhood,  but  since  charcoal  serves  as  the 
means  of  reduction,  the  forest  not  being  replenished  has  gradually  disappeared 
in  a wide  circle  around  the  mines.  This  has  necessitated  the  bringing  of  char- 
coal on  beasts  of  burden  from  ever-increasing  distances,  as  Hagmaier  relates  in 
the  account  of  his  travels  mentioned  above. 


GENERAL. 


293 


of  mining  industry,  returned  home  disappointed  on  the  expiration 
of  their  contracts.  A few,  who  understood  the  arts  of  flattery  and 
thus  how  to  make  rich  contracts  with  officials  and  tradesmen  for 
the  delivery  of  machines  and  other  needed  articles,  at  the  expense 
of  the  State,  remained  longer,  but  these  people  were  least  of  all  the 
ones  to  bring  about  a healthy  state  of  the  mining  industry.1  When 
we  look  over  the  annual  reports  of  the  results  of  mining  since 
1868,  we  recognise  the  fact  in  most  cases  the  efforts  made  up  to 
this  time,  have  not  been  able  to  increase  the  products  in  any  con- 
siderable degree.  They  only  justify  my  opinion,  previously  given 
(vol.  i.),  that  the  distribution  of  metals,  like  gold,  silver,  tin,  lead, 
zinc  and  mercury  is  very  small,  and  not  to  be  compared  with 
that  of  other  countries,  that  iron  and  antimony  are  to  be  found 
in  greater  quantities,  but  that  Japan  is  only  really  rich  in  coal 
and  copper. 

It  is  evident  that  the  gold  and  silver  mines  were  much  richer  in 
earlier  times.  They  were  gradually  exhausted,  however,  under  the 
Tokugawa  regime,  as  far  as  was  possible  with  their  rude  manner  of 
working.  For  even  if  the  estimates  and  reports  of  the  former  metal 
export  (viz.,  that  of  gold  and  silver  in  the  time  of  Portuguese  com- 
merce with  Japan)  were  exaggerated,  and  are  not  borne  out  by  the 
sober  judgment  of  to-day,  still  it  is  distinctly  stated  in  the  com- 
munications of  E.  Kaempfer,2  that  the  Dutch  carried  away  from 
Hirado  a yearly  average  of  1,200-1,400  chests  of  silver,  1,200,000- 
1,400,000  taels,  or  from  ^352,941-^411,765  in  value,  during  the 
period  between  the  years  1600  and  1641  ; that  for  some  time  after 
this,  they  exchanged  their  wares  for  copper  instead  of  silver,  and 
brought  away  from  12-20,000  pikuls  a year,  or  720,000-1,200,000 
kilogrammes.  Reckoned  together,  this  yearly  45-52  tons  of  silver, 
and  720-1,200  tons  of  copper  makes  a very  important  amount  for 
those  times. 

According  to  government  statistics,  which  however  can  make 
no  claim  to  reliability  in  regard  to  private  mining,  the  yearly  aver- 
age yield  of  silver  during  the  years  1877-1881  was  1164  tons,  and 
of  copper  8,900  tons.  Thus,  in  modern  times,  Japan  has  for  its 
yearly  silver  production  only  the  fourth  part  of  what  it  formerly 
exported.  The  amount  of  copper  seems  exaggerated,  for  in  1874 
G.  Hochstetter,  the  conductor  and  counsellor  in  the  chief  mining 
office  at  that  time,  estimated  the  copper  production  at  3,000  tons, 

1 One  of  the  most  competent  German  engineers  gave  his  experience  in  the 
following  sharp,  but  I am  told  quite  correct  expressions.  “The  Japanese  is 
vain,  remarkably  susceptible  to  flattery,  unsteady  and  always  seeking  some  new 
thing.  The  most  unsuccessful  attempts  were  made  at  mining.  Some  of  the 
foreign  advisers  gave  poor  counsel  because  of  their  own  lack  of  knowledge. 
Many  others  flattered  the  childish  vanity  of  the  Japanese,  in  order  to  fill  their 
own  pockets,  and  found  ready  accessories,  since  sharpers  have  the  keen  scent 
and  eye  which  honest  men  often  lack.” 

2 E.  Kaempfer’s  “ Gesch.  u.  Beschreib.  von  Japan.”  II.  Bd.  Lemgo,  1779, 
pp.  89-122. 


294 


MINING. 


and  three  years  later,  Netto  estimated  it  at  75,423  cvvts.,  not  quite 

4.000  tons.  The  production,  however,  has  much  increased  since 
then.  In  1855  the  old  copper  works  of  Ashiwo  alone  yielded  about 

3.000  tons. 

Before  entering  further  into  the  present  condition  of  Japanese 
mining,  a short  retrospective  glance  at  the  earlier  methods  of  work- 
ing, and  also  the  manner  of  preparing  and  smelting  the  ores  may  be 
in  place.  Here,  as  almost  everywhere,  the  mining  of  metals  and  coal 
was  conducted  on  the  plundering  principle,  which  was  carried  on  as 
long  as  the  water  in  the  shafts  permitted,  and  the  ore  yielded  a small 
amount  of  gain.  The  development  of  the  mine  and  the  excavation 
of  ore  were  accomplished  solely  by  means  of  galleries  or  Ogiri,  which 
went  up  or  down,  according  to  the  direction  of  the  lode,  but  were 
also  run  across  the  strata  to  effect  an  opening.  The  hauling  out  took 
place  partly  through  these  passages,  and  partly  through  the  so-called 
chimneys  or  Kemuri-dashi,  which,  however,  are  not  to  be  confounded 
with  shafts,  these  being  then  unknown  to  them.  These  Kemuri- 
dashi  are  not  simple,  smooth  holes,  leading  directly  to  the  depths 
below,  but  a peculiar  arrangement  of  galleries,  which  rise  and  fall, 
twist  about,  grow  wide  or  narrow,  according  as  they  encounter  hard 
rock  or  non-metallic  soil,  or  productive  lodes  and  deposits  which 
may  be  excavated.  In  many  respects  this  resembles  the  clumsy, 
unscientific  method  of  mining  among  the  Romans.  But  these  em- 
ployed captives  and  slaves,  whereas  in  Japan,  even  to  the  present 
day,  one  part  of  this  difficult  labour,  the  hauling  out,  is  done  by 
women  and  half-grown  children.  In  the  Roman  and  Carthaginian 
mines,  windlasses  at  least  lightened  the  labour  ; but  in  Japan,  all  the 
material,  ore  or  coal  and  waste  earth,  is  carried  to  the  surface  in 
baskets  or  straw  sacks  on  the  back.  The  name,  Kemuri-dashi 
(chimney)  for  these  upper  exit  galleries,  indicates  also  that  they 
are  used  for  ventilation.  In  like  manner  the  lowest  gallery  serves 
principally  to  carry  off  the  water  of  the  mine,  wherefore  it  is 
commonly  called  Midzu-nuki,  water  drain.  In  these  mining  oper- 
ations no  machines  were  employed,  except  very  inadequate  hand 
pumps ; and  the  tools  and  other  appliances  were  few  in  number. 
It  is  therefore  surprising  that  they  reached  a depth  of  from  700- 
800  feet  (2i2-3— 242 6 m.),  and  that  the  galleries  had  a length  of 

10.000  feet,  or  3,033  m. 

In  these  operations,  proper  sledge  hammers  were  altogether 
wanting.  The  work  had  to  be  done  almost  entirely  with  the  help 
of  the  pick-axe,  crowbar  and  steel  wedge,  and,  in  the  absence  of 
explosives,  was  necessarily  carried  on  in  a very  limited  space.  Most 
of  the  galleries  and  short  passages  are  therefore  very  narrow  and 
low.  In  former  times,  when  the  vicinity  of  the  mines  furnished 
wood  in  abundance,  the  excavation  was  furthered  by  setting  fire 
to  piles  of  wood  in  the  pits,  as  was  still  done  twenty  years  ago 
in  the  Norwegian  mines,  e.g.,  in  Kongsberg.  According  to  Netto, 
gunpowder  has  now  become  general  as  an  explosive  in  Japanese 


MINING  AND  SMELTING. 


29s 


mines.  Its  introduction,  however,  dates  only  from  the  year  1872, 
when  the  American  Pumpelly  came  to  Japan  as  counsellor  of  the 
government  of  the  Shdgun,  in  the  department  of  mines. 

The  water  control  belongs  indisputably  to  the  most  primitive 
and  inadequate  arrangements  of  Japanese  mines,  being  effected  by 
means  of  a poor  kind  of  hand-suction  pumps,  which  are  often  quite 
insufficient,  so  that  a mine  frequently  has  to  be  deserted  because 
the  water  becomes  unmanageable.  With  these  defects  was  often 
associated  a system  of  mining  by  contract,  which  increased  the 
planless  plundering  of  the  mines.  The  owner  provided  the  plant 
and  looked  after  the  water  control,  and  maintained  a weak  over- 
sight. The  contractor  undertook  the  extraction,  preparation  and 
smelting. 

The  preparation  of  the  ores  when  brought  to  the  surface  is 
effected  without  machines,  and  falls  into  the  hands  of  women  and 
children  exclusively,  who  are  much  employed  in  Europe  also  for 
such  work.  First  of  all  the  ordinary  method,  picking  by  hand,  is 
employed  to  separate  the  richer  ores  from  the  poorer.  Then  the 
latter  are  further  crushed  with  a hammer,  or  in  the  stamping  trough 
(see  p.  45)  as  employed  for  shelling  rice.  (There  are,  however, 
more  perfect  stamping  arrangements,  like  ours,  with  water  for  a 
motive  power,  and  an  overshot  wheel.)  Next,  the  heavier,  better 
kinds  of  ore  are  separated  from  the  lighter  ore  yet  to  be  stamped 
by  a sort  of  jigging  with  the  help  of  water,  and  thus  prepared  for 
roasting  and  smelting.  Gold  ores,  on  the  contrary,  are  ground 
after  the  hand-picking  in  hand-mills  under  a stream  of  water  ; and 
the  ore  still  to  be  washed  is  allowed  to  pass  off  over  inclined  boards, 
grooved  diagonally,  so  that  the  heavier  gold-bearing  lumps  are 
caught  in  the  grooves. 

The  sulphate  roasting  or  calcining  of  the  prepared  sulphurized 
ores  takes  place  not  in  kilns  or  open  stacks,  but  in  Yaki-gama  or 
roasting  furnaces,  built  up  with  stones  and  mortar.  These  are  con- 
structed as  a rule  on  a circular  foundation  of  from  4-6  feet  in 
diameter  (121-182  cm.),  and  to  a height  of  4 feet  (i2i‘32  cm  ),  and 
have  air  holes  on  one  side. 

For  smelting  all  sorts  of  ores,1  the  Japanese  use  a small,  simple 
oven  or  smelting  hearth,  O-doko,  or  Fuki-doko  (big,  or  blast-bed), 
with  a hand  chest-bellows  placed  at  its  side.  This  is  called  O-fuigo, 
and  is  worked  by  one  man.  One  person  is  sufficient  also  for  the 
smelting  hearth.  This  hearth  is  a shallow  pit,  12-15  cm-  *n  depth, 
and  40-50  cm.  in  diameter.  It  has  a floor  30  cm.  thick,  made  of  a 
cement  of  coal  ashes  and  clay,  stamped  hard,  resting  in  turn  upon 
sand.  The  fire  wall  surrounding  the  pit  is  a basket  work  made  of 
thin  branches,  and  then  covered  close  with  mortar.  Charcoal  is  the 
means  of  reduction  in  mixing  the  charge  materials.  For  further 
details  of  smelting  and  of  its  results,  and  of  mining  in  general,  I beg 
to  refer  to  the  instructive  and  profitable  works,  above  cited,  of 
Rosing  and  Netto,  which  contain  also  observations  on  the  Japanese 


296 


MINING. 


mining  law.  We  learn  from  the  interesting  book  of  Superin- 
tendent Brassert  also  quoted,  which  treats  this  subject  more  fully, 
that  Japan,  in  1873  (sixth  year  Meiji),  received  its  first  general 
mining  law.  It  was  modelled  after  the  German  law  in  essentials, 
although  leaving  great  play  for  the  discretion  of  the  government. 
To  the  owner  of  the  soil  belong  only  building  stone,  sand,  gravel, 
lime — in  short,  substances  available  for  building  and  agricultural 
purposes.  On  the  other  hand,  all  metals  and  their  ores,  combus- 
tible fossils,  rock  salt,  phosphorite,  and  precious  stones  are  mining 
property,  and  subject  to  the  State.  The  government  has  free  right 
of  disposal  over  this,  which,  however,  is  exercised  only  in  behalf  of 
subjects  of  the  Japanese  empire.  The  investment  of  foreign  capital 
is  forbidden  now,  as  formerly,  in  mining  and  in  agriculture. 

By  far  the  most  and  often  the  very  best  mines  are  now  owned 
and  worked  by  private  individuals.  Of  late,  the  government  has 
however  let  out  several  of  its  best  mines  at  comparatively  low  rates, 
after  having  organized  their  administration  anew  with  the  help  of 
foreigners.  It  is  manifest  that  it  finds  its  method  of  administering 
and  operating  too  costly,  and  the  annual  expenses  too  great  to 
continue  them. 

Mining  is  a separate  department  of  the  Kobusho  or  Bureau  ot 
Public  Works,  under  the  name  Kozan-kiyoku.  This  superior 
mining  office  represents  the  eight  Bun-kiyoku  (branch  or  mine 
offices)  of  the  country. 

The  following  table  A gives  a summary  of  the  yield  of  Japanese 
mines  during  the  five  years  1877-1881.  I have  used  Momme  for 
gold  and  silver,  and  Kuwan-me  (pronounced  Kamme),  for  the 
other  products.  Table  B shows  the  more  important  mines  of  the 
country,  arranged  according  to  the  value  of  their  returns  in  the 
year  1882.1  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  1 Kuwan-me  equals 
1,000  Momme  (3756'5  gramme),  and  that  1 Yen  equals  1 dollar. 

1 I am  indebted  for  both  these  tables  to  my  young  friend,  the  competent  and 
energetic  mining  engineer,  Kurimoto,  of  the  Superior  Mining  Office,  who  re- 
ceived part  of  his  education  at  the  School  of  Mines  in  Freiberg. 


TABULATED  VIEW  OF  PRODUCTION. , ETC. 


297 


Table  A. 

a. — Production  of  Government  Mines. 


j 1877. 

1878. 

1879. 

1880. 

1881. 

Gold.  . . 

87,433 

53,522 

50,231 

53,925 

48,084 

Silver  . . 

2,020,730 

1,579,003 

1,286,863 

1,574,482 

2,264,652 

Copper  . . 

112,018 

36,410 

101,115 

38,803 

85,174 

67,798 

71,225 

Lead . . . 

35,”2 

29,812 

27,984 

Iron  . . . 

— 

— 

157,357 

427,965 

514,677 

Coal  . . . 

18,347,343 

25,808,943 

38,833,844 

46,422,080 

47,262,595 

Coke . . . 

18,168 

22,590 

89,884 

H7,53i 

129,366 

b. — Production  of  Private  Mines. 


1877. 

1878. 

1879. 

1880. 

1881. 

Gold . . . 

5,988 

19,165 

19,457 

29,392 

33,129 

2,498,353 

Silver  . . 

924,687 

1,058,629 

1,136,415 

1,182,494 

Copper  . . 

939,301 

1,033,908 

LH9,635 

1,177,398 

1,201,246 

Lead . . . 

36,281 

41,814 

34,075 

42,148 

41,220 

Iron  . . . 

2,191,132 

2,721,322 

2,909,034 

3,208,378 

3,112,005 

Manganese 

3,442 

11,380 

3L54o 

— 

394 

Sulphide  of 
Antimony 

5,048 

46,249 

174,048 

134,560 

104,108 

Coal  . . . 

115,812,298 

156,896,323 

192,586,134 

190,460,983 

201,211,707 

Graphite  . 

— 

73,142 

2,954 

L348 

1,300 

Petroleum  . 

404,560 

756,812 

982,621 

1,078,954 

708,843 

Sulphur 

353,289 

573,813 

462,981 

317,963 

186,206 

6,639 

Alum.  . . 

5,895 

4,795 

2,138 

3,160 

Kaolin  . . 

4,377,137 

4,539,556 

5,492,819 

6,113,005 

6,267,293 

298 


MINING. 


Table  B, 

Value  of  the  Production  of  the  Principal  Mines  in  1882. 
(The  asterisk  denotes  mines  belonging  to  Individuals). 


• Province. 

Town. 

Product. 

Value 
in  Yen. 

Value 
in  £■ 

# Hizen 

Takashima 

Coal  (1884) 

1,026,000 

205,200 

*Iyo 

Besshi 

Copper 

568,519 

113,704 

* Chikugo 

Miike 

Coal 

410,641 

82,128 

* Hida 

Kamioka 

Silver 

3SL70I 

70,340 

*8ado 

Aikawa 

Gold  and  silver 

316,163 

63,233 

* Rikuchiu 

Kosaka 

Gold,  silver,  and 
copper 

241,118 

48,224 

* Nagato 

Zomeki 

Copper 

224,863 

44,973 

* Ugo 

Ani 

Gold,  silver,  lead, 
and  copper 

I7S,H7 

35,029 

* Echigo 

Kusakura 

Copper 

170,248 

34,049 

* Iwashiro 

Handa1 

Silver 

165,690 

33,138 

* Yamato 

Tatesato 

Copper 

153,763 

30,753 

* Tajima 

Ikuno 

Gold,  silver,  and 
copper 

139,844 

27,969 

* Harima 

Kuratoko 

Gold  and  silver 

125,743 

25J49 

* Ugo 

Arakawa 

Copper 

115,008 

23,002 

* lyo 

Ojoin 

Antimony 

114,163 

22,833 

* Bitchiu 

Nakaso 

Copper 

H3,455 

22,691 

Chikuzen 

Katsuki 

Coal 

96,265 

1 9,2  53 

* Shimotsuke 

Ashio 

Copper 

95,563 

I9,H3 

Echigo 

Takidani 

„ 

95,056 

19,011 

Hizen 

Kosasa 

Coal 

74,433 

14,887 

* Rikuchiu 

Osarusawa 

Copper 

71,279 

14,256 

* Ugo 

Innai 

Gold  and  silver 

70,645 

14,129 

Hizen 

Kishiyama 

Coal 

64,593 

12,919 

12,569 

* Rikuchiu 

Kamaishi 

Iron 

62,844 

Echigo 

Fukasawa 

Petroleum 

61,600 

12,320 

# Echizen 

Omodani 

Silver  and  copper 

61,229 

12,246 

11,165 

* Mimasaka 

Seto 

Copper 

55,827 

* Izumo 

Udo  _ 

54,348 

10,869 

Hizen 

Shishimachi 

Coal 

43, 01 8 

8,604 

* Hida 

Kamioka 

Silver  and  lead 

40,607 

8,121 

8,098 

* Yamato 

Wada 

Copper 

40,491 

* Hida 

Kamioka 

„ 

38,860 

36,961 

7,772 

* Ugo 

Sotta 

„ 

7,392 

Hizen 

Kosamurai 

Coal 

35,294 

7,059  - 

* Totomi 

Sugegaya 

Petroleum 

34,74i 

6,944 

Hizen 

Hirayamashita 

Coal 

33,778 

6,756 

Hizen 

Nagasaka 

„ 

28,707 

5,74i 

* Bingo 

Neshimo 

Yasuka  Mine 

Copper 

28,642 

5,728 

Hizen 

Tsukinokawa 

Coal 

28,487 

5,697 

* Uzen 

Abu  rat  0 

„ 

27,737 

5,547 

* Hida 

Kamioka 

Lead  and  copper 

26,070 

5,214 

* Uzen 

Shachiki 

Copper 

24,430 

4,886 

1 According  to  E.  Naumann  (see  “Verhandl.  Gesellschaft  fiir  Erdkunde.” 
Berlin,  vol.  xiv.  p.  229)  the  amount  of  silver  produced  annually  from  the  mines 
of  Handa  surpasses  that  of  Kamioka  by  far. 


TABULATED  VIEW  OF  PRODUCTION , ETC. 


299 


i 

Province. 

Town. 

Product. 

Value 
in  Yen. 

Value 
in  £. 

Chikuzen 

Seita 

Coal 

24,067 

4,813 

* Echigo 

Akadami 

„ 

23,567 

4,712 

Hizen 

Namise 

„ 

22,421 

4,484 

Hizen 

Iwaya 

„ 

22,023 

4,405 

* Iwami 

Toyokasegi 

Copper 

20,885 

4,177 

* Hizen 

Koyagi 

Coal 

19,582 

3,916 

Nagato 

Ube 

„ , 

19,130 

18,883 

3,826 

* Bizen 

Ishigami 

Copper 

3,777 

Hizen 

Imazuku 

Coal 

18,804 

3,76i 

# Mutsu 

Ennagose 

Copper 

18,747 

3,749 

* Kaga 

Isengi 

„ 

18,692 

3,738 

* Tajima 

Okuyama 

Gold 

18,540 

3,7o8 

* Yamato 

Murasakizono 

Copper 

17,882 

3,576 

* Yamato 

Kinoura 

„ 

17,342 

3,468 

* Mino 

Hatasa 

Silver,  lead,  and 
copper 

17,091 

3,418 

* Chikuzen 

Shakano 

Coal 

16,894 

3,379 

Chikuzen 

Neeta 

„ 

16,680 

3,336 

Hizen 

Hiada 

„ 

16,492 

3,298 

* Rikuchiu 

Ida 

Copper 

16,210 

15,984 

3,242 

* Kitami 

Tonehetsu 

Sulphur 

3,i97 

* Chishima 

Tofutsu 

„ 

15,802 

3,i6o 

* Mutsu 

Sunagose 

Silver,  lead,  and 
copper 

15,558 

3,H2 

# Bingo 

Shimoyama- 

mimami 

Copper 

15,019 

3,004 

* Osumi 

Yamagano 

Gold  and  silver 

14,734 

2,947 

Hizen 

6chi 

Coal 

14,525 

2,905. 

* Wakasa 

Nojiri 

Copper 

14,260 

2,852 

* Rikuchiu 

Osarusawa 

Gold 

I4,I30 

2,826 

2,801 

Buzen 

Igeta 

Coal 

14,006 

* Mimasaka 

Bessho 

Copper 

13,986 

2,797 

* Hiuga 

Kitakata 

„ 

13,656 

2,73i 

* Rikuchiu 

Shibanai 

„ 

13,584 

2,717 

* Harima 

Tsurudani 

„ 

12,857 

2,57i 

* Echizen 

Yamatakeda 

■„ 

12,789 

2,558 

*Toza 

Asadani 

„ 

12,788 

2,558 

* Rikuchiu 

Oyu 

„ 

12,323 

2,465 

* Echizen 

Kokuro 

„ 

12,323 

2,465 

Nagato 

Suge 

Coal 

12,250 

2,45° 

Buzen 

Ikejiri 

„ 

1 2,000 

2,400 

Chikuzen 

Katsuno 

„ 

H,37l 

2,274 

* Mimasaki 

Kumegawa- 

minami 

Copper 

10,954 

2,191 

Hizen 

Sasa 

Coal 

10,876 

2,175 

Echigo 

Oarato 

Petroleum 

10,790 

2,158 

Hizen 

Takuhara 

Coal 

10,594 

2,119 

Nagato 

Takatomari 

n 

10,286 

2,057 

* Bitchiu 

Fukiya 

YoshiokaMine, 

Copper 

10,266 

2,053 

Chikuzen 

Yateiwa 

Coal 

10,240 

2,050 

Hizen 

Yamaguchi 

,, 

10,013 

2,003 

* Satsuma 

Taniyama 

Tin 

9,752 

i,95o 

300 


MINING. 


Gold,  Jap.  Kin,  Ko-gane  and  Ogon,  according  to  Kaempfer  came 
principally  from  Sado  and  Suruga.  In  its  original  deposits  it  is 
now  only  found  in  such  very  small  quantities  that  the  yield,  even 
by  the  most  practical  methods  of  working,  would  not  cover  the 
cost.  The  gold  also  from  the  river-beds  of  Yezo,  Suruga  and  Kai 
are  said  to  be  so  insignificant  in  amount  that  it  scarcely  pays  the 
humblest  wages. 

The  celebrated  old  gold  and  silver  mines  of  the  island  of  Sado 
were  formerly  in  the  possession  of  the  Tokugawa-Shogun.  They 
were  worked  by  criminals,  and  yielded  rich  returns.  These  mines 
are  situated  in  the  western  part  of  the  island,  not  far  from  the 
capital  Aikawa,  in  a narrow,  steep-walled  valley  (see  map)  220 
meters  above  the  sea-level.  The  ore,  says  Reh,  is  found  in 
quartz  lodes  which  lie  in  quartzite  rock  and  extend  from  west  to 
east.  Their  thickness  varies  from  60  centimeters  to  6 meters.  They 
contain  fine  sprinklings  of  the  sulphides  of  silver,  copper  and  lead, 
and  small  quantities  of  native  gold  and  silver.  In  1874,  when  the 
Engineer  Reh  undertook  the  management  of  the  mines,  they  were 
opened  up,  to  a large  extent,  but  yielded  that  year  only  about 
83,365  yen  of  gold  and  silver. 

In  Kofu  I was  shown  some  beautiful  specimens  of  gold-bearing 
quartz  from  the  district  of  the  Haya-gawa  in  Kai  (tributary  of 
the  Fuji-kawa),  but  I do  not  know  of  any  gold-mining  in  that 
neighbourhood. 

I found  in  1875,  at  Serigano,  2\  ri  from  Sendai  in  Satsuma,  a 
similar  appearance  of  gold  and  silver-bearing  quartz,  like  that  of 
Sado.  The  lodes  contain  also  some  quicksilver,  but  are  very  poor 
as  a whole.  It  is  said,  however,  that  the  Daimids  of  Satsuma 
drew  a great  deal  of  gold  from  them  in  earlier  times.  The  gold 
and  silver  works  of  Yamagano  in  Osumi,  whose  product  so  far  is 
very  unimportant,  were  thought  for  a long  time  to  be  the  richest 
gold  mines  in  the  country. 

Silver,  Jap.  Gin  or  Shiro-gane  (white  metal),  is  much  more 
frequent  in  appearance  and  in  much  larger  quantity  than  its 
nobler  associate.  It  is  usually  found  in  sulphides  like  argentite, 
stephanite,  and  red  silver  ore.  It  is  worked  off  in  different  ways, 
as  a rule  however  after  an  old  fashion  of  melting  up  the  roasted 
ore  with  lead  (verbleiern)  and  fining  off  the  raw  lead.  The  best 
silver  mines  of  Japan  are  thought  to  be  those  of  Ikuno,  Sado, 
Kosaka,  Innai,  Mandokoro,  and  Ani.  In  the  following  list,  they 
are  arranged  according  to  their  yield  in  1882. 

a.  Kamioka  in  Hida,  bears  copper  also.  The  yield  of  the  mine 
in  1882,  of  351,701  yen,  is  higher  than  ten  years  before,  when, 
according  to  another  estimate,  two  mines  of  the  province  yielded 
29,760  ounces  of  silver,  and  three  others  156  tons  of  copper. 

b.  Sado,  already  mentioned  under  “ gold.” 

c.  Kosaka,  in  the  province  of  Ugo  (Akita-ken),  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  Upper  Noshiro-gawa,  and  of  the  frontier  of  Rikuchiu  and 


SILVER  AND  COPPER. 


301 


Mutsu,  lying  about  40°  N.  lat  has  an  old  mine  in  a very  remote 
district.  The  silver  is  auriferous. 

d.  Ani,  also  in  Ugo,  somewhat  south  of  the  preceding,  390  55' 
N.  lat.  and  140°  30'  East  from  Greenwich  (according  to  C.  von 
Weyhe,  39  Heft  der  Mittheil,  der  deutsch.  Gesellsch.  Ostasiens) 
yields  more  copper  than  silver. 

e.  Handa  in  the  north-eastern  part  of  Iwashiro,  north  of  the 
city  Fukushima. 

f.  Ikuno  in  the  northern  part  of  the  province  of  Tajima,  con- 
tains with  its  silver  a considerable  amount  of  gold  and  copper,  and 
is  situated  on  the  water-shed  between  the  Japan  Sea  and  Seto-uchi. 
Nine  years  ago  it  was  excellently  managed  by  the  Frenchman 
Coignet,  so  that  it  belonged  to  the  few  mines  under  governmental 
control  which  yielded  a surplus.  In  1877-78  its  nett  yield  was 
70,000  yen,  but  none  of  the  following  years  show  a like  favourable 
result.  At  that  time  there  were  a thousand  men,  a dozen  French- 
men among  them,  employed  in  the  works.  The  place,  formerly 
a village  with  scarcely  1,000  inhabitants,  had  become  a town  of  six 
times  that  population.  According  to  Coignet,  the  mines  are  360 
meters  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  the  temperature  occasionally 
sinks  to  — 140  C. 

g.  The  mine  of  Kuratoko  in  the  province  of  Harima  yields  some 
gold  with  the  silver. 

h.  Innai,  in  Ugo.  According  to  the  above-mentioned  highly- 
interesting  treatise  of  Rosing  upon  this  mining  district,  the  prin- 
cipal place  Gin-san-machi  (Silver-mine  town)  in  the  district  Okatsu 
(Oka-tsu-gori)  of  the  Akita-ken,  is  situated  38°  57'  N.  lat.  and 
140°  36'  East  from  Greenwich,  northward  from  Yamagata,  235 
meters  above  sea  level.  Here  for  nearly  300  years  (according  to 
Rosing  the  mine  was  opened  in  1599),  silver,  some  gold,  and  lead 
have  been  mined.  Argentite  is  the  principal  ore,  then  stephanite 
and  dark  red  silver  ore.  They  are  found  in  lodes  which  appear  in 
tufa  as  quartz  lodes  and  calcareous  spar,  and  in  some  places  are 
several  meters  thick.  The  most  common  and  often  associated 
sulphides,  pyrites,  copper  pyrites,  sulphuret  of  zinc  and  galena  are 
found  here,  but  only  in  small  quantities.  The  silver  ores  contain 
from  O'l-io  per  cent.  ; on  the  average,  however,  2\  per  cent, 
silver  and  1 per  cent.  lead.  The  silver  product  contains  1 per  cent, 
of  gold.1 

i.  Omodani.  This  silver  and  copper  mine  is  situated  in  the 
province  of  Echizen,  near  the  frontiers  of  Mimo  and  Kaga.  The 
remaining  silver  mines  yield  a very  insignificant  amount. 

Copper,  D6  or  Aka-gane  (red  metal)  has  formed  a prominent 
article  of  export  from  Japan  since  1642.  It  is  especially  valued 
for  its  purity.  The  amount  of  its  annual  yield  is  next  to  that 

1 The  mines  of  Innai  were  sold  by  the  government  a few  years  since  to  a 
private  individual  in  Tokio,  for  the  low  price  of  75, 000  yen,  and  the  great  copper 
mine  at  Ani,  for  a double  amount. 


302 


MINING. 


of  coal.  It  is  seldom  found  native,  or  in  oxydized  form.  Copper 
pyrites  is  the  chief  of  its  sulphides,  out  of  which  at  least  nine- 
tenths  of  all  the  Japanese  copper  is  extracted. 

It  is  customary  to  mix  the  roasted  ores  (copper  pyrites,  copper 
glance,  and  bornite)  with  ironstone  and  metallic  iron,  and  to  reduce 
them  in  little  blast  furnaces  by  means  of  charcoal.1  If  the  crude 
metal  contains  silver  it  is  again  melted  together  with  lead,  which 
takes  up  the  silver  and  some  copper,  and  then  to  set  free  the  silver, 
passes  through  the  well-known  conversion  in  the  refining  furnace. 
I saw  this  process  at  Hachiman  in  Mino.  The  larger  number 
and  by  far  the  best  of  the  Japanese  copper  mines  are  in  private 
hands.2  Table  B shows  the  copper  mines  of  Beshi  in  Iyo  on  the 
island  of  Shikoku  to  be  the  richest  in  yield  of  all  the  mines  of  the 
country.  It  is  the  well-known  Dd-san  or  copper  mountain,  cele- 
brated throughout  the  whole  country,  which  has  been  worked  for  a 
long  while.  Close  upon  these  mines  follow  those  of  Zomeki  in 
Nagato,  concerning  which  I know  nothing  further — nor  of  the  others 
succeeding  in  the  list,  the  mines  of  Kusakura  in  Echigo,  Tatesato 
in  Yamato,  Arakawa  in  Ugo,  Nakaso  in  Bitchiu,  and  Takidani  in 
Echigo.  The  last-named  directly  precedes  Ashio  in  Shimotsuke 
in  the  list.  This  mining  and  smelting  work  is  situated  6 ri  from 
Nikko,  has  been  for  a long  time  (according  to  Lyman  since  1610) 
in  operation,  and  must  be  the  copper-yielding  mine  spoken  of  by 
Kaempfer  as  Asingo.  1 saw  in  Nikko  pink  coloured  rock  crystals 
from  there  and  heard  that  the  smelting-house  in  1873  yielded 
20,000  kilogrammes  of  blue  vitriol  besides  500  tons  of  copper, 
amounts  which  according  to  more  recent  reports  have  been  greatly 
increased.3  The  copper  mine  Osarusawa  is  situated  in  the  same 
district  (upper  valley  of  the  Noshiro-gawa)  of  Katsunoof  theAkita- 
ken,  to  which  the  before-mentioned  silver  mines  of  Ani  and  Kosaka 
belong.  Twelve  years  ago,  this  mine  was  accounted  the  richest  in 
Japan.  It  lies  24  ri  north-west  of  Morioka  in  Nambu  whence  the 
copper  is  brought  by  beasts  of  burden,  in  order  to  be  shipped  in 
flat  boats  down  the  Kitakami-gawa  to  Ishinomaki,  and  thence  by 
sea  to  Tokio.4 

Our  table  shows  many  other  copper  mines  in  different  parts  of 
the  country,  and  gives  evidence  that  copper  is,  in  fact,  the  most 
widely  distributed  of  all  the  Japanese  metals. 

Lead,  Yen  or  Namari.  The  very  meagre  quantity  of  this  metal 
is  seen  in  the  two  lists.  Japanese  lead  mining,  consisting  of  a 

1 The  extracting  of  lead  from  Galena  ore  takes  place  in  similar  manner  by 
the  help  of  iron  and  coal  as  reducing  agents.  See  Pumpelly,  “ Across  America 
and  Asia,”  p.  147. 

2 The  enormous  increase  in  the  price  of  copper  during  the  last  twelve  months  has 
had  great  influence  on  the  production  and  rentability  of  Japanese  copper  mines. 

3 See  Lyman  : “ Geological  Survey  of  Japan.”  Reports,  1878-79. 

4 In  the  autumn  of  1S74,  on  the  way  from  Morioka  to  the  Ganju-san,  I met 
a great  many  horses  and  oxen  laden  with  such  copper,  and  heard  on  the 
following  day  that  39  horse-loads  of  it  had  arrived  to  be  shipped. 


LEAD  AND  IRON. 


303 


poor  galena,  does  not  yield  enough  for  the  domestic  need.  Lead 
is  extracted  with  silver  and  copper  at  Kamioka  in  Hida,  Hatlasa  in 
Mino,  and  Sunagose  in  Mutsu.  Pumpelly  mentions  the  lead  mine 
of  Ichinowatari  in  Oshima  on  the  island  of  Yezo,  which  he  saw  in 
1863,  and  reports  that  at  that  time  it  yielded  about  80  pounds  of 
lead  a day,  but  three  year^  before  100  pounds  daily. 

Tin,  Jap.  Shaku  or  Sudzu.  What  has  been  said  of  lead  is  also 
essentially  true  of  this  metal.  It  is  scarcely  found  anywhere 
except  on  the  island  of  Kiushiu,  and  only  in  insufficient  quantities 
as  shode.  Our  map  notes  Tani-yama  in  Satsuma,  which  furnished 
tin  to  the  valve  of  ,£3,922  in  1882,  and  Ohira-tetsu-san,  in  Bungo. 

Iron,  Jap.  Utsu  and  Kuro-gane,  i.e.,  black  metal.  The  pro- 
duction of  iron  in  Japan  is  still  small  and  not  sufficient  to  meet 
the  home  demands.  It  is  extracted  chiefly  from  ferruginous  sand, 
and  also  from  magnetic  iron  ore.  The  first  is  a frequently  occur- 
ring product  of  alluvium  along  the  coasts,  and  also  inland.  It  is 
found  oftenest  and  in  largest  quantity  in  the  provinces  of  Iwami, 
Izumo,  and  the  bordering  portions  of  Bingo  and  Mimasaka. 

The  magnetic  iron-ore  deposits  and  iron  mines  of  Kamaishi  in 
the  old  district  of  Nambu  (province  of  Rikuchiu),  are  the  most 
considerable  in  the  country.  They  are  located  in  lat.  390°  18' N. 
approximately,  5 ri  westward  from  the  bay  and  town  of  Kamaishi 
on  the  Pacific  ocean.  They  are  connected  with  the  harbour  by  a 
narrow  track.  The  deposits  occur  chiefly  in  the  water-shed  be- 
tween Kitakami  and  the  bay  of  Kamaishi  within  a circuit  of  3 
ri  in  at  least  a dozen  places,  generally  in  diabase  rock  together 
with  granite.  Most  of  these  deposits  seem  to  dwindle  toward  the 
depth.  Near  the  surface  some  of  them  show  a thickness  of  40-45 
meters.  The  magnetic  iron  ore  is  often  mixed  with  iron  and  copper 
pyrites  and  a trace  of  malachite  and  lapis  lazuli.  It  is  then  coarse- 
grained and  crumbles  easily  on  exposure  to  the  air.  The  better 
sort  is  free  from  these  admixtures,  fine-grained  and  compact.  By 
roasting,  the  greater  part  of  the  sulphur  is  expelled  and  a very  good 
quality  of  iron  obtained.  This  method  has  been  used  for  35-40 
years  at  Ohashi  and  Sahinai,  where  the  ore  is  said  to  have  been  first 
discovered.  I was  told  that  a Japanese,  twenty-five  years  ago,  es- 
tablished blast  furnaces  here  after  Dutch  drawings.  I saw  them  in 
operation.  The  construction  was  old-fashioned,  the  top-gases  not 
being  made  use  of.  The  casting  is  primitive  in  flat  pigs  on  sand. 
Ohashi  is  on  the  east  side,  and  Sahinai  on  the  west  side  of  the 
wooded  heights  which  form  that  water-shed.  Fifteen  years  ago  the 
Japanese  government  was  very  hopeful  and  devised  great  projects 
in  regard  to  these  iron-ore  beds.  They  wanted  to  make  of 
Kamaishi  another  Essen,  with  or  without  the  help  of  a Krupp;  but 
nothing  has  come  of  it.  In  autumn,  1874,  when  I examined  the 
condition  of  affairs,  they  were  busy  with  a narrow  track  5 ri  long, 
from  the  mines  at  Ohashi  to  the  harbour,  and  erecting  two  furnaces 
on  the  newest  principles.  These  have  been  for  some  time  in 


3°4 


MINING. 


operation,  also  a puddling  furnace ; but  soon  it  was  found  that  the 
quantity  of  ore  remained  far  behind  expectation.  The  works  are 
now  in  private  hands,  the  government  having  tried  unsuccessfully 
to  work  them  with  the  help  of  foreign  engineers.  The  desire  now 
is  to  supersede  the  constantly  diminishing  supply  of  charcoal  by 
coke,  and  many  attempts,  for  the  most  part  unavailing,  have  been 
made  to  manufacture  it  from  the  domestic  coal. 

A charcoal  furnace  was  built  by  some  English  engineers  at 
Nakakosaka  in  the  province  of  Kotsuke,  but  it  has  returned  little 
profit  to  its  owners  up  to  this  time. 

The  quartzite  lodes  of  the  older  slate  rocks,  which  are  the 
beds  of  most  Japanese  ores,  contain  besides  copper  pyrites,  the 
sulphides  of  iron  also  in  large  and  available  quantities.  It  is 
said  too  (on  the  oral  testimony  of  the  director  of  mines, 
Vogel,  at  Freiberg),  that  magnetic  iron  pyrites  is  much  more 
universally  abundant  than  white  iron  pyrites,  as  e.g.,  in  the 
frontier  districts  of  Bitchiu,  Bizen  and  Mimasaka,  where  the 
copper  mines  of  Ichigami,  Nakaso,  and  others  are  situated.  I did 
not  know  that  these  sulphides  of  iron  had  been  used  for  the  pro- 
duction of  sulphuric  acid,  at  all  events,  it  did  not  occur  in  the 
Mint  of  Ozaka,  when  the  manufacture  of  this  important  substance 
was  first  introduced  into  Japan  some  twenty  years  ago.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  inhabitants  have  long  understood  the  preparation 
of  Beni-gara  or  red  oxide  (Golcothar),  which  they  probably  learned 
from  the  Chinese.  They  used  for  this  purpose  then  as  now,  the 
abundant  magnetic  and  iron  pyrites,  for  Beni-gara  plays  a part 
not  only  in  their  medical  science,  but  is  used  in  many  branches  ot 
industry,  especially  in  porcelain  painting.  In  extracting  it,  the 
iron  pyrites  is  first  roasted,  then  the  calcined  ore  is  leached  with 
water,  the  copperas  crystallized  and  then  heated  to  a glow.  The 
colour  of  Beni-gara  is  more  vivid  and  beautiful  red  according  as 
the  copperas  used  has  been  pure  in  quality,  and  as  the  trituration 
of  the  heated  residuum  has  been  thorough  and  careful. 

The  Japanese  have  only  recently  become  acquainted  with  the 
manganic  oxides  and  their  uses,  and  have  accepted  their  European 
designations.  The  most  important  of  these,  pyrolusite  or  man- 
ganese ore,  is  found  in  many  localities,  chiefly  however  eastward 
from  Utsunomiya  on  the  borders  of  Shimotsuke  and  Iwaki. 

Zinc,  Jap.  Totan,  is  found  as  zinc-blende  in  small  quantities. 
Nickel  has  not  been  discovered  as  yet,  and  cobalt  only  in  a combin- 
ation of  small  value,  earthy  cobalt,  which  however,  was,  formerly 
of  importance  in  Japan.  The  Japanese  call  it  Guwa-sho-sei',  or 
Goshu,  and  according  to  its  different  appearance,  Seto-konjo,  or 
blue  Seto,  and  its  blue  extract  Yegusuri.  Apropos  of  this,  I take 
from  my  note-book  the  following,  made  during  my  visit  to  the 
porcelain  district  of  Seto  in  Owari. 

“ The  blue  cobalt  glaze  is  interesting.  The  colour  is  extracted 
from  a black,  earthy  mineral  (evidently  a kind  of  Asbolite)  which 


ANTIMONY, ; COAL. 


305 


serves  as  a medium  of  quartz  conglomerate.  It  is  found  about 
6 cho  (ten  minutes’  walk)  from  Seto,  and  in  several  other  places 
in  the  neighbourhood,  always  in  diluvial  gravel.  The  people 
drive  short  adits  in  these  gravel  pits,  without  any  timbers  or 
other  supports,  till  they  come  to  the  places  where  the  mineral  is 
found  in  pockets.  They  carry  it  out  in  baskets  and  pour  it  out 
on  an  inclined  plane.  The  fine  sand  and  gravel  remain,  but  the 
breccia-balls,  which  are  seldom  as  large  as  the  fist,  roll  down, 
and  are  picked  out  and  tested  by  women  and  children,  then  sold 
at  the  porcelain  manufactory.  The  cobalt  colour  is  extracted 
thus  : the  washed  material  is  heated  till  the  medium  has  become 
a peach-red  colour,  then  pulverized  and  washed  after  separating 
the  worthless  stone.  The  portion  which  has  been  thus  treated 
is  then  precipitated  by  salt  water,  the  precipitate  rinsed  and  then 
used.” 1 

Antimony,  or  grey  antimonite,  Jap.  Shirome-ko  and  Iyo- 
shirome-ko,  i.e.,  antimony  from  Iyo.  Its  real  nature  and  value 
has  only  recently  become  fully  known  to  the  Japanese.  They  did 
not  formerly  know  how  to  use  the  deposits  found  chiefly  in  the 
old  slate  rocks  of  the  larger  southern  islands — particularly  from 
Amakusa  through  Kiushiu  and  Shikoku, — but  now  it  is  a constant 
and  considerable  article  of  export.  The  antimony  mines  of  the 
country,  those  of  Ojoin-mura  in  Iyo  on  the  island  of  Shikoku 
especially,  have  furnished  our  mineral  collections  for  some  years 
with  the  largest  and  most  beautiful  crystals  of  antimonite  known. 

Table  B gives  the  value  of  the  yield  of  this  and  other  neigh- 
bouring antimony  mines,  for  the  year  1882,  as  over  ,£22,385.  The 
mine  is  situated  south-east  of  the  city  Saijo,  and  not  far  from  the 
copper  mines  of  Besshi.  But  there  are  others  also  in  various  parts 
of  Iyo,  especially  in  the  south-western  portion,  as  well  as  in  the 
neighbouring  province  of  Tosa.  They  are  found  on  Kiushiu  at 
Bungo,  Hiuga,  and  Higo.  The  island  of  Amakusa,  too,  shows 
several  antimony  lodes.3  On  the  other  hand,  the  find  of  anti- 
mony runs  in  the  direction  of  the  southern  schist  range  (vol.  i. 
p.  32),  and  in  a north-westerly  direction  over  a part  of  Kiushiu, 
and  Yamato  on  the  island  of  Hondo. 

Coal,  Sekitan  or  Ishi-dzumi.  No  other  article  of  Japanese 
mining  industry,  copper  perhaps  excepted,  is  found  in  so  many 
localities,  from  the  Riukiu  islands  to  Yezo,  and  no  other  has 
engaged  sq.  much  attention  during  the  last  twenty  years,  nor  has 
any  other  increased  so  steadily  in  the  amount  and  value  of  its 

1 It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  Chinese  name  Go-shu  means,  “ Gravel-pit 
of  Go,”  (the  province  Kiangsu,  where  Nanking  is  situated).  We  are  indeed 
justified  in  concluding  that  Asbolan  was  found  in  China  also  as  a cement  of 
gravel,  and  yielded  the  blue  cobalt  for  ceramics.  At  any  rate,  this  popular 
colour  is  one  of  the  oldest  which  was  used  in  both  countries  for  decorating 
porcelain. 

2 I saw  it  at  Takahama  near  the  west  coast  in  1875.  The  lode  had  a thick- 
ness of  16-20  cm. 

II. 


X 


3°6 


MINING. 


annual  product.  Japanese  coal  it  is  true,  like  all  Eastern  Asiatic 
coal,  is  not,  so  far  as  is  known,  as  good  in  quality  as  the  English 
and  Rhine  coal.  In  the  judgment  of  those  who  understand  its 
qualities,  among  whom  we  must  class  machinists  and  stokers  of 
steam  engines,  it  belongs  to  the  family  of  fatty  coals,  which  pro- 
duce a great  deal  of  smoke,  blacken  boilers,  form  clinkers,  thus 
hindering  the  draught,  and  cake  very  easily,  without,  however, 
forming  a good  kind  of  coke.  Lieut.  Roberts,  of  the  Perry  ex- 
pedition, for  example,  reports  of  them  as  follows  : — 

“ The  coal  which  we  got  at  Nagasaki  was  of  fourth  grade,  and 
poorer  than  the  Australian  and  American  coal  furnished  us  in 
Hongkong.  It  made  a great  deal  of  slag  and  dirty  ashes,  and 
the  fire  required  to  be  often  stirred.  We  used  23  tons  a day  in 
place  of  18  tons  of  good  English  coal.  The  coal  of  Takashima 
requires  to  be  kept  dry,  as  when  wet  it  often  fires  spontaneously.” 

Japanese  coal  in  most  places,  if  not  everywhere,  is  tertiary  coal, 
and  its  origin  of  lacustrine  formation.  Its  recent  formation  is 
proved  by  the  many  leaf  impressions  of  deciduous  plants  in  the 
shales  accompanying  it,  but  its  properties  and  appearance  are  like 
hard  coal,  and  only  in  exceptional  cases  resemble  those  of 
brown  coal. 

This  is  true  also  of  the  coal  from  Diu,  on  Sachalin,  which  was 
examined  by  the  academician,  F.  Schmidt,  of  St.  Petersburg,  and 
his  companion  von  Glehn.  A correspondent  of  “ Export ,” 1 after 
enumerating,  with  this  same  unfavourable  criticism,  the  pro- 
perties of  the  fatty  coal  of  Kelung  on  Formosa,  writes  : “As  the 
Japanese  coal  shows  the  same  defects,  the  coal  of  Kelung  may 
compete  with  it  in  the  markets  of  Eastern  Asia. 

Together  with  such  coal — for  it  is  really  bituminous  coal,  not- 
withstanding its  lack  of  age — may  be  found  also  many  seams  of 
genuine  brown  coal  in  the  neo-tertiary  strata  of  Japan,  although 
they  are  generally  thin.  Several  dozens  of  such  weak  seams  are 
often  found  one  over  another,  separated  by  some  intermediate 
stratum. 

The  north-western  part  of  Kiushiu,  with  the  provinces  of  Hizen, 
Chikuzen,  and  Chikugo  forms  the  richest  coal  district,  although 
Yezo  boasts  of  numerous  occurrences  of  coal.  Lyman  writes:  “One 
of  the  principal  results  of  the  geological  survey  of  Yezo  is  the 
recognition  of  the  fact  that  on  this  island  there  are  perhaps  1 50, OCX) 
million  tons  of  workable  coal,  or  two-thirds  as  much  as  the  coal  of 
the  same  thickness  in  the  celebrated  coal  fields  of  Great  Britain. 
The  amount  of  coal  on  Yezo  would  put  the  island  in  position  to 
furnish  the  present  annual  production  of  Great  Britain  for  nearly 
1,000  years.2 

The  island  of  Yezo  is  not  known  to  me  by  personal  observation. 

1 Export , VI.  Jahrgang,  No.  51,  Berlin,  1885. 

3 Lyman  : “ Geological  Survey  of  Hok-kai-do.  General  Report.”  Tokio,  1877, 
pp.  106-7. 


COAL. 


3°7 


What  I could  learn  from  other  sources  however,  and  could  gather 
also  in  part  from  the  export  statistics,  does  not  agree  very  well 
with  this  enthusiastic  description  of  its  wealth  of  coal.  From  all 
investigations  it  seems  to  be  evident  that  the  coal  of  Yezo  is  no 
exception  to  the  before-mentioned  universal  rule,  either  in  age  or 
character,  and  that  in  its  value  and  use  it  will  not  compare  at 
all  favourably  with  the  older  English  and  German  coal. 

Only  a small  portion  of  the  coal  of  Yezo,  and  indeed  of  all  Japan, 
is  adapted  to  the  production  of  good  compact  and  pure  coke, 
with  a metallic  lustre,  such  as  has  become  so  important  in  metal- 
lurgy and  so  necessary  in  the  modern  furnace  processes.  There 
are,  however,  a number  of  other  important  uses  for  their  coal,  and 
there  is  scarcely  a doubt  that  its  possession  promises  much  for  the 
future  development  of  Japanese  industry  and  national  prosperity. 

The  best  of  the  already  discovered  coal  strata  of  the  island  of 
Yezo  are  found  in  the  provinces  Shiribeshi  and  Ishikari.  From 
the  latter  come  the  coal  of  Sorachi,  and  of  Poronai,  Horumui,  and 
other  places  in  the  Ishikari  valley.  The  shipping  of  a part  of  this 
coal  has  been  rendered  possible  by  a railway  from  Poronai,  via 
Sapporo,  to  the  roadstead  of  Otaru.  In  the  province  of  Shiribeshi 
is  the  coal  district  of  Kayanoma,  to  which  the  Honshiki  coal  be- 
longs also.  The  thickness  of  the  workable  coal  strata  of  the  island 
appears  from  the  reports  of  Munroe  and  Lyman  to  vary  from 
15  cm.  to  2\  m.  There  are  thicker  seams  in  Japan  proper  also 
that  have  not  yet  been  opened.  Owing  to  the  more  recent  geo- 
logical age  of  Japanese  coal,  deep  mining,  with  its  costly  timber- 
ing and  ventilation,  is  not  necessary.  All  existing  coal  mines 
begin  with  coal  lying  near  the  surface,  and  proceed  by  means  of 
galleries  through  the  running  and  trending  of  the  stratum. 

According  to  our  tables,  the  coal  mine  at  Aburato,  in  the  province 
of  Uzen,  on  the  Japan  Sea  southward  from  Sakata,  yields  the  largest 
amount  of  all  the  mines  of  Hondo,  the  chief  island.  Then  follow 
those  of  Akadami,  Ube  and  Takatomari  in  Nagato,  lying  east  of 
Shimonoseki  on  the  Seto-uchi,  opposite  the  coal  district  of  Chiku- 
zen.  This  latter  embraces  a considerable  territory  on  the  island  of 
Kiushiu,  not  only  Chikuzen,  but  Buzen  bordering  it  on  the  east, 
and  the  northern  part  of  the  island.  Table  B places  the  produc- 
tion of  one  of  its  mines,  that  of  Katsuki,  after  that  of  Miike.  This 
last  very  notable  mine  is  situated  in  the  vicinity  of  the  flat  eastern 
coast  of  the  bay  of  Shimabara,  in  the  province  of  Chikugo,  not  far 
from  the  boundary  towards  Higo.  When  I visited  it  ten  years 
ago  it  was  still  worked  by  the  government.  Below  the  red  argil- 
laceous sand  lies  a thin  layer  of  earthy  coal,  then  follows  a stratum 
of  clay  schist  (slaty  clay  pebbles)  of  half  a meter  thickness.  It  is 
full  of  leaf  impressions  of  dicotyledonous  trees,  but  very  much 
crumbled  and  broken.  Now  follows  the  coal  stratum  of  2 meters 
thickness  in  places,  then  again  the  mixed  coal  and  clay  schist,  and 
then  sandstone.  These  strata  lean  at  an  angle  of  20-25°  toward 


308 


MINING. 


the  south-east.  The  mine  yields  a very  good  gas  coal,  and  has 
been  known  for  some  400  years.  It  passed  into  private  hands 
about  ten  years  ago,  and  is  now,  with  one  much  like  it  on  the 
island  of  Sakashima,  by  far  the  most  productive,  especially  for 
export  to  China. 

The  Takashima  coal  is  black,  lustrous  and  firm,  but  light,  like 
almost  all  Japanese  coal  when  compared  with  older  qualities.  It 
breaks  in  irregular,  prismatic  pieces,  exhibits  a black  streak,  and 
furnishes  a brownish  black  powder.  It  is  the  best  known  of 
Japanese  coal,  as  it  supplies  every  ship  bound  for  Nagasaki,  and 
on  account  of  the  favourable  location  of  the  mine  is  most  ex- 
ported. 

Taka-shima,  a little  island  of  only  54  hectares  extent  and  perhaps 
100  m.  above  the  sea  level,  is  situated  at  the  entrance  of  the  long 
narrow  bay  of  Nagasaki,  eight  or  nine  nautical  miles  from  the  capital 
city  of  Hizen.  Grey-white,  micaceous,  cross-grained  sandstone, 
friable  clay  in  thin  layers,  and  coal  strata  lean  toward  the  north 
at  an  angle  of  20-25°.  The  inhabitants  of  the  island,  distributed 
among  a few  small  villages,  earn  their  livelihood  principally  in  the 
mines  which  lie  close  to  the  sea  on  the  side  toward  Nagasaki,  and 
have  been  worked  for  about  eighty  years.  In  1 875,  a private  company 
purchased  the  mines  of  the  government  for  the  sum  of  £122,550 
In  the  spring  of  that  year  the  longest  shaft  was  only  50  meters, 
still  the  gallery  slanted  considerably  from  this  point,  following  the 
principal  stratum,  which  is  on  an  average  2 m.  in  thickness. 

The  larger  coal  basin  of  the  province  of  Hizen,  of  which  Taka- 
shima appears  to  be  an  outlying  member,  lies  farther  to  the  north, 
and  embraces  a number  of  mines,  among  which  the  best  known  is 
that  of  Karatsu,  lying  not  far  from  the  sea. 

The  occurrence  of  coal  on  the  island  of  Amakusa,  in  the 
southern  part  of  Hizen,  deserves  mention  also,  and  in  Shiki-mura, 
near  the  little  city  of  Tomioka  on  the  northern  side.  The  strata 
of  Oniki,  however,  on  a little  bay  at  the  south-west,  are  thicker  and 
much  more  valuable. 

The  foregoing  statements  regarding  Japanese  coal  were  written 
before  the  November  number  of  the  German  “ Handels- Archivs  ” 
for  1885,  with  its  short  statement  of  the  “Import  and  Export 
of  Coal,  and  the  Coal  Production  of  Japan,”1  came  to  hand.  I 
extract  very  gladly  some  interesting  facts  which  supplement  and 
corroborate  my  own  observations  and  opinions.  According  to 
this,  the  coal  export  of  Japan  for  the  three  years  1882-84  was 
as  follows : — 


Production. 

Value  in  Yen. 

1882 

327,240  tons 

1. 197.053 

1883 

39b944 

1,373.570 

1884 

522,211  „ 

1,828,263 

Export.  Value  in  Yen. 

128,230  to  China  455,146 
126,155  „ 407, 1S5 

180,950  „ 604,676 


1 The  statement  is  made  probably  by  our  Consul-General  Zappe. 


COAL , PETROLEUM. 


309 


Over  against  these  amounts  must  be  set  the  much  smaller 
amount  of  English  and  Australian  coal  which  was  imported 
for  the  fuel  of  foreign  vessels,  because  these  vessels  are  not  con- 
structed for  burning  Japanese  coal,  which  “makes  so  much  ashes 
and  dust.”  It  is  feared,  too,  that  the  export  to  China  will  decrease 
or  cease  entirely  as  soon  as  that  country  has  somewhat  more 
developed  its  own  coal  mines,  and  provided  for  the  transportation 
of  their  products  to  the  coast. 


Analyses  of  the  Coal  of  Japan  and  Neighbouring 
Islands. 


A. 

Elementary  Analysis. 

I. 

Taka- 

shima. 

II. 

Miike. 

III. 

Karatsu. 

IV. 

Sorachi. 

V. 

Horu- 

mui. 

VI. 

Hon- 

shiki. 

VII. 

Midzu- 

nuki. 

VIII. 

Kelung. 

Water  . . . 

. Carbon  . . 
Hydrogen  . 
Oxygen  and  \ 
Nitrogen  . J 
Sulphur  . . 
Ash  . . . 

1-320 

78-633 

S‘8l6 

8721 

0-659 

4-851 

0-536 

69-280 

5-524 

4-888 

3-488 

16-284 

2-690 

69436 

5-156 

1 1 -920 

i*i77 

9-621 

2928 

77-040 

5-685 

II’OI4 

0-542 

2791 

8-479 

68-842 

4771 

15-180 

0472 

2-256 

5-360 

65-221 

5-222 

IO'Il8 

1-607 

12472 

3714 

57-689 

4-620 

10-144 

3-765 

20-068 

3774 

73-013 

6-313 

15-129 

1-087 

4-408 

IOO'OOO  1 IOO'OOO 

IOO'OOO 

IOO'OOO 

IOO'OOO 

100-000 

100*000 

103774  I 

B. 

Fractional  Analysis. 

I. 

Taka- 

shima. 

II. 

Miike. 

III. 

Karatsu. 

IV. 

Sorachi. 

V. 

Horn- 

VI. 

Hon- 

shiki. 

VII. 

Midzu- 

nuki. 

VIII. 

Kelung. 

Water  Evapo- ) 
ration,  at  > 

40° c.  . .) 
Combustible  \ 
Gases  . ./ 
Carbon  resi-  \ 
duum  . . J 
Ash  residuum 

1-32 

38-13 

55-45 

5-10 

0-54 

38-5I 

43*36 

17-50 

2-69 

40-13 

47-12 

IO’OI 

2'93 

35-03 

59-05 

2-99 

8-48 

37*52 

51-67 

2"43 

5-36 

35’95 

46-11 

13-08 

351 

22-98 

67-51 

6-oo 

1 

377 

52-13 

43-47 

4-41 

ioo-oo 

IOO'OO 

99-95 

IOO'OO 

IOO'OO 

IOO'OO 

IOO'OO 

103-78 

Spec.  Gravity 

1-260 

1-335 

1-349 

1-279 

1-323 

1-351 

1-254 

Of  the  coal  classified  above,  I.,  II.,  and  III.  are  from  Kiushiu, 
and  IV.,  V.,  VI.,  and  VII.  from  Yezo.  Their  analysis  is  taken 
from  the  work  “Yesso  Coals,  by  H.  Munroe,  Tokei,  1874.” 
Number  VIII.  is  taken  from  F.  Hawks’  “ Narrative,  Perry  Expedi- 
tion vol.  ii.  pp.  167,  168;  and  IX.  from  Pumpelly’s  “Across 
America  and  Asia,”  Appendix,  p.  444,  XIII. 

Petroleum,  Jap.  Sekitan-yu,  Seki-yu,  or  Sekitan,  is  found  princi- 


3io 


MINING. 


pally  in  the  provinces  of  Echigo  and  Totomi,  but  is  not  sufficient 
in  quantity  to  supply  the  constantly  increasing  home  consumption. 
The  chief  petroleum  district  of  both  provinces  lies  on  the  west  of  a 
line  drawn  from  the  point  of  Omage-saki  on  the  coast  of  Totomi 
to  Niigata.  The  production  of  Totomi  is  concentrated  around 
Sugegawa,  but  the  little  city  of  Sagara  is  the  principal  place  of  the 
district.  Here  in  1877  (according  to  Lyman)  50  wells  yielded  in 
all  1,200  barrels  of  oil,  which  is  superior  in  lightness  and  in  bright- 
ness of  colour  to  that  of  Echigo.  For  Echigo,  our  map  gives 
Fukawasa  and  Oarata,  mentioned  in  Table  B,  as  the  central  points 
of  production.  In  1876  there  were  not  less  that  522  oil  wells 
in  this  district,  the  deepest  measuring  732',  or  222  meters.  None 
of  them,  however,  yielded  particularly  profitable  quantities.  The 
entire  production  was  estimated  by  Lyman  at  9,500  barrels,  worth 
31,650  yen  ; but  this  amount  has  increased  considerably  since  then, 
as  is  seen  by  the  figures  given  in  Table  B,  pp.  298,  299,  as  the 
production  of  these  places. 

Sulphur,  Jap.  Iw6  or  Yuwd.  This  is  found  as  a glossy  product 
of  sublimation  often  covering  the  crater  walls  and  crevices  and 
clefts  of  active  or  extinct  volcanoes  ; but  by  far  the  greatest  amount 
of  sulphur  is  formed  by  decomposition  of  the  sulphuretted  hydrogen 
of  the  solfataras.  As  these  volcanic  manifestations  are  very  wide- 
spread in  Japan,  the  frequent  occurrence  of  sulphur  is  not  sur- 
prising. Sometimes  the  suffix  “ Iwo  ” in  the  name  of  a mountain 
or  an  island  indicates  its  presence  there. 

Satsuma  was  formerly,  says  Kaempfer,  the  principal  sulphur 
producer.  The  little  island  Iwo-shima,  to  the  south,  also  furnishes 
sulphur.  It  is  obtained  at  Iw6-dake  and  Yadake  in  Hida,  from 
Shirane-san  on  the  boundary  between  Kotsuke  and  Shinano. 
When  Pumpelly  visited  Yezo  in  1864,  he  ascended  Iwaounobori 
from  Iwanai  on  the  south-western  coast.  He  saw  several  solfataras 
and  their  effects,  and  states  that  the  monthly  production  of  sulphur 
of  the  mountain  was  6,400  pounds,  and  the  total  for  the  year,  38,400 
kilogrammes,  or  384.  tons.  Our  table  indicates  two  other  places 
in  Hokkaido,  however,  as  the  most  important  sulphur  producers, 
viz.,  Tonebetsu  in  Kitami,  and  Tofutsu  on  the  not  far  distant 
island  of  Kunashir. 

Salt,  Jap.  Shiwo  or  Shio,  up  to  this  time  has  not  been  found  as 
rock-salt  or  in  applicable  salt  springs,1  but  is  extracted  exclusively 

1 When  one  considers  the  great  number  of  hot  springs  scattered  over  the 
whole  of  Japan,  the  dearth  of  salt  springs  is  particularly  surprising.  The  only 
exception  worth  noting  appears  to  be  Oshio  in  Aidzu  (Iwashiro).  This  place 
which  I passed  on  the  4th  of  October,  1S74,  on  the  way  from  Wakamatsu  to 
Yonezawa,lies  6 ri  from  the  former  inthe  bason  of  an  old  volcanic  mountain  ring, 
whose  principal  rock  seems  to  be  grey  Andesite.  By  crossing  over  a small  stream 
was  reached,  on  whose  right  bank,  to  the  right  of  the  road,  are  two  warm  springs 
close  together.  I tested  the  temperature  at  390  and  38°  C.,  and  found  that 
each  one  flowed  at  the  rate  of  1 sho  (about  r8  liter)  every  four  or  five  seconds. 
The  water  is  weak  in  salt  and  rich  in  iron.  A great  amount  of  carbonic  acid 


from  sea-water.  The  Japanese  method  of  salt-producing  is  exactly 
the  same  as  that  employed  in  China,  described,  e.g.,  by  Fortune.1 
In  the  summary  of  Japanese  agricultural  product,  given  on  page  II, 
one  division  of  the  soil  is  designated  Shio-hama,  or  salt-coasts. 
These  are  flat  sandy  strips  of  coast,  in  all  6,364  ch6  or  hectare, 
which  are  devoted  to  the  extraction  of  salt  from  sea-water. 

The  sandy  flat  coast,  to  make  a salt  garden,  must  lie  out  of 
reach  of  the  tide.  It  is  divided  usually  into  fields  of  2\  tan  or  25 
are,  each  one  worked  by  two  men.  They  smooth  it  to  a perfect 
level,  and  cover  it  with  an  even  coat  of  well  pounded  clay.  On 
this  they  spread  a thick  layer  of  coarse  sand,  carefuly  raked  over. 
This  is  then  wet  with  sea-water,  which  is  carried  by  little  ditches 
through  the  garden,  and  repeated  after  each  evaporation  till  a con- 
siderable amount  of  salt  has  been  left  in  the  sand.  This  is  raked 
up  together  for  leaching  in  a kind  of  filter,  by  the  addition  of  sea- 
water whose  amount  of  salt  is  thereby  greatly  increased.  The  sand 
is  then  spread  out  to  dry,  and  again  wetted  with  salt  water,  etc.,  as 
before.  The  brine  is  collected  in  ditches  or  tubs  and  poured  into 
the  boiling  pans  whose  construction  resembles  the  contrivances  used 
for  drying  tea  (see  p.  118  b).  These  salt  pans  are  usually  2-2 \ 
meters  long,  i|  meters  broad,  and  about  half  a meter  in  depth. 
The  pans  consist  of  a frame-work  of  woven  bamboo,  plastered  in- 
side and  out  with  clay  cement,  and  supported  by  two  beams  with 
wooden  cross  pieces.  Wood  is  used  as  fuel  for  the  evaporating 
process,  chiefly  the  branches  (and  needles  also)  of  conifers.  Coal 
is  also  used.  There  are  besides  large  iron  evaporating  pans  called 
Shio-gama,  but  they  appear  to  be  little  in  use  compared  with  the 
arrangements  described  above. 

Japanese  sea-salt  is  far  less  pure  than  that  from  the  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean,  has  a grey-white  colour,  and  with  8 to  12  per  cent, 
of  water,  contains  only  80  to  90  per  cent,  of  chloride  of  sodium. 
Its  preparation  is  not  a government  monopoly,  as  in  China,  and  is 
carried  on  in  many  places  along  the  coast,  especially  in  the  south, 
most  of  all  along  the  Japanese  Seto-uchi  (Inland  Sea),  on  the  coast 
of  Iyo,  Sanuki,  Awa  and  the  provinces  of  Sanyddd.  The  coast  of 
Satsuma  also  has  salt  fields  already  mentioned,  e.g.,  at  Akune.  At 
Kanazawa,  in  the  vicinity  of  Yokohama,  a considerable  amount  of 
salt  is  produced. 

According  to  Geerts,2  the  yearly  salt  production  of  the  Japanese 

escapes  from  it,  and  much  ferric  hydrate  is  precipitated.  It  is  said  to  have 
been  used  many  centuries  for  salt  extraction,  but  for  the  last  twenty  years 
it  has  flowed  unutilized  into  the  brook.  Ascending  still  higher  along  the  road, 
I found  a third  weaker  salt  spring  with  20°  temperature,  this  change  proceeding 
from  cold  water  flowing  into  it. 

1 “A  Residence  among  the  Chinese,”  pp.  305,  306. 

2 “Les  produits  de  la  nature  japonaise  etchinoise.”  Yokohama,  1883,  p.  308. 
This  book  contains  many  valuable  statements,  which  unfortunately,  however, 
must  be  used  with  care,  owing  to  the  lack  of  judgment  with  which  others  of 
a different  character  are  mingled  with  them. 


312 


MINING. 


coast  is  estimated  at  5,700,000  hectoliters,  distributed  as  stated 
above,  over  6,364  hectares  of  salt  gardens,  making  an  average  pro- 
duction of  895  hectoliters  to  each  hectare  during  the  seventy  or 
eighty  dry  summer  days.  This  amount  does  not  compare  with  the 
returns  from  the  salt  gardens  of  equal  area  on  the  Mediterranean 
coast  It  must  be  especially  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  the 
climate  of  the  latter,  with  its  dry  air  and  rainless  summers,  is  in- 
comparably more  favourable,  and  therefore  the  production  can  be 
carried  on  in  an  entirely  different  way  from  that  of  the  eastern 
monsoon  district  with  its  numerous  summer  rains. 

Alum,  Jap.  Mid-ban  (Miy6-ban)  has  been  known  for  at  least 
1,200  years  in  japan,  and  is  used  there,  as  with  us,  as  a mordant  in 
dyeing.  It  is  frequently  found  native  in  a white  earthy  decom- 
position of  volcanic  rock,  which  has  taken  place  by  the  action  of 
solfataras.  This  Ji-nen-han  or  natural  alum  is  extracted,  and  the 
pure  crystals  are  formed  in  the  solution.  It  is  generally  called  Ban- 
seki  or  Han-seki,  alum  stone,  but  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  it. 
I saw  beautiful  alum  at  an  Exhibition  in  the  spring  of  1875  at 
Funai,  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Bungo,  which  is  considered 
the  principal  place  for  its  production.  Shinano,  Kotsuke,  and  Hida 
are  also  mentioned  for  their  alum. 

Porcelain  stone,  Kaolin,  Potter’s  clay.  A number  of  different 
products  of  the  decomposition  of  felspathic  rocks  are  used  in  the 
extended,  and  in  some  of  its  branches  highly  developed,  pottery 
industry  of  Japan.  They  are  called  in  Japanese,  Ishi,  stone,  and 
Tsuchi,  earth,  according  to  their  nature,  while  usually  the  different 
species  are  designated  with  the  name  of  the  place  where  they  are 
found.  We  divide  these  ceramic  materials  into  two  classes  accord- 
ing to  the  agencies  which  have  wrought  the  decomposition  of  the 
felspathic  matrix,  viz.  : 

1.  Porcelain  stones.  Peculiar  products  of  the  decomposition  of 
trachyte,  euritic  porphyry  and  other  volcanic  rock,  rich  in  silicic 
acid,  and  appearing  in  unstratified  masses.  Their  decomposition  was 
probably  brought  about  by  the  influence  of  the  sulphides  of  hydrogen 
and  aqueous  vapour  of  the  solfataras.  To  this  class  belong  the 
most  valuable  materials  of  Japanese  porcelain  manufacture,  the 
Arita-ishi  of  Hizen,  the  Amakusa-ishi  of  the  island  of  Amakusa, 
the  Kutani-ishi  and  Nabetani-ishi  of  Kaga,  and  others  beside. 

The  solfatara  (Jap.  Jigoku,  hell)  affects  not  merely  the  vegetation 
in  its  vicinity,  but  also  the  rock.  It  bleaches  trachytic  and  doleritic 
lava,  and  works  an  entire  transformation  in  them.  The  silicic  acid, 
among  other  things,  is  often  separated  as  stalactite,  and  then  ap- 
pears as  a medium  of  a new  cementation,  as  is  shown  very  distinctly 
in  Amakusa-ishi.  Pumpelly  observed  a similar  transformation  by 
the  solfataras,  at  Yu-nonai — the  solfataras  of  Iwanai  on  the  island  of 
Yezo — concerning  which  he  remarks  as  follows:  “The  hot  springs 
here  are  in  close  connection  with  snow-white  quartz  porphyry. 
This  rock  is  impregnated  with  iron  pyrites,  which  in  many  places 


PORCELAIN  STONE , POTTER’S  CLAY,  KAOLIN,  SLATE.  313 


is  only  indicated  by  cubic  cavities  containing  sulphur.” 1 The 
bleached  Liparite  of  the  Lipari  Islands,  and  the  grey-white 
Rhyolithe  of  Hungary  are  perhaps  the  results  of  similar  changes 
under  the  influence  of  solfataras,  at  least  they  resemble  strongly 
the  Arita  and  Amakusa  rock,  concerning  the  chemical  composition 
and  employment  of  which  more  will  be  said  in  the  section  on 
Ceramics. 

2.  Disintegration.  Products  of  common  felspar  and  kindred 
minerals  and  rock  rich  in  argillaceous  earth.  Kaolin  belongs  to  this 
class,  and  the  plastic  clays  in  their  varied  modifications,  even  to 
common  loam. 

The  principal  sources  of  porcelain  stone  and  Kaolin,  the  basic 
material  of  fine  pottery,  are  indicated  in  the  tables  with  the  pro- 
ducts of  mining  industry  proper,  and  will  be  further  treated  under 
Ceramics. 

Porcelain  stone  and  Kaolin,  are  taken  from  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  and  do  not  therefore  belong  properly  to  mining,  but  to 
the  Gioku-seki-rui,  the  family  of  stones  which  are  obtained  from 
the  quarry,  Jap.  Ishi-yama  (stone  mountain),  or  Ishi  wo.  hori-dasu 
tokoro  (i.e.,  place  where  stone  is  dug  out).  It  has  been  shown  in 
the  first  volume  of  this  work,  that  freestone  proper,  and  stone  in 
general,  has  had  but  very  subordinate  use  in  building,  e.g.,  for  the 
massive  walls  of  old  fortresses,  stairs  leading  to  temples  located  on 
heights,  stone  turrets,  monuments,  bridges,  pavements  of  temple 
courts  and  gardens,  cooking  hearths,  wash-basins  and  rice  troughs. 
For  these  purposes  they  used  almost  without  exception  granite, 
especially  the  Mikage-ishi  from  Settsu,  and  the  Teshima-ishi  from 
Bizen,  besides  trachytic  and  doleritic  lava,  as  well  as  the  older  slate. 
Common  limestone  is  burned  and  its  powder  (Ishi-bai,  i.e.,  stone 
powder)  is  used  as  a manure,  but  seldom  for  building  purposes. 
Marble,  called  R6-seki  and  Sarusa-ishi  by  the  Japanese,  is  found 
in  several  parts  of  the  country,  in  Bizen,  Mino,  and  Hitachi. 
Some  statues  in  and  around  temples,  from  the  white  marble 
of  Hitachi — quarried  near  the  coast  north  of  Mito,  the  capital- 
show  that  it  is  spendidly  qualified  for  the  purposes  of  sculpture. 
From  the  variegated  marble  (Fusuline  lime)  of  Akasaka  in  Mino, 
a variety  of  small  articles  are  cut,  among  them  saucers  to  rub 
India-ink  in. 

Slabs  of  old  slate,  Seki-ban,  or  Date-ishi,  are  used  for  paving 
walls  in  gardens  and  courts,  and  large  ones  for  small  bridges  over 
streams  and  irrigating  ditches. 

The  greyish  blue  slate  which  resembles  our  slate  used  for  pencils 
in  hardness,  colour,  and  grain,  is  employed  very  extensively  in 
the  manufacture  of  India-ink  saucers.  The  best  known  and  most 
celebrated  for  this  purpose  is  the  Amabata-ishi  from  the  province  of 
Kai,  whose  quarrying  and  working,  owing  to  the  large  demand,  has 

1 Pumpelly  : “ Across  America  and  Asia,”  p.  177. 


3*4 


MINING, 


furnished  employment  a long  time  to  a large  number  of  labourers. 
The  method  of  polishing  is  similar  to  that  employed  for  rock- 
crystals,  Jap.,  Suisho,  agates  (Meno-seki)  and  related  semi-precious 
stones.  The  most  celebrated  source  of  rock-crystals  is  the  Kimpu- 
zan  in  Kai,  where  the  beautiful  twins,  in  certain  of  our  collections, 
were  found.  Agates,  cornelians,  and  chalcedony,  occur  in  Echiu 
and  Idzumo,  being  also  worked  there.  For  polishing  all  these 
hard  stones,  garnet  sand  is  used  (Kongo-sha,  i.e.,  sand  from  the 
Kongo-san,  a long  mountain  ridge  in  Kawachi  on  the  right  of  the 
Yoshino-gawa).  But  this  kind  of  stone- work  belongs  properly  to 
Art  Industry,  and  will  therefore  be  discussed  more  in  detail  in  the 
next  section. 


ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED 
OCCUPATIONS. 


315 


III. 


ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 

“Quam  quisque  norit  artem  in  hac  se  exerceat.” 

— Cz'c.  Tusc.,  i.  1 8,  41. 

i.  Japanese  Art  Industry  in  General. 

Revival  of  European  Art  Industry. — Growing  Interest  in  the  Pro- 
ductions of  the  Chinese  and  Japanese. — China  the  Master  and 
Model  of  fapan. — Characteristic  Features  of  fapanese  Art- 
handicraft  and  its  Products. — The  Period  of  Highest  Develop- 
ment and  the  Means  of  its  Advancement. — Its  Influence  upon 
that  of  the  Christian  Countries  of  the  West. 

One  of  the  most  conspicuous  and  lasting  effects  which  may  be 
credited  to  the  great  International  Art  and  Industrial  Exhibitions 
of  the  last  three  decades,  is  undoubtedly  their  influence  on  the 
revival  of  interest  in  art  industry.  The  first  conception  of  such  a 
great  universal  exhibition  was  formed  in  England,  and  from  that 
country  also  the  first  intelligent  impulse  toward  the  important 
matters  of  art  industry  has  spread  rapidly  abroad  among  the 
Christian  civilised  states  of  the  West. 

Since  then,  by  means  of  instruction  and  illustration  in  schools 
and  museums,  it  has  been  sought  to  revive  the  much  sunken  and 
deteriorated  art  handicraft  afresh,  to  awaken  the  feeling  for  the 
really  beautiful  in  industrial  products,  or,  as  it  has  been  expressed, 
to  ennoble  taste  and  thus  to  advance  trade  and  industry. 

First  of  all,  proportion  and  harmony  were  to  be  studied  and 
fostered.  These  two  conceptions,  most  important  and  far  reaching 
in  every  art,  are  no  less  necessary  in  art  industry.  They  embrace 
everything  which  form  and  decoration  must  offer  in  order  to  meet 
our  ideal  sense  of  beauty,  which  Plato  ranks  so  high  as  to  attribute 
it  to  a divine  origin. 

These  earnest  and  energetic  efforts  to  elevate  art  industry  by 
means  of  collections  and  instruction,  and  so  to  advance  national 
labour  and  welfare,  were  not  displayed  in  Germany  till  after  several 
neighbouring  countries  had  furnished  us  good  and  successful 
examples.  We  soon  made  up  for  our  neglect  however,  and  al- 
ready see  the  fruits  of  the  greater  energy  which  our  Governments, 
together  with  many  private  interests,  have  shown.  We  can  but 
observe  what  has  been  accomplished  for  example  in  textile  pro- 
317 


318  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


ducts,  and  especially  in  embroidery,  or  compare  the  artistic  forms 
and  decorations  which  to-day  distinguish  the  work  of  our  gold 
and  silversmiths,  with  the  many  awkward  and  tasteless  specimens 
of  preceding  periods. 

Bad  models,  abundantly  set  and  followed,  spoil  the  taste  as 
inevitably  as  in  morals  bad  examples  corrupt  good  manners.  Good 
designs  of  figure  and  decoration  are  thus  necessary  also  in  art 
industry,  in  order  to  refine  the  taste  and  to  guide  tastes  already 
refined.  To  obtain  them  we  went  back  to  the  operations  of  art 
industry  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  even  farther,  to  the  antique. 
They  were  sought  and  found  also  in  the  far  Orient,  among  Arabs, 
Persians  and  Indians,  and  even  beyond  the  boundaries  of  Aryan 
nations,  among  the  Mongolians  of  the  Chinese  system  of  civiliza- 
tion, especially  in  China  and  Japan.  The  manifold  productions 
of  Japanese  art  industry  in  particular,  which  are  brought  to  Europe 
and  North  America  by  almost  every  ship,  and  reach  even  the 
smallest  inland  cities,  have  exercised  a powerful  influence  on  many 
branches  of  Western  European  art  industry.  This  has  been  shown 
to  a surprising  degree  in  the  Industrial  Exhibitions  of  the  last 
sixteen  years,  notably  in  the  great  Paris  Exhibition  of  1878.  So 
much  has  been  written  concerning  it,  as  well  as  of  the  history 
and  peculiarity  of  Japanese  art  industry,  that  it  may  seem  almost 
superfluous  for  me  to  attempt  in  the  following  treatises  to  discuss 
the  subject  in  a comprehensive  and  perhaps  a somewhat  original 
way.  I am  moved  to  it  by  the  consciousness  that  I had  a better 
occasion  and  opportunity  to  make  a thorough  study  of  the  art 
handicraft  of  the  Japanese  than  has  been  the  case  with  most  of 
its  reviewers  hitherto. 

Architecture,  which  among  Aryan  nations  has  the  most  notable 
and  powerful  influence  upon  art  industry,  has  not  developed  any 
such  high  significance  in  Chinese  civilization.  All  its  architectural 
creations  are  perishable  wooden  buildings,  and  only  exceptionally 
make  any  monumental  impression.  The  most  important  are 
Buddhist  temples,  which  seem  weighed  down  and  burdened  under 
their  disproportionally  heavy  roofs.  They  exhibit  a multiform 
wooden  ornamentation  which  may  indeed  be  the  expression  of  a 
rich  fancy,  but  seldom  however,  with  the  exception  of  the  carving, 
is  a sign  of  a particularly  developed  artistic  sense. 

Art  industry  among  those  Eastern  Asiatic  people  has  its  centre 
in  the  many  little  productions  which  they  form  out  of  plastic  clay, 
metal,  wood,  and  ivory.  These  are  richly  decorated  partly  with 
lacquer  and  enamel  colours,  partly  with  engraving,  chasing,  inlay- 
ing with  metal,  and  an  extremely  tasteful  use  of  curves,  and  even 
more  of  straight  and  broken  lines.  So  also  is  it  in  textile  industry, 
from  simple  weaving  to  the  most  complicated  silk  or  cotton  fabrics. 
In  Japan  as  in  China,  it  is  in  the  art  of  lacquering,  fine  ceramics 
enamel,  chasing  and  inlaid  work,  especially  bronze  work  and  forg- 
ing of  weapons,  also  wood,  ivory,  bone  and  stone  cutting,  and  in 


JAPANESE  ART  INDUSTRY  IN  GENERAL. 


3i9 


the  weaving  and  colouring,  that  the  feeling  for  art  and  the  artistic 
skill  of  the  people  show  themselves. 

China  is  the  original  home  of  these  branches  of  industry.  Japan 
has  received  them  thence  as  well  as  the  most  of  its  peculiar  habits 
and  decorations.  Chinese  state  polity  and  jurisprudence,  Chinese 
letters  and  literature,  Chinese  ethics  and  medicine,  Chinese  art  and 
industry  with  all  their  peculiarities  of  operation  and  tendencies  of 
taste,  all  reached  Japan,  and  mostly  by  way  of  Corea,  with  Bud- 
dhism, the  great  base  and  supporter  of  the  particular  Eastern 
Asiatic  civilization  which  includes  China,  Corea,  Japan,  and  a part 
of  Farther  India. 

Japan  has  regarded  China  as  her  model  in  all  these  departments 
for  many  centuries,  and  has  developed  great  aptness  of  imitation 
and  skill  in  the  use  of  its  acquirements,  but  on  the  other  hand 
very  little  independent  creative  power.  The  indisputable  fact  that 
it  now  far  surpasses  its  old  masters  in  the  most  extended  branches 
of  art  handicraft,  is  to  be  attributed  to  this  very  gift  of  imitation, 
and  inclination  to  appropriate  what  has  been  seen  and  to  make  it 
useful,  and  above  all  to  its  own  developed  sense  of  beauty  in  nature 
and  art. 

The  relics  of  Japanese  industry  before  the  time  of  the  ascendancy 
of  Chinese  influence,  which  have  become  known  chiefly  from 
excavations,  show  that  the  country  at  that  time  occupied  a very 
low  plane  of  artistic  ability  and  taste.  There  is  a great  resem- 
blance in  the  forms  and  decorations  of  these  ceramic  discoveries  to 
the  first  phases  of  cultivation  in  many  other  and  widely  separated 
nations.  The  forms  are  awkward,  inclining  to  spherical  shapes,  and 
the  decorations  simple.  As  in  all  young  civilizations,  the  older 
people  of  Japan  before  their  contact  with  Chinese  and  Coreans  in 
the  first  centuries  of  our  era,  beside  simple  lines  and  dots,  imitated 
animals  instead  of  plants  in  their  decorations. 

In  Europe,  from  the  Middle  Ages  onward,  so-called  free  aca- 
demic art,  i.e.,  painting  and  sculpture,  forsook  art  industry 
altogether,  went  its  own  way,  and  soon  was  far  in  advance.  In 
Eastern  Asia  it  was  entirely  different.  Here  free  art  has  remained 
far  behind  art  industry,  and  has  been  only  partially  developed. 
The  Eastern  Asiatic  has  been  for  centuries  especially  hampered 
by  conventional  forms  in  the  pictorial  representation  of  the  human 
body.  He  paints  after  an  old  traditional  type,  no  matter  how 
little  it  may  be  like  nature. 

A dreary  naturalism  on  the  one  side,  and  the  free  play  of  an 
exuberant  fancy  on  the  other,  rule  the  art  industry  of  Eastern  Asia. 
But  nowhere  else  have  these  traits  been  so  thoroughly  cultivated. 
We  find  together  with  a highly  developed  sense  and  comprehen- 
sion of  the  beautiful  in  nature  and  in  art,  an  inclination  toward 
the  grotesque  and  unsymmetrical  all  the  more  striking  with  a 
surprising  and  fascinating  truth  in  design  and  execution,  a strongly 
marked  fancy  and  tendency  to  irregularity  and  caricature ; with  a 


320 


ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELA  TED  OCCUPATIONS. 


high  technical  perfection,  numerous  failures  in  perspective  and 
proportion.  The  frequent  departure  from  line  and  symmetry  in 
their  decorations  offends  our  eye  and  feeling  something  as  in 
certain  of  Wagner’s  compositions,  eg.,  in  Siegfried,  the  many 
dissonances  which  follow  a passage  of  harmonious  accord  offend 
the  ears  of  many  a lover  of  music. 

This  love  of  the  Japanese  for  the  bizarre,  the  unsymmetrical, 
and  in  our  eyes,  the  unlovely  shows  itself  not  only  in  art  in- 
dustry, but  in  their  gardening,  for  instance  in  the  way  in  which 
they  arrange  their  flowers,  and  especially  in  the  frequent  treatment 
of  the  pine  or  Matsu  (P  intis  Massoniana  and  P.  densiflora),  in  their 
gardens.  Their  eyes  delight  in  its  deformed  figure,  in  its  unnatural 
and  disproportionately  long  horizontal  branches.  Specimens  which 
have  been  made  particularly  monstrous  in  this  way,  eg,  the  old 
pine  of  Karasaki  on  Biwa  Lake,  are  accounted  among  the  most 
notable  sights  of  the  country  and  attract  visitors  from  far. 

Many  of  the  productions  of  art  industry,  as  well  as  the  examples 
of  architecture,  show  that  constructive  art  is  far  less  advanced 
among  the  Japanese  than  decorative  art.  We  seek  in  vain  among 
their  works  of  an  industrial  character  for  “ the  noble  restful  great- 
ness of  the  Greek  masterpieces  ” (Winkelmann),  which  distinguish 
also  Greek  ceramics.  Many  of  the  Japanese  models,  like  the 
temples  and  Daimid  fortresses,  which  were  formerly  the  chief 
repositories  of  art,  are  clumsy  and  dwarfed.  But  with  these,  how- 
ever, there  are  many  which,  for  lightness  and  attractiveness  of 
form,  satisfy  the  most  refined  taste.  Nevertheless  their  principal 
skill  is  unquestionably  in  the  line  of  decoration.  Their  compo- 
sitions show  well  controlled  exactness  and  strength,  and  charm  by 
their  life  and  truth  to  nature,  their  often  masterly  colouring  and 
the  high  technical  perfection  of  their  embellishment. 

Most  of  the  slender,-  airy,  well-proportioned  art  forms  of  Aryan 
nations  are  either  wanting  or  are  so  changed  as  to  be  beyond 
recognition.  In  their  ceramics  and  metal  industry  we  miss  en- 
tirely the  beautiful  vase  and  jug-shaped  Amphora,  Hydria, 
Lekythos,  and  Oinochoe,  while  Krater  and  Kantharos  appear  'in 
numerous  modifications,  especially  among  bronze  vases,  because 
they  are  so  well  adapted  to  hold  loosely  the  blooming  stalks  placed 
in  them.  The  beautiful  shape  of  the  Indian  sarai,  which  is  used  so 
much  of  late  for  water  and  wine  flagons  made  from  crystal  glass, 
has  been  much  changed  in  the  Chinese  and  Japanese  imitations  in 
porcelain  and  bronze.  That  which  has  been  most  retained  is  'the 
spherical  enlargement  at  the  base,  but  in  place  of  the  narrow  slender 
throat  is  one  wider  and  far  less  pleasing,  often  with  wing-like 
appendages,  and  even  griffins  at  the  mouth  of  the  vase.  The 
form  of  the  Greek  wine  jar  has  never  become  domesticated,  not- 
withstanding it  has  been  so  often  introduced  into  the  country 
among  the  presents  of  the  Portuguese  and  Dutch.  Cylindrical 
vase-forms,  copied  from  the  bamboo  cane,  as  well  as  polygonal 


JAPANESE  ART  INDUSTRY  IN  GENERAL. 


321 


and  prismatic  shapes,  seem  peculiar  to  Chinese  and  Japanese  art 
industry.  In  the  ethnographical  collections  of  Europe  they  are 
known  only  from  these  sources.  The  Romans,  it  is  true,  had  pris- 
matic glass  bottles  on  a quadrangular,  hexagonal,  or  octagonal 
base,  these  angles  disappearing  rapidly  toward  the  top  in  a short, 
wide  cylindrical  throat  (the  square  prismatic  being  urns  for  holding 
the  ashes  of  the  dead),  but  in  the  ceramics  of  antiquity  such  forms 
it  appears  were  not  imitated.  Whatever  may  resemble  them  in 
Indian  and  Persian  art  industry  is  most  likely  of  Chinese  origin. 

In  the  art  industry  of  the  Aryan  nations — Indians,  Persians, 
Arabs,  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  in  Christendom  also — symmetry 
and  proportion  seem  to  be  the  first  principles  of  ideal  beauty. 
They  form  the  ruling  feature  of  true  artistic  execution  in  all  these 
countries.  In  their  patterns  style  rules,  i.e.,  they  show  in  both 
decoration  and  form  an  ideal  stamp  that  may  often  diverge  widely 
from  the  natural  object  which  first  suggested  it.  Especially  is  this 
true  of  decorations  which  the  Aryan  artist  generally  evolves  from 
his  own  thoughts  and  mostly  without  paying  any  strict  heed  to 
nature.  The  contrast  to  this  in  the  prevailing  decoration  of  the 
Japanese  and  Chinese  is  very  great,  especially  where  the  style  of 
the  Indians,  Persians  and  Arabs  is  in  question.  The  motifs  of 
these  Eastern  Aryans  are  only  exceptionally  taken  from  nature, 
and  even  then  are  conventionalized  beyond  all  recognition.  The 
straight  line  plays  with  them  only  a subordinate  part.  Curves  and 
flourishes  of  every  sort,  combined  in  every  possible  way,  but  still 
symmetrical  and  orderly,  distinguish  their  work.  Their  principal 
charm  is  in  this  harmonious  arrangement — the  charm  of  all  con- 
ventional decoration.  This  peculiar  adaptation  is  not  entirely 
wanting  in  Japanese  art  industry,  but  it  falls  into  the  background 
in  comparison  with  the  realistic  side.  It  goes  by  the  name  of 
Kara-kusa,  i.e.  China  weed,  among  them. 

In  the  realistic  exact  copying  of  natural  forms,  especially  of 
plants,  birds,  insects  and  sea  animals,  also  various  quadrupeds,  such 
as  monkeys,  rabbits,  rats,  and  in  the  representation  of  clouds,  rocks, 
and  water  scenes,  the  Japanese  have  great  skill  and  remarkable 
execution.  The  drawing  answers  sharply  and  definitely  to  the 
pattern  in  expression  and  action,  and  fascinates  the  beholder  with 
its  exactness  no  less  than  by  the  ease  and  delicacy  of  the  perfect 
execution.  This  is  the  principal  charm  of  the  productions  of 
Japanese  art  industry.  In  all  surface  decoration,  the  use  of 
arabesques  and  other  ideal  curved  ornamentation  falls  far  behind 
the  conventionalizing  of  straight  lines.  The  Vitruvian  curve  with 
the  Gammadion  and  Hook-cross  (Chin.  Man-tse,  Jap.  Man-ji) 
and  geometric  figures  play  a conspicuous  part.  The  first  of  these 
is  never  found  in  the  subjects  of  Indian  and  Perso- Arabian  art 
industry,  and  the  last  named  only  in  exceptional  cases. 

No  symbolic  design  was  so  much  used  in  ancient  times  as  the 
Hook-cross.  It  is  found  on  Scandinavian,  Celtic  and  Gallic 

II.  Y 


322  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


coins  and  ornaments,  also  on  Etruscan  terra  cotta  amphorae,  and  on 
old  Egyptian  monuments  where  it  signifies  immortality — an  at- 
tribute of  Osiris  and  Horus.1  It  is  also  a design  in  many  of  the 
forms  of  Greek  art.  In  India  and  Eastern  Asia  it  is  the  symbol  of 
wisdom  and  the  thousandfold  virtues  of  Buddha.  The  busts  and 
statues  of  this  divinity  often  display  it  worn  on  the  breast,  espe- 
cially in  Farther  India,  as  was  shown  on  the  two  gilded  statues  of 
Buddha  at  the  French-Indian  Colonial  Exhibition  in  Antwerp  some 
years  ago.  The  Hook-cross  of  western  nations,  including  Egypt 
also,  is  distinguished  from  that  of  the  Buddhistic  East  by  a 
secondary  claw  on  the  arm  of  the  cross.  The  arms  of  the  Eastern 
cross  also  have  often  an  opposite  direction,  as  the  accompanying 
sketches  show. 


JL 

nr 


A GREEK  HOOK-CROSS. 


BUDDHIST. 


GAMMADION. 


The  Japanese  call  the  Hook-cross  Man-ji  ; the  Chinese, 
Man-tse,  the  word  “ Man  ” meaning  “ ten  thousand.”  By  another 
arrangement  of  the  four  Gamma  of  the  Hook-cross,  the  Gam- 
madion  is  formed,  which  is  not  only  nearly  related  to  that  of 
the  old  Greeks  but  is  much  used  as  a pattern  in  surface  decoration 
in  the  art  industry  of  Eastern  Asia.  The  heliotype  of  the  inlaid 
vase  (see  Metal  Working)  shows  the  connection  of  the  Man-ji  with 
the  Gammadion  on  both  sides  of  the  vine-representation. 

The  non-appearance  among  the  Aryan  Orientals  of  the  Vitruvian 
curve  which  is  so  important  an  ornament  in  Grecian  and  Christian 
art,  its  frequent  use  again  in  Chinese  and  Japanese  art  industry, 
is  certainly  striking,  although,  so  far  as  I can  learn,  it  has  never 
been  noticed  before.  Is  this  beautiful  design  spontaneous  among 
both  Greeks  and  Chinese,  or  has  one  of  these  nations  borrowed  it 
from  the  other,  or  is  its  origin  to  be  found  farther  back,  among 
the  Assyrians  and  Chaldeans  ? Such  questions  suggest  them- 
selves, but  are  not  so  easy  to  answer  as  might  appear  at  first  glance. 
The  separate  zone  of  the  Arabo-Persian-Indian  district  from  which 
the  Vitruvian  curve  is  entirely  absent,  points  towards  spontaneous 
origin  and  use,  as  well  as  the  circumstance  that  it  is  found  on  the 
cotton  fabrics  from  the  old  tombs  of  Peru,  though  it  is  not  so  per- 
fect in  them. 

The  art  industry  of  Eastern  Asia  employs  the  Vitruvian  curve 
usually  as  a border  decoration.  The  vine  and  other  creeping 
plants  serve  the  same  purpose. 

1 According  to  P.  Cassel : “ Literatur  und  Symbolik.”  Leipsic,  1SS4. 


JAPANESE  APT  INDUSTRY  IN  GENERAL. 


323 


The  Chinese  origin  of  most  of  the  forms  and  motifs  of  the  pro- 
ductions of  Japanese  industrial  art  is  easily  recognised.  Paeonies 
and  chrysanthemums,  the  iris  and  the  lotus  flower,  the  slender, 
graceful  bamboo,  and  deformed,  bizarre  pines,  leafless  and  blooming 
branches  of  the  mume  plum  and  the  magnolia,  leafy  branches  of 
Kerria  and  the  wild  cherry,  the  creeping  Glycine  with  its  hanging 
clusters  of  blue  flowers,  the  evergreen  Nandine  with  its  red  berries, 
the  so-called  seven  autumn  weeds,  especially  the  ornamental  Eulalia, 
Lespedeza,  Patrina  and  Hisbiscus  mutabilis,  the  flag,  rush  and 
arrow-head  ; rock  and  water  scenes  in  gardens  with  fishes  and 
turtles,  cranes,  herons,  pheasants,  the  Japanese  nightingale  (Ugui- 
su)  and  other  singing  birds,  insects  in  motion  and  at  rest,  then  the 
animals  of  the  Chinese  zodiac,1  and  several  others  like  the  elephant 
and  the  peacock,  renowned  in  Buddhism  and  Chinese  legends. 
These  are  the  natural  objects  chosen  by  the  Japanese  as  well  as 
the  Chinese.  Four  others  are  also  associated  with  them,  the 
Shi-rei  or  four  animals  of  good  fortune,  fabulous  animals,  viz.,  the 
H6wo  or  Phoenix,  Riyo  (Tatsu)  or  dragon,  the  Kirin  or  unicorn, 
and  the  Ki  (Kame)  or  turtle.2  The  dragon  is  pictured  on  the 
Japanese  coat  of  arms.  Curled  up  like  a snake,  scaly,  with  the  most 
horrible  expression  of  the  head,  a distorted  animal  figure,  it  is 
found  not  only  on  the  imperial  escutcheon  and  coins,  but  everywhere 
imitated,  in  bronze,  in  wood  and  even  in  woven  fabrics.  It  is  the 
emblem  of  vigilance  and  strength.  An  animal  which  appears  more 
often  than  the  unicorn,  and  as  its  substitute,  is  called  the  Kirin  ; 
it  has  the  head  and  breast  of  the  dragon,  the  posterior  portion  of  its 
body  like  a dog  or  cat,  and  the  mane  of  a lion.  It  often  forms  the 
knob  on  the  cover  of  urns  and  smoking  utensils,  and  is  as  much  of  a 
favourite  for  this  purpose  as  the  lotus  bud.  The  Howo  is  seldom 
represented  in  reliefs,  much  more  frequently  in  fabrics.  The  turtle 
is  very  popular  especially  the  Mino-game  (mantle  turtle)  i.e.  a turtle 
with  long  green  confervae  attached  to  its  shell.  It  is  the  symbol 
of  a peaceful  old  age,  one  of  the  seven  felicities  of  human  life. 

Another  group  of  decoration-designs,  employed  extensively  in 
bronze  reliefs,  is  from  the  Buddhist  mythology  and  the  old 

1 The  Chinese  zodiac  consists  of  the  Rat,  Bull,  Tiger,  Rabbit,  Dragon, 
Serpent,  Horse,  Goat,  Monkey,  Cock,  Dog  and  Wild  Boar,  answering  to  the 
Ram,  Bull,  Gemini,  Cancer,  etc. 

2 In  the  Rei-ki,  or  Relation  of  Ceremonies,  one  of  the  five  classic  works  of 
the  Chinese,  they  are  classified  briefly  and  in  another  order  : Rin,  Ho,  Ki,  Riy6. 
They  are  the  kings  among  beasts  and  stand  at  the  head  of  the  five  classes  of 
the  animal  kingdom  in  the  old  Chinese  natural  history,  as  follows  : — 

x.  Man  stands  at  the  head  of  all  naked  animals. 

2.  The  Kl-lin  (Jap.  Ki-rin)  or  the  Unicorn  leads  and  protects  all  hairy 
animals. 

3.  The  Howo  (Fung-hwang)  or  Phoenix  represents  the  feathered  creation. 

4.  The  Riyo  (Lung.  Jap.  Tatsu)  or  Dragon  stands  at  the  head  of  scaly 
animals. 

5.  The  Ki  (Kwei,  Jap.  Kame)  or  Turtle  represents  and  protects  all  animals 
provided  with  a shell. 


324  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


Japanese  sagas  and  heroic  legends,  which  furnish  abundant  material. 
To  this  group  belongs  the  representation  of  the  Shichi  Fuku-jin, 
or  the  seven  gods  of  good  fortune. 

Certain  combinations  exist  as  a rule  in  all  the  subjects  borrowed 
from  nature.  The  most  general  of  them  are : the  bamboo  cane 
and  the  tiger ; the  mume  plum  and  the  nightingale  (Uguisu)  ; sun- 
rise with  the  pine  and  the  crane ; the  lion  and  the  paeony  ; the 
deer  and  the  maple ; the  crane  and  the  turtle  (symbols  of  happiness 
and  long  life) ; the  pine  bamboo  and  mume ; the  bulrush  and  the 
silver  heron ; bamboo-cane  and  sparrow ; rain  or  willow  and 
swallow ; lotus  flower  and  silver  heron.  The  homeward  flight  or 
alighting  of  wild  geese,  the  awakening  of  nature  in  spring,  the 
snowfall  and  other  natural  incidents  furnish  popular  decorative 
themes.  (Compare  Table  VII.) 

The  Chinese  representations  of  these  and  other  objects  are  fre- 
quently clumsy  and  not  very  true  to  nature.  Especially  with 
tree-forms  their  wild  fancy  plays  wayward  tricks,  putting  leaves 
and  flowers  together  which  belong  to  very  different  species  or  are 
not  to  be  found  at  all.  Their  work  often  shows  glaring  colours  and 
tasteless  combinations,  particularly  in  the  ordinary  market  wares. 
For  example,  at  the  great  Paris  Exhibition  of  1878  there  was  to  be 
seen  a Chinese  screen  with  paintings  on  silk  which  represented 
among  other  things,  a blue  convolvolus  which  twined  itself  around 
the  blossoming  branches  of  a pomegranate  tree ; on  the  tree  was  a 
fanciful  bird  with  a yellow  breast,  and  on  a rock  at  the  foot  stood 
a cock  toward  which  a dragon  fly  was  flying.  No  Japanese  artist 
would  choose  such  combinations,  because  they  are  unnatural,  and 
his  sense  of  colour  would  forbid  him.  China  maintains  its  con- 
spicuous rank  among  the  countries  of  Eastern  Asia,  because  of  its 
size  and  its  commercial  and  political  importance  ; but  in  its  bearing 
toward  Christian  civilization,  in  its  government,  institutions  and  its 
influence  upon  our  industrial  art,  Japan  is  far  in  advance. 

Though  the  Japanese  were  for  centuries  blind  admirers  and 
imitators  o f their  Western  neighbours  and  masters,  they  are  so  no 
longer.  I tv  the  beautiful  scenery  of  their  own  country  they  find 
the  most  of  those  decorative  themes  which  have  been  introduced 
from  the  West  in  clumsy  and  distorted  forms.  Many  of  these  objects, 
especially  those  which  their  own  hills  cannot  furnish,  they  plant  in 
their  gardens  and  the  parks  of  their  temples,  and  what  they  admire 
and  gaze  upon  with  such  pleasure  here,  the  natural  productions  of 
their  own  land,  become  their  subjects  in  art.  To  delight  in  nature, 
sitting  quietly  at  her  feet  to  watch  her  in  her  life  and  work,  and  to 
render  back  the  fleeting  and  pleasing  picture  with  warmth  and 
. truth  as  it  was  felt  and  seen,  this  is  gradually  becoming  the  found- 
ation principle  of  Japanese  industrial  art. 

The  pictures  with  which  the  Japanese  love  to  adorn  their  vases 
and  trays,  their  screens  and  costly  silk  embroideries,  are  therefore 
the  expression  of  a refined  taste,  of  practised  observation  of  nature, 


JAPANESE  ART  INDUSTRY  IN  GENERAL. 


325 


and  a loving  appreciation  of  all  the  beauty  which  mountain  and 
valley,  wood  and  field  in  all  their  manifold  forms  and  phenomena 
can  spread  before  him. 

“ Natura  artis  magistra” — this  motto  of  the  Zoological  Garden  of 
Amsterdam  suits  no  people  better  than  the  Japanese.  It  does  not 
stand  written  on  the  products  of  their  art  industry,  but  the  eye  of 
the  connoisseur  recognises  it  and  its  full  significance  in  them,  and 
admires  the  freedom  of  treatment,  the  surprising  force  of  expres- 
sion which  the  Japanese  artist  knows  how  to  unite  with  great 
truth  to  nature,  especially  in  the  representation  of  birds  and 
insects  and  many  of  the  popular  flowers. 

Who  will  dare  to  deny  that  this  is  the  true,  the  fully  justified 
Naturalism  ? The  artist  takes  his  subject  from  nature.  He  seeks 
to  represent  with  devotion  and  truth  the  utmost  beauty  that  she 
offers,  uncorrupted  and  unfalsified  by  any  addition  of  his  own  fancy 
or  of  a low  and  obscene  taste.  Not  that  the  latter  is  wanting 
in  the  Japanese  art  world.  It  was  formerly  very  prevalent,  but# 
has  been  repressed  by  the  better  judgment  and  co-operation  of 
foreigners  and  natives  of  higher  aim  and  cultivation. 

That  tendency  of  our  realistic  art  toward  the  representation  of 
dreadful  scenes  where  blood  and  the  odour  of  death  prevail  {eg. 
those  of  the  celebrated  Brussels  painter  Wiertz,  or  Benvenuto 
Cellini’s  well-known  bronze  statue  in  the  Loggia  at  Florence)  has 
never  found  approval  with  the  Japanese.  And  it  betokens  a better 
development  of  our  own  taste,  when  this  bronze  masterpiece,  “ Per- 
seus, standing  on  the  body  of  Medusa,”  with  the  severed,  blood- 
dripping head  in  one  hand,  and  in  the  other  the  sword  triumphing 
over  its  bloody  work,  is  being  regarded  everywhere  as  an  unworthy 
and  cruel  theme  for  art.  The  choice  by  many  artists  also  of  sub- 
jects from  daily  common  life,  in  so  far  as  they  are  immorally  and 
unaesthetically  handled,  cannot  stand  before  a strict  artistic  judg- 
ment, and  is  at  any  rate  not  Fine  Art.  In  every  art,  realism  has 
its  justification  and  its  limits.  The  latter  cannot  be  embraced  in 
one  short  rule,  but  are  defined  by  a moral  power  which  governs 
and  translates  the  sense  of  what  is  beautiful. 

The  question  whether  art  must  be  moral,  indeed,  whether  it 
always  can  be,  is  a very  old  one,  and  long  ago  occupied  Grecian 
philosophers.  Each  individual  answers  it  according  to  his  own 
taste  and  inclination.  Obscene  representations,  however  artistically 
perfect  they  may  be,  are  without  question  a misuse  of  art,  which 
should  educate  and  form  a proper  taste.  For  this  reason,  the 
Venus  di  Medici,  which  is  quite  in  place  in  a museum,  is  surely 
not  suited  for  a school. 

In  the  many  decorative  subjects  which  have  been  borrowed  from 
Japanese  history,  and  especially  from  the  great  Buddhist  mytho- 
logy, the  old  warriors  appear  in  clumsy  armour  checking  all  free 
movement,  and  the  court  people  in  stiff  ceremonial  dress,  but 
generally  in  remarkably  expressive  positions.  The  men  are  always 


326  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


represented  with  full  beards,  as  up  to  the  time  of  Shogun- Yomorito 
in  Kama-kura  (1185-1199  A.D.)  it  was  the  universal  custom  to  wear 
this  appendage.  The  representations  of  Buddha  as  a mild,  bliss- 
ful divinity,  of  feminine  appearance,  in  his  several  occupations  of 
blessing,  teaching,  and  meditating,  as  expressed  by  the  position  of 
the  hands  and  fingers,  show  a great  deal  of  artistic  ability. 

Religion  has  been  at  all  times  and  among  all  peoples  the  most 
potent  stimulant  and  support  of  art  and  art  industry.  To  represent 
deities,  to  beautify  their  worship  and  the  temples  dedicated  to  them, 
inspires  not  only  artistic  working  of  wood,  stone,  and  metal,  but 
leads  to  progress  also  in  textile  industries.  It  may  be  generally 
accepted  that  the  higher  men  rise  in  their  conception  of  God,  the 
more  artistic  and  spiritual  will  be  the  representations  of  the  em- 
bodied divinity.  There  is,  however,  no  generic  difference,  but  only 
one  of  degree,  between  the  rough  forms  of  wood  and  clay  of 
uncivilised  nations,  and  the  perfected  and  beautiful  Grecian  and 
Christian  art.  The  ideals  and  grade  of  civilization  in  any  nation 
are  seen  more  clearly  in  its  art  and  industry  than  in  its  laws  and 
history. 

With  the  introduction  of  Buddhism,  as  has  already  been  said, 
the  language,  literature,  and  art  industry  of  China  was  spread 
abroad  throughout  Japan.  What  had  been  accomplished  in  the 
latter  up  to  this  time  was  of  no  high  grade,  and  in  its  forms  and 
ornamentation  was  not  unlike  the  productions  of  our  own  heathen 
ancestors.  Buddhism  was,  till  the  middle  of  this  century,  the 
principal  promoter  and  patron  of  art  industry.1  In  Buddhist 
temples  and  cloisters  the  best  efforts  found  application  and  preser- 
vation, so  that  the  inscription  at  the  entrance  to  the  South 
Kensington  Museum — “ Quam  quisque  norit  artem  in  hac  se 
exerceat  ” — was  appropriate  in  these  also. 

As  feudalism  developed  under  the  Minamoto,  and  still  more 
since  the  tranquillizing  of  the  country  under  lyeyasu  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  seventeenth  century,  the  feudal  nobles  (the  court 
nobility  was  too  poor)  constituted  themselves  the  patrons  of  art 
industry.  The  castles  of  the  Daimios  and  the  temples  became 
from  this  time  the  places  where  its  best  productions  were  collected. 
The  dynasty  of  the  Tokugawa- Shoguns  (or  the  Tycoon)  in  Yeddo, 
i.e.  from  the  battle  of  Sekigahara  in  1600  to  the  restoration 
of  the  Mikado  government  in  1868,  is  the  golden  age  of  Japanese 
art  handicraft.  The  long  peace  and  the  equally  long  closure  of 
the  country  served  to  bring  its  several  branches  to  stronger  and 
more  individual  development.  The  germs  of  this  development 
were  planted  in  Japan  by  the  long  intercourse  with  Corea  and 
China — which  latter  country  had  served  as  a model  for  over  1,500 
years — and  as  the  outcome  of  an  expedition  to  Corea,  organized  in 
1586  by  Hideyoshi,  and  on  this  new  and  fruitful  soil  had  grown 

1 Siebold  calls  the  Buddhist  religion  “ Conductrice  des  sciences  et  des  arts,” 
in  his  “Sur  l’dtat  de  ^horticulture  au  Japon.”  Leide,  1863. 


JAPANESE  ART  INDUSTRY  IN  GENERAL.  327 


and  reached  their  best  period  during  a long  and  undisturbed 
season  of  nurture. 

The  condition  and  ability  of  Japanese  art  industry  in  the  first 
half  of  the  seventeenth  century  can  be  understood  best  by  its 
various  accomplishments  in  Nikko.  After  this  beautiful  site  1 at 
the  foot  of  the  wooded  and  well-watered  mountains  had  been 
chosen  for  the  resting-place  of  the  great  Shdgun  Iyeyasu,  by  his 
own  wish,  and  his  body  had  been  removed  thither  from  Ku-no-zan 
in  Suruga,  the  nobles  and  most  faithful  followers  of  their  dead 
master  and  leader  made  great  exertion  to  pay  him  all  possible  re- 
spect in  death.  The  temples  and  pagodas  which  they  founded,  the 
granite  columns  and  water  basins,  stone  and  bronze  lanterns  as 
well  as  many  bells,  the  wood  carving  in  relief  and  open  work,  the 
priests’  robes  and  utensils,  lacquer  work  and  many  other  articles 
preserved  from  that  time,  furnish  indubitable  evidence  that  art  in- 
dustry had  even  then  attained  a high  degree  of  perfection.  Its 
further  advancement  is  seen  in  many  beautiful  articles  from  the 
tombs  of  the  Shoguns  at  Shiba  and  Uyeno  in  Tokio,  and  in  many 
celebrated  temples  of  the  age  following.  Several  art  connois- 
seurs consider  the  reign  of  the  eleventh  Shdgun,  Iyenari  Bunkio 
(1787-1836  A.D.),  as  the  real  golden  age  of  Old  Japanese  art  in- 
dustry. 

Finally,  after  long  practice,  and  after  the  opening  of  the  country 
to  foreign  commerce,  New  Japan  appeared  in  the  markets  of  the 
West,  with  its  manifold  productions  of  lacquer  art,  with  its 
ceramics,  its  enamelling  of  copper  and  earthen  vessels,  its  bronze 
industry  and  its  forged  weapons,  with  its  splendid  silk  fabrics  and 
embroideries,  and  its  bewildering  variety  of  playthings  and  fancy 
articles  by  which  it  won  very  rapidly  the  admiration  of  nearly  all 
patrons  of  art,  and  at  the  several  international  exhibitions  com- 
peted successfully  with  the  civilized  nations  of  Christendom. 
Like  the  mountain  streams  which,  after  long  obstruction,  at  last 
suddenly  pour  forth  over  the  plain,  flooding  and  enriching  it, 
these  products  of  Japanese  industrial  art  surged  into  the  markets 
of  Western  Europe  and  exercised  more  or  less  influence  on  the 
taste  and  efforts  of  many  of  our  artisans  and  artists. 

The  feudal  system  of  Japan  and  its  barriers  had  been  overcome, 
the  Daimid  fortresses  had  fallen,  the  cloisters  had  been  robbed  of 
a large  part  of  their  support,  and  with  this  the  former  supports 
and  patrons  of  its  peculiar  artistic  handicraft  had  disappeared. 
Most  of  the  art  collections  of  the  country  went  into  foreign  lands, 
to  enrich  public  and  private  exhibitions  ; many  were  squandered 
away  at  ridiculously  low  prices ; and  the  fear  became  widespread 
that  the  old  skill  would  die  out,  and  the  art  industry  of  Japan  de- 
generate. This  anxiety  was  well-founded,  in  so  far  as  the  foreign 
exporters  of  these  articles  now  had  them  manufactured  in  quan- 


1 See  illustrations  on  pp.  302,  456,  and  462,  vol.  i. 


328  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RE  LA  TED  OCCUPATIONS. 


titles  in  the  treaty  ports  and  in  the  interior,  at  the  lowest  prices, 
since  their  whole  aim  was  to  make  as  much  money  as  possible. 
The  artisans  themselves  forsook  to  a great  degree  the  old  patterns 
and  the  old  methods  of  work,  and  sought  eagerly  for  new  forms 
and  decorations  to  please  European  taste,  which  hitherto  they  had 
not  known.  The  most  tasteless  things,  considered  so  by  the 
Japanese,  thus  reached  their  market  and  found  their  customers. 

But  unexpectedly,  with  the  revival  of  our  own  art  handicraft, 
and  the  spreading  of  an  educated  taste  abroad  in  Europe,  there 
came  a turning-point  in  this  corrupting  tendency  in  Japanese  art 
industry.  The  number  of  connoisseurs  and  amateurs  of  the  pure 
industrial  art-productions  of  Japan  increased,  the  demand  for  them 
grew,  and  a new  impetus  was  given  to  industrial  efforts,  greater 
and  more  powerful  than  any  previous  influence.  This  turning- 
point  is  due  not  a little  to  the  effect  of  the  great  industrial  exhibi- 
tions upon  all  interested  Japanese,  the  government  as  well  as  the 
artisans.  The  degeneration  feared  by  so  many,  the  ruin  of 
Japanese  industrial  art,  has  not  come  to  pass  ; but,  in  many  depart- 
ments, I mention  only  enamel  and  bronze  work,  there  has  been 
remarkable  progress  during  the  past  fifteen  years. 

The  conviction  has  been  reached  that  the  future  of  Japanese  art 
industry  lies  in  the  preservation  of  its  individuality.  Only  while 
the  Japanese  people  retain  their  childlike  joy  in  the  beautiful 
scenery  of  their  country  ; while  they  keep  up  the  careful  nurture  of 
their  favourites  in  wood  and  field,  temple-grove  and  house-garden, 
continuing  to  draw  from  this  living  and  ever  fresh  source  their 
themes  and  artistic  inspirations,  and  do  not  lose  their  satisfaction 
therein — the  main  ground  of  their  happiness  and  of  their  cheap 
labour-power — only  in  such  case  will  they  keep  their  place  at  the 
head  in  their  peculiar  industrial  and  artistic  productions.  Only 
thus  can  they  hope  to  preserve  the  market  they  have  gained,  and 
to  adapt  themselves  to  it  anew. 

In  the  feudal  days  of  Japan,  as  has  been  said,  the  finest  products 
of  art  industry  went  to  the  adornment  of  temples  and  dwellings  of 
the  barons.  They  were  generally  made  to  order,,  and  the  princes 
vied  with  each  other  in  developing  and  maintaining  conspicuous 
talent.  This  gave  the  artist  an  undisturbed  leisure  and  joy  in 
his  creations.  When  it  is  maintained  however  that  in  recent  times 
many  persons  in  the  higher  classes  of  Japan  showed  not  only 
interest  in  art  industry,  but  occupied  themselves  with  it — that  even 
princes  and  ministers  modelled  and  painted  lacquer  ware,  it  must 
be  owing  to  a great  misunderstanding  of  existing  circumstances. 
Dilettanti  of  this  sort  are  much  rarer  there  than  with  us.  Verse- 
making  or  poetising  was  always  fashionable  even  in  the  highest 
circles,  and  so  was  painting  probably,  but  these  circles  have  played 
no  such  noticeable  part  in  the  development  of  industrial  art  as 
has  been  sometimes  reported.  In  Japan,  art  and  art  industry  do 
not  dwell  in  palaces,  but  in  the  modest  little  wooden  dwellings  of 


JAPANESE  APT  INDUSTRY  IN  GENERAL. 


329 


poor  but  contented  and  happy  people,  whose  needs  are  few  and  easy 
to  satisfy.  Their  products  are  called  Te-zai-ku,  i.e.  “fine  hand  work.” 

The  apprentice  advances  through  a long  and,  in  our  eyes,  a hard 
schooling  to  the  rank  of  journeyman,  from  journeyman  to  master, 
and  it  is  only  when  talent,  diligence,  and  perseverance  are  com- 
bined that  the  highest  rank  can  be  reached — the  place  of  a leading, 
progressive  artist.  But  the  whole  people,  from  the  highest  in  posi- 
tion to  the  lowest,  show  interest  and  comprehension  for  the  produc- 
tions of  industrial  art,  and  in  this  fact  may  be  found  undoubtedly 
a powerful  means  of  its  advancement. 

The  eye  and  hand  of  the  Japanese  are  on  the  average  more 
practised  than  those  of  the  European.  Even  the  ordinary  man  can 
generally  make  a fairly  clear  sketch  of  an  article  or  a route.  Why 
is  it  ? Is  this  keener  artistic  sense,  this  greater  executive  ability  of 
the  people,  inborn  or  acquired  ? I think  the  latter,  and  believe 
that  the  key  to  the  problem  is  chiefly  in  the  difficulty  with  which 
Chinese  and  Japanese  letters  and  characters  are  learned.  It  takes 
years  of  practice  and  great  diligence  for  the  eye  to  distinguish  them 
quickly,  and  for  the  hand  to  imitate  them  easily  with  the  India-ink 
brush.  But  in  this  way  the  eye  acquires  great  facility  in  recognis- 
ing and  grasping  form  and  proportion,  and  the  hand  the  dexterity 
to  reproduce  them  both  with  truth.1 

The  Japanese  combine  with  their  artistic  skill  not  only  a great 
imitative  faculty,  but  also  much  inventive  power  where  small  art- 
conceptions  and  surprising  effects  are  concerned.  The  inventive 
spirit  of  the  American  is  a speculative  one,  directed  to  the  devising 
of  useful  working-material  and  contrivances,  some  of  which  are 
known  in  England  and  America  as  “Yankee  notions.”  The  Japan- 
ese, however,  invent  little  artistic  trifles  instead.  In  the  one  case 
the  spur  to  invention  is  the  lightening  of  hand  labour  by  substitu- 
tion of  other'means.  Here,  it  is  the  joy  of  artistic  creation,  with- 
out any  reckoning  of  the  material  benefit  to  be  gained. 

In  speaking  of  Japanese  influence  on  the  art  industry  of  the 
Christian  West,  it  seems  best  to  distinguish  three  periods  of  com- 
merce with  this  land  of  the  sunrising,  viz.,  the  Portuguese,  Dutch, 
and  modern.  The  period  of  the  almost  exclusive  commerce  of 
Portugal  with  Japan  covers  the  last  half  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury. After  the  discovery  of  the  country  by  Mendez  Pinto  in 
1542,  Portuguese  Jesuits,  led  by  Francis  Xavier,  introduced  Christ- 
ianity into  the  southern  and  middle  parts,  with  such  success  that 
many  thousands  were  converted.  The  influence  of  these  followers 
of  Loyola  grew  noticeably,  until  in  1582  some  Christian  princes  of 
the  island  of  Kiushiu  sent  an  embassy  with  rich  presents  to  the 
Pope  at  Rome  and  the  court  at  Madrid  by  way  of  Lisbon. 

1 If  the  comparison  be  allowed,  I would  remind  the  reader  here  of  the  Slavic 
nations  and  the  well-known  ease  with  which  they  acquire  foreign  languages. 
The  difficulties  of  their  mother  tongue  exercise  ear  and  tongue  in  such  a way 
as  to  fit  them  for  a quick  comprehension  and  use  of  foreign  idioms. 


330  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


These  gifts,  as  well  as  all  the  other  industrial  products  of  Japan 
which  may  have  reached  the  Iberian  and  Italian  peninsulas  at  this 
time,  did  not  exercise  any  direct  influence  upon  the  art  industry  of 
those  countries  any  more  than  did  the  Portuguese  priests  and  mer- 
chants at  that  time  trading  there.1  As  these  latter  were  banished 
from  the  country  during  the  first  decades  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, Europe  found  she  had  gained  little  from  her  eighty  years  of 
intercourse  with  Japan  save  the  increase  in  her  historical  and 
ethnographical  knowledge.  This  interesting  country  remained  a 
terra  incognita  for  the  naturalist  particularly,  and  its  investigation 
in  this  respect  was  only  begun  toward  the  end  of  the  century  by 
the  German  E.  Kaempfer. 

During  this  long  period  (1624-1854),  in  which  Holland  alone 
maintained  and  only  in  Nagasaki  the  intercourse  of  Europe  with 
Japan  under  very  profitable  but  very  humiliating  conditions,  many 
valuable  industrial  Japanese  products  were  brought  to  the  Nether- 
lands. For  a long  time  after,  these  articles  were,  so  to  speak,  foreign 
to  the  rest  of  Europe,  as  they  only  reached  the  private  collections 
of  individual  princes.  They  were  principally  urn-shaped  covered 
vases,  of  Hizen  porcelain,  and  even  in  Holland  only  exercised  a 
noticeable  influence  on  ceramics.  There  flourished  at  that  time 
(1639-1764)  the  celebrated  Faience  manufactory  of  Lambertus 
Cleffius  in  Delft.  It  followed  the  tendency  of  the  time,  and  painted 
its  pictures  on  hard,  burned  tin  enamel,  while  in  the  preceding 
period  the  colours  had  been  laid  upon  air-dried  enamel  sheaths, 
and  burned  with  them,  so  that  the  decorations  were  much  lighter 
and  more  delicate  in  form. 

The  painters  of  the  establishment  were  now  greatly  inspired 
by  the  new  decorative  designs  of  the  Japanese  models,  as  were  also 
those  of  many  other  Dutch  manufactories  of  the  time,  all  of  which 
called  their  wares  porcelain,  some  of  even  receiving  patents  for 
their  correct  imitations  of  the  Japanese,  e.g.,  Pinaker.  The  Japan- 
ese patterns  were  not  followed  in  material,  but  in  their  forms,  and 
still  more  in  their  decorations.  We  find  represented  on  the  pro- 
ducts of  this  expanded  Dutch  Faience  industry,  for  instance,  the 
Botan  ( Pceonia  Moutan ),  the  Mume  {Primus  Mume),  the  Matsu 
( Pinus  densijlora),  and  other  specimens  of  Japanese  flora,  also 
cranes,  silver  herons,  peacocks,  etc.,  after  their  Japanese  models. 

1 My  hope  to  find  these  presents  and  other  products  of  Japanese  industrial 
art  of  that  time  in  the  collections  at  Lisbon,  Madrid,  or  Rome,  or  in  Portuguese 
cloisters,  and  so  to  have  some  firm  basis  for  a judgment  of  the  work  of  Japan 
in  the  sixteenth  century,  was  not  fulfilled,  greatly  to  my  regret.  The  investiga- 
tions which  a well-informed  friend  made  for  me  last  year  in  Rome  proved  as 
fruitless  as  my  own  in  Madrid,  Lisbon,  and  the  vicinity.  Don  Fernando,  the  late 
king  and  art  patron,  who  was  an  excellent  judge  of  industrial  art-productions, 
and  who  had  the  kindness  to  take  me  himself,  through  the  Lisbon  collection, 
was  of  the  opinion  that  Portugal  possessed  nothing  from  that  period.  The 
same  is  even  more  true  of  Spain,  whose  capital  does  not  yet  possess  any 
ethnographical  or  industrial  art  collection. 


JAPANESE  APT  INDUSTRY  IN  GENERAL. 


33i 


As,  however,  in  the  eighteenth  century,  Faience  with  its  opaque 
tin  enamel  was  more  and  more  displaced  by  the  successful  opera- 
tions of  this  porcelain  manufacture,  in  Europe  the  Japanese  pat- 
terns vanished  also,  and  were  superseded  by  Chinese,  as  we  can 
discern  especially  in  the  older  specimens  of  Meissen  and  Sevres 
ware.  The  earliest  products  of  Bottger  and  Tschirnhaus,  the  so- 
called  “ red  porcelain  ” — stone  and  earthenware  of  a reddish  brown 
jasper  colour,  such  as  eighty  years  later  was  supplied  by  Wedgwood 
in  England — consist  mainly  of  tea-pots,  a part  of  which,  in  colour- 
ing, form,  and  decoration  might  be  confounded  with  many  manu- 
factured in  these  days  in  China,  e.g.,  with  those  in  the  province  of 
Shantung.  In  the  same  way  the  hard  porcelain  made  in  Meissen 
from  1709  resembles  in  every  particular  the  Chinese  models. 
In  later  times,  the  decorations  of  Meissen,  as  of  other  places,  forsook 
more  and  more  the  East  Asiatic  patterns,  and  kept  only  a few 
conventional  fragments,  like  the  blossoms  of  the  rose,  pseony,  and 
mume  plum,  which,  deprived  of  their  other  constituent  parts,  they 
combined  with  arabesques  and  other  ideal  decoration,  forming 
pictures  which  made  up  in  symmetry  and  beauty  of  form  what  they 
lacked  in  truth  to  nature. 

In  Sevres  too,  where  in  1695  they  had  already  begun  to  manu- 
facture a kind  of  porcelain,  but  did  not  understand  before  1768  how 
to  imitate  the  hard  Chinese  variety,  the  decorations  were  at  first  a 
simple  copy  of  the  Chinese,  and  only  took  on  by  degrees  an  inde- 
pendent character. 

And  now  comes  the  noticeable  and  widely  extended  movement 
of  modern  times,  quite  outside  of  all  connection  with  these  earliest 
influences  of  the  ceramic  art  of  Eastern  Asia  on  the  noble  pottery 
of  Europe,  and  far  removed  from  them  in  point  of  time.  This  new 
movement  toward  the  Japanese  art  of  decoration,  which  does  not 
aim  to  copy  blindly  the  Japanese  forms,  has  been  observed  only 
within  the  last  fifteen  years,  or  in  exceptional  cases  ten  years 
earlier,  and  first  found  expression  at  the  Great  Exhibition  at 
Vienna.  It  was  caused  by  the  great  popularity  of  this  Japanese 
decorative  art  in  fashionable  circles,  and  of  Japanese  products,  after 
the  old  barriers  to  their  export  had  fallen.  France  and  England, 
hitherto  the  countries  which  set  fashions  in  industries  of  all  sorts, 
have  also  gone  the  farthest  in  the  new  direction.  Setting  aside 
the  evidence  of  the  Vienna  Exhibition,  we  see  the  Japanese 
influence  on  the  industry  of  these  countries,  especially  in  ceramics, 
decoration  of  bronzes,  gold  and  silver  work  (less  in  other  branches 
of  industry),  and  this  was  shown  especially  in  the  Paris  Industrial 
Exhibition. 

Among  the  ceramics  of  the  French  Exhibition  of  1878  there  were 
imitations  of  Japanese  patterns  in  porcelain  and  terra  cotta,  and  many 
especially  in  Faience.  The  specimens  of  Faience  from  Gien  (Loiret), 
and  of  Choisy  le  Roi  (Seine),  should  be  mentioned  as  remarkable 
productions  of  this  kind.  The  great  manufactory  of  Gien  exhi- 


ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


bited  plates  whose  decorations  were  not  distinguishable  from  Ku- 
tanityaka  (Kaga  porcelain),  and  the  imitations  of  the  censers  of 
Satsuma  were  as  surprisingly  true.  The  porcelain  painter,  L. 
Celliere,  of  Paris,  has  developed  great  taste  and  skill  in  imitating 
Japanese  masters  ; also  F.  Gaidan,  who  copies  Awata-yaki  (Kioto 
Faience)  remarkably  well,  and  has  distinguished  himself  particu- 
larly by  his  free  use  of  Japanese  manner.  Majorelle,  a manufac- 
turer from  Nancy,  produces  good  copies  of  the  lacquered  Imari 
vases. 

If  we  turn  our  attention  to  the  exhibitions  of  Paris  bronze  work, 
which  was  brilliantly  represented  at  the  Universal  Exhibition 
of  1878,  Barbedienne  naturally  first  enlists  our  interest.  Of  all 
Frenchmen  he  has  accomplished  most  in  general  bronze  manufac- 
ture, and  especially  in  the  employment  of  imbedded  enamel,  and  is 
almost  the  only  one  who  has  succeeded  in  imitating  Japanese 
cloisonne  enamel,  and  using  it  in  surface  decoration.  This  he  has 
done  with  great  success,  though  not  indeed  in  a financial  sense. 
Not  content  with  mere  imitation,  he  aims  to  use  more  familiar  de- 
corative themes  after  the  Japanese  manner,  which  in  our  eyes  is  a 
much  more  valuable  service.  He  exhibited  a large  plate  with  the 
central  design  of  a pond  with  white  water-lilies,  while  water 
lilies  (Butomus)  and  yellow  blooming  iris  surrounded  one  side,  and  a 
wild  duck  was  just  settling  upon  the  water  surface.  Blackberry 
bushes,  vines,  twigs  of  oak,  oats  and  reeds,  as  well  as  several  other 
plants  belonging  to  our  domestic  flora,  were  used  on  other  bronze 
articles  with  a corresponding  application. 

Over  against  these  truly  noteworthy  accomplishments  are  others 
in  which  the  Japanese  have  been  copied  in  a most  senseless  and 
ridiculous  way.  Of  this  kind  was  a fire  screen,  from  the  firm  of 
Bouhon  & Co.  Its  bronze  decoration,  which  rested  on  woven 
wire  in  a broad  brass  frame,  was  intended  to  represent  the  branch 
of  a pine  whose  needles  had  been  transformed  into  shield-shaped 
leaves,  the  blooming  twigs  of  the  mume  plum  forming  the  ramifi- 
cation. To  add  to  this  unnatural  combination,  a silver  heron  was 
placed  on  the  horizontal  part  of  the  branch.  “ Make  what  you  will, 
somebody  will  praise  it,”  wrote  the  “ Wandsbecker  Bote”  (Claudius) 
once  to  his  friend  Andre.  So  here  also  ; the  article,  priced  at  300 
francs,  was  five  times  ordered,  as  a placard  stated,  evidently  just 
because  of  this  artistic  combination. 

What  Barbedienne  is  to  the  manufacture  of  bronze  ware,  Chris- 
tofle  is  to  gold  and  silversmith’s  work  in  France,  and  even  more 
as  a galvano-plastic  plater  and  decorator  of  nickel-silver  and 
bronze.  His  wares  are  chased  partly  before  and  partly  after  silver 
plating.  Often  after  plating,  the  engraved  ornamentation  is  gold 
plated  . or  enamelled  in  black,  with  especially  fine  effect.  Chris- 
tofle  employs  Japanese  decorative  themes  very  frequently;  an 
entire  division  of  his  large  and  rich  exhibition  was  devoted  to 
Japanese  styles. 


JAPANESE  APT  INDUSTRY  IN  GENERAL. 


333 


If  one  wished  to  know  the  influence  of  Japan  upon  English  art 
industry,  he  had  only  to  look  at  the  most  brilliant  part  in  the 
British  section  of  the  Exhibition,  the  productions  of  the  five  fol- 
lowing great  houses,  viz.,  Elkington,  Minton,  the  Royal  Porcelain 
Manufactory  of  Worcester,  H.  Doulton  and  Thos.  Webb  & Sons. 
The  exhibition  of  Elkington,  the  most  celebrated  English  silver- 
smith, included  chiefly  useful  articles  of  gold  and  silver  and  electro- 
plated nickel  wares.  Japanese  models  played  a large  part  in  the 
varied  ornamentation,  and  generally  were  employed  with  great 
taste. 

In  Minton’s  porcelain  manufactory  at  Stoke-upon-Trent,  which 
imitates  the  varied  Faience  of  earlier  times,  and  had  an  extraor- 
dinarily rich  collection  in  Paris,  there  is  scarcely  one  Japanese 
theme  that  has  not  been  used.  Especially  noticeable  were  the 
cups  in  the  colouring  of  the  Awata-yaki,  each  with  its  mume 
plum  and  flying  nightingale  (Uguisu)  charmingly  painted  on  a 
shield  of  violet  ground.  But  who  will  pay  105  francs  for  such  a 
work  when  he  can  get  the  same  cup  from  Japan  for  a few  dollars  ? 

The  Royal  Porcelain  Works  of  Worcester,  the  second  great  manu- 
factory of  English  china,  in  its  efforts  to  imitate  Satsuma  Faience, 
discovered  “ ivory  porcelain,”  with  a colour  between  that  of  Satsuma 
and  Awata-yaki,  resembling  ivory  more  than  either  however,  and 
well-suited  to  its  name.  It  is  a notable  specialty  of  this  factory, 
and  not  only  the  decorations  but  in  part  the  Japanese  forms  also 
are  imitated  very  successfully  in  its  prismatic  and  bamboo-cane 
vases,  basins,  etc. 

There  are  many  Japanese  copies  also  in  the  work  of  the  great 
London  Faience  factory  of  H.  Doulton  at  Lambeth,  and  in  many 
other  of  the  English  exhibits  of  fire-clay  wares.  The  factory  which 
shows  the  least  Japanese  influence  among  the  five  mentioned 
above  is  the  glass  works  of  Thomas  Webb  & Sons. 

The  United  States  of  America  appeared  also  in  the  Champs  de 
Mars.  Among  their  exhibits,  I note  that  of  the  firm  of  Tiffany 
& Co.,  New  York,  which  received  one  of  the  three  great  prize- 
medals  in  the  department  of  Orfevrerie.  A large  part  of  its  heavy 
silver  ware  was  decorated  in  Japanese  designs  with  fishes,  butter- 
flies, crabs,  herons,  iris,  garlands,  etc.,  partly  engraved  and  partly 
in  relief.  The  ceramic  industry  of  America  was  but  slightly 
represented;  but  nevertheless  the  Japanese  section  of  the  “Cen- 
tennial Exposition”  in  Philadelphia,  1876,  has  had  a surprising 
influence  upon  it.  Where  formerly  it  was  the  custom,  even  in  the 
households  of  the  rich,  to  use  plain  white  plates  and  cups,  from  this 
time,  wherever  possible,  everybody  would  have  them  decorated  in 
Japanese  style. 

Most  of  the  other  countries  which  were  represented  at  the  Paris 
Exhibition  made  but  little  display  in  this  direction.  Russian  art 
industry  for  instance,  has  held  itself  entirely  independent  of  Japa- 
nese influence,  and  preserves  more  than  all  others  its  own  national 


334  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


character.  But  the  porcelain  works  of  Stockholm,  which,  as  also 
some  of  our  German  factories,  are  furnished  with  a very  fine  raw 
material  in  the  white-burning  felspar  (Mikroline)  from  the  neigh- 
bouring islands  of  Ytterby,  have  evidently  felt  the  impress  of  the 
new  tendency  and  taste.  The  celebrated  factories  of  Rorstrand 
and  Gustavsberg,  which  are  among  the  oldest  in  Europe,  and  have 
received  high  distinction  in  competition  with  other  countries, 
seemed  to  have  taken  from  the  Japanese  partly  the  form  and 
decoration  and  partly  only  the  genre  of  the  latter.  Under  the 
first  class  there  were  two  four-cornered  vases — not  at  all  successful 
copies — painted  with  Japanese  girls  who  showed  the  blonde  hair  of 
the  Scandinavians.  But  wherever  they  had  freely  followed  Jap- 
anese manner,  only  in  fine  antique  forms,  eg.,  in  two  other  vases 
ornamented  with  Swedish  grasses  and  wild  flowers,  the  truth,  and 
free,  easy  and  forcible  treatment  delighted  every  art  lover. 

My  consideration  of  Japanese  art  industry  is  almost  ended. 
On  page  4 of  the  beautiful  work  of  C.  von  Liitzow,  “ Kunst  und 
Kunstgewerbe  auf  der  Wiener  Weltaustellung,”  J.  Falk  says 
especially  relative  to  Japan,  “ By  means  of  Universal  Exhibitions, 
the  highly  coloured  and  decorative  art  of  the  Orient  has  come 
forth  from  its  isolation  and  retirement.  It  has  become  a great  power 
in  Europe,  making  itself  forcibly  felt  in  its  industry,  and  threaten- 
ing in  some  departments  to  entirely  revolutionize  its  taste.”  If 
this  expression  was  justified  by  what  followed  the  Vienna  Exhibi- 
tion on  the  Prater  in  1873,  it  is  confirmed  still  more  by  the  de- 
velopment in  art  industry  shown  in  1878  on  the  Champ  de  Mars 
in  Paris.  I do  not  consider  an  entire  revolution  in  European  taste 
through  Japanese  influence  possible  in  any  branch,  but  rather  a 
continuance  for  some  time  yet  of  blind  imitation  of  Japanese 
models.  They  have  in  my  opinion  no  direct  steady  value,  but 
serve  indirectly,  through  refinement  of  taste  and  its  wider  spread 
among  us,  to  work  against  a one-sided  unnatural  conventionalism, 
and  to  lead  us  more  to  nature  as  a teacher.  It  is  not  the  blind 
imitation,  but  acceptance  of  the  light,  pleasing  manner  of  their  art, 
that  will  essentially  aid  our  art  industry  and  tend  to  the  further 
development  of  that  fine  taste  of  which  the  French  minister,  in  his 
speech  at  the  distribution  of  the  prizes  in  Paris,  1878,  said  so 
aptly  : 

“ Le  gout  est  la  feconditd  du  travail.” 


WOOD-INDUSTRY. 

Furniture  making. — Inlaid  Work. — Peculiarities  of  Turnery  in  the 
Hakone  Mountains  and  Nikko. — Comb-cutting. — Straw  Mosaics. 

It  has  already  been  stated  that  Japanese  architecture,  like  that 
of  Eastern  Asia  generally,  is  not,  as  in  the  European  civilization, 
the  oldest  and  most  eminent  exponent  of  art,  but  that  its  wood 


JAPANESE  ART  INDUSTRY  IN  GENERAL. 


335 


structures  lack  much  in  solidity,  adaptation  and  elegance,  besides 
being  an  easy  prey  of  fire.  The  Japanese  show  their  inventive 
genius,  skill  and  perseverance  in  woodwork  of  an  entirely  different 
character  from  building,  viz.,  in  the  hundreds  of  little  articles  which 
they  manufacture  from  this  material.  Therefore  it  is  not  as  car- 
penters and  architects  that  their  peculiar  talent  and  taste  is  dis- 
tinguished, but  as  joiners,  turners,  and  wood-carvers.  The  frames 
of  the  Shdji  or  window  panes,  the  wainscotting  of  the  walls  in 
many  of  their  temples,  and  numerous  other  works,  are  samples  of 
their  fine  and  careful  joinery. 

The  very  simple  way  of  living  and  the  household  arrangements 
among  all  classes  of  Japanese  people,  excluding  as  it  does  the  use 
of  heavy  furniture,  does  not  tend  to  develop  any  individual  style 
of  cabinet-making.  The  principal  work  of  manufacturing  the 
few  wooden  household  articles,  such  as  chests,  sword  stands,  dta- 
geres,  screens,  dining-tables,  trays,  sedan  chairs,  etc.,  falls  to  the 
lacquerer,  who  paints  the  light  and  neatly  made  frames  and  ground- 
work of  pine  with  the  precious  varnish,  and  decorates  them  with 
his  skilled  and  artistic  hand.  Now,  however,  in  modern  times  and 
with  the  necessity  to  furnish  the  houses  of  foreigners  and  natives 
after  European  style,  artistic  cabinet-making  has  been  developed 
and  attempted  with  growing  success,  not  only  in  making  common 
furniture,  but  above  all  in  fine  wood  mosaic  work  called  intarsia  or 
marquetrie.  And  in  this  line  the  most  excellent  results  were  very 
soon  reached.  A peculiar  kind  of  wood-working  is  wrought  in  the 
Hakone  Mountains,  and  at  Shidzuoka,  the  capital  of  Suruga.  The 
cabinets,  commodes,  and  tables  ornamented  with  wood  inlaid-work, 
are  very  much  prized  and  already  many  of  them  are  exported. 
For  inlaying,  the  yellow-brown  wood  of  the  camphor  laurel  with 
its  silky  lustre  is  chosen.  Also  the  black  pith-wood  of  kaki,  or  the 
persimon  tree  ( Doispyros  kaki).  The  wood  most  prized  for  all  kinds 
of  cabinet-work  and  for  turnery  also  in  part,  is  that  of  the  keaki 
(Zelkowa  keaki),  already  mentioned  in  this  connection  on  page  242. 
It  is  used  by  itself  alone  much  as  our  oak,  but  serves  also  as  a stout 
framework  in  the  large  amount  of  intarsia  work,  for  tables  and 
commodes,  neither  splitting  nor  warping,  and  showing  off  the  light- 
coloured  mosaic  in  its  dark  colour  and  fine  flecking  very  advanta- 
geously, like  a dark  picture  frame.  It  is  also  very  useful  in  turning 
and  carving,  as  for  instance  in  the  pipe-case  in  the  illustration,  Fig. 
h P-  133- 

The  wood-work  of  the  Hakone  mountains,- — a day’s  journey 
from  Yokohama,— -which  goes  by  the  name  of  Hakone-zaiku,  (Ha- 
kone-work)  consists  mainly  of  these  mosaics,  and  a great  variety  of 
small  articles  turned  by  the  lathe,  very  cheap,  and  extensively  ex- 
ported. I need  only  mention  the  little  ash  cups  standing  on  one 
foot,  made  from  the  wood  of  the  Sanshd  ( Xanthoxylum  piperitum , 
(P  -255)>  the  black-veined  light  plates  and  bottle  stands  of  Sotetsu 
Cycas  revoluta)  and  the  heavier  ones  of  Hari-no-ki  (a  sort  of  alder) 


336  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


which  have  the  same  appearance,  besides  the  different  boxes,  some 
of  which,  if  opened,  show  that  they  are  intended  for  candlesticks, 
and  other  things,  as  cigar  cups,  all  made  from  this  peculiar-looking 
alder  wood.  The  busy  people  of  the  Hokone  Mountains,  who 
support  themselves  in  this  way,  keep  the  preparation  of  Hari-no-ki 
( Alnus  incana  and  A.firma ) a secret,  and  pass  off  the  articles  made 
from  it  as  the  product  of  Tsuta-no-ki  (Actinidia  volubilis,  Planch.) 
whose  extremely  light,  large-pored  wood  is  not  really  very  similar. 
It  is  not  difficult  however  for  the  searching,  practical  glance  to 
penetrate  the  secret  in  the  Hakone  villages,  Hata,  Kawabata,  Miya- 
noshita,  and  several  others  where  this  work  is  extensively  carried 
on,  as  well  as  in  the  little  city  of  Hakone  itself,  and  the  bathing 
resort,  Atami.  This  secret  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  trees  are  felled 
in  the  neighbouring  woods  in  spring,  when  the  wood  is  full  of  sap. 
The  branches  and  tops  are  cut  off,  and  the  trunks  sawed  into 
lengths  of  about  two  meters  each,  and  then  left  to  lie  in  their  bark 
during  the  warm,  rainy  summers,  being  often  turned.  The  wood 
in  this  way  becomes  mouldy,  its  red  colouring  matter  undergoes  a 
chemical  change  not  yet  investigated,  becomes  dark  brown,  and 
collects  in  particular  places,  so  that  the  wood  assumes  a dark, 
spotted  appearance.  In  turning  on  the  lathe,  both  of  these  changes, 
the  mouldy  character  and  the  peculiar  marking,  show  distinctly 
through  the  colouring.  After  polishing  with  shave-grass,  the 
articles  are  put  back  upon  the  lathe,  pressed  close  to  a piece  of 
vegetable  wax  (Ro,  see  p.  158  ff.)  and  turned,  which  gives  them  a 
smooth,  shiny  surface,  at  the  same  time  filling  the  pores  with  Ro. 

The  turning-lathe  just  mentioned  is  a very  simple  apparatus. 
The  turner  has  the  main  element,  an  iron  axis,  with  one  end,  a four 
tined  fork,  turned  towards  himself.  The  other  end  of  the  axis  rests 
and  moves  on  a support  in  the  middle  of  a pan.  Between  them  is 
a twisted  strap  ending  underneath  in  two  treadles.  The  workman 
sits  with  the  legs  in  a box-like  recess,  to  which  the  straps  with 
the  treadles  reach.  When  he  moves  the  treadles  up  and  down 
like  the  blower  at  the  bellows  of  an  organ,  the  horizontal  axis  is 
turned  not  in  one  direction,  but  now  to  the  right  and  now  to  the 
left.  The  turner  places  the  thick  cross-section  of  wood  on  the 
before  mentioned  fork,  and  according  to  his  wish  turns  a narrow  or 
a wide  cup-like  hollow  in  it,  and  then  forces  in  one  end  of  the  piece 
of  wood  out  of  which  he  wishes  to  form  the  article. 

Nikko-zaiku  (Nikko  work).  In  the  celebrated  temple  and 
pilgrimage  place,  Nikko  (Imaichi)  there  are  a comparatively  large 
number  of  shops  which  deal  in  simple  lacquer  wares  for  home  con- 
sumption, and  also  with  peculiar  carved  and  turned  woodwork. 
The  former  come  from  Wakamatsu  in  Aidzu,  the  others  are  manu- 
factured in  Nikko  itself,  and  it  is  these  which  are  called  by  the 
above  name.  The  articles  are  neither  so  various  and  beautiful  nor 
so  prized  as  those  from  Hakone,  but  are  very  peculiar.  The  woods 
of  the  camphor  laurel,  alder  and  other  trees,  so  generally  used  there 


JAPANESE  ART  INDUSTRY  IN  GENERAL. 


337 


do  not  play  any  part  in  Nikko.  What  gives  Nikko  ware  its  charm 
is  the  individuality  of  its  shapes,  and  the  materials  employed  in 
making  it.  Roots  and  pieces  of  branches  of  the  Shakunagi  (. Rhodo- 
dendron Metternichii)  are  stripped  of  their  bark,  and  hollowed  out 
for  bowls,  ash  cups,  water  dippers,  and  other  purposes,  then  lac- 
quered on  the  inside,  and  provided  with  a lacquered  cover.  Old 
cork-like  Polyporus  is  treated  in  the  same  way,  and  furnishes  a 
quantity  of  hollow  vessels  which  attract  by  their  want  of  symmetry 
as  well  as  their  originality. 

Comb-cutting.  The  Japanese  till  now  have  made  by  far  the 
greatest  part  of  their  toilette  and  small-tooth  combs  of  wood,  and 
used  for  this  purpose  chiefly  the  heavy,  thick  wood  of  several  ever- 
green trees  of  the  southern  part  of  the  country.  The  following  obser- 
vations and  memoranda  relative  thereto  were  gathered  atSawa-mura, 
in  the  province  of  Idzumi,  on  the  way  from  Sakai  to  Wakayama. 
Comb-cutting  is  carried  on  here  in  many  of  the  houses.  The  woods 
employed  are  chiefly  the  following,  arranged  in  the  order  of  their 
estimation;  I.  Tsuge  ( Buxus  japonicci , p.  246),  2.  Isu  or  Yusu 
(Distylium  racemosum,  p.  251),  3.  Tsubaki  ( Camellia  japonica , p. 
259).  The  relative  price  of  the  combs  made  from  these  woods  is 
8 sen,  2 sen,  and  1 sen  each.  Ginger,  or  Ukon,  is  often  used  to 
give  camellia  wood  the  yellow  colour  of  box,  but  cannot  impart  to 
it  the  more  important  qualities,  equal  fineness  of  grain,  hardness  and 
toughness.  The  imitation  is  otherwise  very  deceptive.  Yusu  wood 
is  easily  recognised  by  fts  reddish  brown  colour.  It  comes,  like 
box,  from  Kiushiu,  by  way  of  Osaka  and  Sakai.  It  is  soaked  in 
water  for  a longer  or  shorter  time  as  necessity  may  require,  in  order 
to  prevent  splitting.  As  in  the  case  with  Tsubaki,  the  wood  of 
kindred  varieties  is  used  also,  eg.  of  Mokkoku  ( Ternstroemia ),  but 
much  less  frequently. 

A sort  of  division  of  labour  exists  in  this  industry.  One  man 
saws  the  wood  into  plates,  another  with  a circular  saw  cuts  out,  a 
third  files,  grinds,  and  polishes  the  prepared  comb.  When  it  is 
to  hold  up  and  adorn  the  hair  of  a girl  or  a woman,  it  is  as  a rule 
ornamented  by  the  lacquerer. 

In  Yabuhara  on  the  Nakasendd  also,  the  comb  manufacture 
occupies  many  hands,  but  the  softer  deciduous  woods  of  the  neigh- 
bouring forests  are  used  here,  and  the  wares  are  cheap  and  inferior. 

Straw  Mosaic,  Jap.  Wara-kise-zaiku.  The  most  common  way  of 
ornamenting  many  small  articles  of  Japanese  woodwork,  and  at  the 
same  time  protecting  them  against  the  effects  of  weather,  is  by 
lacquering,  about  which  the  following  chapter  will  give  more 
extended  information.  There  is  another  decorative  art  by  means 
of  a sort  of  mosaic  work.  Intarsia,  or  the  inlaying  of  different 
coloured  woods,  such  as  is  carried  on  chiefly  in  the  Hakone  Moun- 
tains, has  already  been  mentioned.  A third  method  is  the  over- 
laying of  wooden  ware  with  plaited  rattan  or  straw.  The  first  is 
seen  chiefly  on  the  oval  bread  basket,  the  outside  of  which  instead 

II.  Z 


338  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


of  being  lacquered  is  often  covered  with  fine  rattan  braiding,  glued 
on,  also  in  egg-shell  porcelain. 

It  is  more  often  the  case  that  straw  mosaic  is  used  for  decora- 
ting small  wooden  ware.  These  are  little  cabinets,  boxes,  bowls, 
and  other  articles  commonly  made  of  Kiri-wood,  which  are  very 
popular  because  of  their  lightness.  The  most  beautiful  of  them  are 
sent  from  the  province  of  Tajima  to  the  treaty  ports.  These,  as 
well  as  the  favourite  straw  toys  of  children,  made  also  at  Omori,  on 
the  Tokaido,  between  Yokohama  and  Tokio.  Barley  straw  split 
and  coloured  with  aniline  dyes  is  used  for  mosaic  work.  The 
ornaments  are  first  placed  together  after  a pattern  on  bast  paper, 
and  glued  on  with  Fu-nori  or  some  other  paste,  and  then  in  the 
same  way  fastened  to  the  wood.  Even  in  this  work,  the  common 
labourer  manifests  a cultivated  taste  in  the  arranging  and  contrast- 
ing of  colours  that  is  not  to  be  found  in  any  other  nation. 

The  manufacture  of  toys,  or  Omocha,  belongs  also  to  this  small- 
wood  industry  (I  recall  only  the  koma  or  top)  in  which  the  Japanese 
show  themselves  very  skilful  and  careful  workmen.  We  turn  now 
another  branch  of  industry  in  which  these  qualities  are  manifested 
in  a far  higher  degree. 


Lacquer  Work. 

Prefatory  Observations. — M anner  of  Obtaining  the  fapanese  Lacquer ; 
its  Properties. — The  Urushi-kabure  or  Lacquer  Poisoning. — Pre- 
paration of  Raw  Lac  for  the  Lacquer er. — Prices  of  the  Material. 
— Other  Materials  and  Utensils  needed  in  the  Work. — Laying  on 
of  the  Groundwork  and  Simple  Lacquer  Ornamentation. — The 
Work  of  the  Lacquer  Painter  or  Makiye-shi. — Plain  and  Relief 
Gold-lacquer  Decorations.— -Lacquer  Carving. — Historical  Items 
concerning  Lacquer  Work. 

Prefatory  Remarks. 

Among  the  many  well  developed  branches  of  Japanese  art 
industry,  lacquer  work  undoubtedly  takes  the  first  place.  In  no 
other  have  the  feeling  for  art  and  artistic  ability  of  the  Japanese, 
their  free  play  of  fancy,  and  their  admirable  perseverance  and  skill 
in  executing  their  richly  figured  pictures,  developed  earlier  and 
more.  In  none  have  they  so  quickly  disengaged  themselves  from 
their  Chinese  masters  and  patterns  and  stood  more  independently, 
and  finally  in  no  other  have  they  so  surely  won  eminence  among 
all  civilized  people.1  Besides,  in  scarcely  any  other  branch  of  their 
industry  is  the  employment  and  use  of  the  raw  material  so  varied, 

1 Father  d’Incarville,  128  years  ago  bore  repeated  testimony  to  the  superiority 
of  Japanese  lacquer  work  over  that  of  the  Chinese,  from  which  it  sprang.  The 
English  designation  “to  Japan,”  is  likewise  intended  to  signify  lacquering. 


LACQUER  WORK. 


339 


the  purposes  and  excellence  of  the  articles  it  serves  to  adorn  so 
manifold,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Japanese  lacquer- work,  and  the  in- 
dustry which  gives  it  value. 

The  great  superiority  of  the  Japanese  lacquer  wares  is  not  only 
the  result  of  several  excellent  properties  of  the  peculiar  lacquer,1 
but  is  also  based  on  the  careful  manner  in  which  that  excellent 
material  is  used.  Japanese  articles  of  this  kind  are  distinguished 
by  greater  lightness  and  elegance  of  appearance ; by  their  solidity, 
and  the  beauty  and  spirit  of  their  decorations  ; principally,  however, 
by  several  very  valuable  elements  in  the  material  itself.  To  these 
belong : — 

1.  Its  great  hardness,  in  which  the  Japanese  lacquer  varnish 
far  excels  all  others,  even  the  copal,  tar,  and  asphaltum,  without 
showing-  brittleness  or  becoming  cracked. 

2.  Its  high  lustre  and  the  mirror-like  surface  of  the  carefully  laid- 
on  lacquer  coating,  especially  the  black,  qualities  which  are  pre- 
served under  the  most  different  atmospheric  influences  for  decades, 
and  even  centuries. 

3.  Its  resistance  to  a number  of  agencies  which  attack  and 
destroy  our  common  resinous  lacquer  varnish. 

Thus  the  Japanese  lacquer  is  not  injured  by  boiling  water,  or 
hot  cigar  ashes ; it  withstands  even  alcoholic  liquids  of  all  sorts, 
and  acids,  at  least  when  cold.  The  hot,  sharp,  salty  soup  of  the 
Japanese  makes  as  little  impression  on  the  lacquered  wooden  dish 
from  which  they  eat  it,  as  does  the  heated  sake.  According  to 
Professor  H.  W.  Vogel,  the  simple  black  Japanese  lacquered  dish 
is  proof  against  acid  and  alcohol,  and  serves  an  excellent  purpose 
on  this  account  in  photo-chemistry. 

It  is  by  these  properties,  quite  apart  from  the  artistic  adornment, 
that  Japanese  and  Chinese  lacquer  wares  may  be  recognised  and 
distinguished  from  their  European  imitations,  which  are  brought 
into  the  market  from  Holland,  from  Spa,  Forbach,  and  other 
localities  ; for  all  these  imitations  are  prepared  from  resinous  var- 
nishes which  do  not  share  in  the  properties  of  the  Japanese. 

All  Japanese  lacquer  wares  are  called  Nuri-mono,  less  frequently 
Uru-shi-saiku.  Urushi  signifies  varnish — nuri,  to  spread  over,  es- 
pecially with  varnish ; mono,  the  work ; saiku,  the  wares  or  the 
manufacture.  The  lacquerers  are  divided  into  two  general  classes, 
viz.,  Nuri-mono-shi  or  Nushi-ya,  and  Makiye-shi.  The  first  sup- 
ply the  groundwork  and  common  lacquering.  Those  belonging 
to  this  class  understand  nothing  of  the  business  of  the  others,  and 
only  in  exceptional  cases  employ  precious  metals  for  decoration. 
The  Makiye-shi  or  lacquer  painters  stand  higher.  They  understand 
also  all  the  work  of  the  Nuri-mono-shi,  but  are  employed  mostly 
with  the  decoration  of  the  primed  lacquer  ware,  especially  with 

1 “Japanese  lacquer  is  not  like  our  copal  varnish,  an  artificial  mixture  of 
resin,  fatty  oils,  and  turpentine,  but  in  reality  a ready-made  product  of  nature.” 
— Wagener. 


34° 


ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


the  representation  of  pictures  and  designs  in  gold  and  silver  dust. 
They  are  real  artists,  who  wield  their  small  brush  with  great 
firmness  and  skill,  and  not  only  work  according  to  patterns,  but 
often  develop  admirable  creative  power  in  designing. 

Besides  these  two,  there  are  or  were  still  other  classes  of  spe- 
cialists, eg.,  Ao-gai-shi  or  mother-of-pearl  inlayers,  and  the  Saya- 
shi  or  sword-sheath  lacquerers. 

There  is  no  longer  any  secret  in  the  Japanese  art  of  lacquer- 
work,  although  even  in  modern  times  the  contrary  has  been  as- 
serted. Every  one  who  will  take  the  time,  and  bring  to  it  the 
necessary  previous  knowledge,  can  study  in  Japan,  as  I myself  did, 
the  manner  of  obtaining  and  preparing  the  raw  material.  A real, 
expert  study  is  indeed  necessary,  and  as  but  few  have  hitherto  had 
time  and  opportunity  for  this,  and  many  have  repeated  without 
understanding  what  they  have  gained  from  incompetent  Japanese 
sources,  their  reports  are  always  full  of  erroneous  assertions. 

For  these  reasons,  and  because  this  treatise  is  almost  exclusively 
the  outcome  of  personal  studies  made  on  the  spot  and  continued 
later  in  Europe,  a complete  statement  of  the  literature  of  the 
subject  seems  unnecessary  here.  I will  indicate  only  the  most 
valuable  works  bearing  upon  it,  remarking  upon  a part  of  them 
in  passing. 

1.  “ Memoire  sur  la  vernis  de  la  Chine.”  By  Father  d’Incarville, 
Jesuit  and  Correspondent  of  the  Academie.  This  appeared  in 
“ Memoirs  de  Mathematique  et  de  Physique,  presentes  a l’Academie 
Royale  des  Sciences,  par  divers  Savans,  et  lus  dans  ses  Assemblies.” 
Vol.  iii.  pp.  1 17-142.  Paris,  1760. 

A free  German  translation  of  this  may  be  found  in  the  Supple- 
ment to  Heidemann  : “M.  Watin’s  Kunst  des  Staffiermalers,  Ver- 
golders,  Lackierers,  und  Farbenfabrikanten  (in  ‘ Neuer  Schauplatz 
der  Kiinste  und  Handwerke ’).  Ilmenau,  1S24.” 

In  the  first  sentence  of  this  still  readable  article,  the  author 
states  that  the  lacquer  of  China  is  not  a composition,  but  a gum  or 
resin  that  exudes  from  the  lac  tree.  Much  of  what  is  said  about 
the  manner  of  obtaining  the  lac,  and  its  use,  applies  to  Japan  also, 
and  is  as  true  to-day  as  then.  It  is  not  to  be  wondered  that  there 
are  some  errors  also,  as,  eg.,  when  d’lncarville  calls  tea  oil  a drying 
substance,  and  gives  it  a place  beside  black  Japanese  lac,  with 
burned  hartshorn.  Nevertheless,  the  article  remains  instructive  and 
interesting,  because  in  more  than  one  place  he  gives  expression 
to  the  superiority  of  the  Japanese  as  perceived  by  the  Chinese 
themselves. 

2.  Wagener,Dr.G. : “Japanischer  Lack.  Dinglers  Polytechnisches 
Journal.”  Band  218,  p.  361.  1875.  This  small  work  is  the  result  of 
thorough  observation  and  sound  judgment,  as  is  everything  which 
this  scientific  and  cultivated  author  has  written  concerning  Japan. 

3.  Maeda : “Les  Laques  du  Japon.  Revue  scientifique.”  2me 
Serie.  Vol.  vii.  pp.  1 17-128.  Paris,  1878. 


LACQUER  WORK. 


341 


4.  Rein:  “ Das  Japanische  Kunstgewerbe.  Oesterr.  Monatssclirift 
fur  den  Orient.”  Vienna,  1882.  Nos.  4 and  5.1 

5.  Quin,  J.  J. : “ Report  by  Her  Majesty’s  Acting  Consulate  at 
Hakodati,  on  the  Lacquer  Industry  of  Japan.”  London,  1882.2 

6.  H.  Yoshida:  “On  Urushi  Lacquer.  Journal  Chem.  Soc.” 
1883,  p.  472  ff. 

7.  O.  Korschelt  and  H.  Yoshida.  “The  Chemistry  of  Japanese 
Lacquer.  Transact.  As.  Soc.  Japan.”  XII.  pp.  182-220.  While 
my  limited  chemical  aids  in  Japan  made  it  possible  for  me  to 
make  only  a qualitative  investigation  of  the  raw  lac,  the  authors 
of  this  very  interesting  article  have  succeeded  in  throwing  light 
upon  the  constitution  of  its  several  elements.  Korschelt  particu- 
larly has  pointed  out  its  most  important  constituent — lac-acid,  and 
thoroughly  investigated  its  properties,  besides  tracing  several  inter- 
esting phenomena  in  its  relation  to  the  lacquer  process,  and  making 
corresponding  statements.  Wherein  I differ  from  his  conclusions, 
I have  given  my  own  views  in  the  place  where  such  difference 
occurs. 

1 I spent  the  first  five  months  of  the  year  1874,  and  of  my  stay  in  Japan,  in 
Tokio,  chiefly  in  the  study  of  lacquer  work.  After  I had  set  up  a chemical 
laboratory  in  the  German  Legation,  I engaged  two  experienced  and  very  competent 
lacquerers,  one  of  whom,  named  Kisaburo,  was  a thorough  artist,  and  arranged 
a workshop  under  their  directions.  My  principal  purpose  was  to  become  ac- 
quainted with  the  art  of  lacquering,  and  all  the  utensils  and  materials  used  in 
the  work.  In  order  to  accomplish  this,  and  at  the  same  time  to  secure  for  the 
Royal  Museum  of  Industrial  Art  in  Berlin  an  instructive  collection  of  samples, 
I ordered  from  a joiner  one  hundred  tablets  of  Hi-no-ki  wood  ( Retinispora 
obtusa),  each  20  centimeters  long  by  13  centimeters  broad.  I kept  a journal 
giving  account  of  all  the  work,  which  I myself  also  participated  in,  and  I also 
investigated  all  materials  employed.  When  the  collection  was  finished  I sent  it 
with  a report  to  His  Excellency  the  Prussian  Minister  of  Trade  and  Industry, 
in  Berlin.  That  report  forms  the  foundation  of  this  treatise.  In  order  to  com- 
plete it,  and  to  learn  more  of  the  cultivation  and  value  of  the  lac  tree  in  the 
interior  of  the  country,  and  the  other  branches  of  industry,  I started  upon  my 
travels.  The  result  of  this  journey  was  a report  concerning  the  cultivation  of 
the  tree,  the  extraction  of  the  raw  lac,  and  of  the  vegetable  tallow,  after  I had 
visited  all  the  great  centres  of  this  cultivation,  as  well  as  nearly  every  place 
where  important  lacquer  work  was  carried  on,  and  had  obtained  the  most  truly 
scientific  information  regarding  all.  The  succeeding  pages  cover  the  ground  of 
my  investigations  as  briefly  as  practicable,  and  treat  also  of  the  collection  in  the 
Royal  Industrial  Art  Museum  in  Berlin,  which  in  the  nature  of  its  origin  and 
its  instructive  value  may  be  truly  said  to  stand  alone. 

2 In  Balfour’s  Cyclopaedia  of  India,  of  1873,  there  is  this  statement:  “The 
manner  of  preparing  the  varnish,  and  the  mode  of  applying  it,  is  and  is  likely 
to  remain  a secret.”  Sir  Joseph  Hooker  of  Kew,  in  his  report  for  1882,  quotes 
this,  and  concludes  that  Quin,  consul  in  Hakodate,  had  learned  the  secret. 
Both  these  gentlemen  appear  to  have  as  little  knowledge  of  the  above  quoted 
works  of  Father  d’Incarville  and  Dr.  Wagener  as  of  my  own  study  of  lacquer 
work  in  Japan. 


342  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


Method  of  Obtaining  the  Raw  Varnish,  and  its 
Properties. 

The  material  of  the  industry  now  treated  is  an  emulsion,  the 
sap  of  the  lac  tree  or  Urushi-no-ki  ( Rhus  vemicifera , D.  C.),  culti- 
vated in  China  and  Japan.  The  character  of  this  species  of 
sumach,  its  variety,  and  the  distribution  of  its  culture  in  Japan, 
also  its  introduction  into  Germany,  have  already  been  discussed  on 
pp.  158-160.  It  has  been  especially  noted  also  that  the  chief 
districts  of  lac  cultivation  lie  in  Northern  Hondo,  between  the 
37th  and  39th  parallels.1 

About  three-fourths  of  all  raw  lac  is  obtained  north  of  the  36th 
parallel.  The  inland  provinces  and  former  Daimio  territories  of 
Aidzu,  Yonezawa,  Yamagata,  and  Nambu,  and  lying  nearer  the 
Japan  Sea,  parts  of  the  provinces  of  Echizen  (eg.,  Ochiyama,  not 
far  from  Fukui),  Echigo  (neighbourhood  of  Murakami,  Nagaoka, 
and  others),  Ugo  (Akita,  in  the  district  of  the  Tochima-gawa  and 
Noshiro-gawa),  and  Mutzu  (eg.,  at  Hirosaki),  are  distinguished 
above  all  others  for  their  extensive  plantations  of  the  lacquer  tree. 
The  lac  of  the  young  trees  in  the  vicinity  of  Yoshino  in  Yamato  is 
particularly  estimated. 

The  extraction  of  the  sumach  lac  has  much  similarity  to  the 
manner  of  obtaining  manna  from  the  trunks  of  Fraxinus  Ornus 
in  Sicily.2  It  is  done  by  making  a horizontal  slit  upon  the  tree 
(girdle  cutting),  and  can  be  undertaken  the  whole  summer  through, 
from  April  to  the  end  of  October.  The  lac  taken  in  spring  is  the 
least  valuable,  because  it  is  very  watery.  The  autumn  product  is 
much  thicker,  but  also  granulous  and  slow  in  exudation.  The  best 
time  for  the  lac  harvest  is  midsummer,  as  then  the  quantity  and 
quality  of  the  material  fulfil  best  the  demands.  The  sap,  however, 
never  flows  from  the  incision  so  easily  and  plentifully  that  it  can 
be  caught  in  vessels,  as  has  been  several  times  asserted. 

Lac  extraction  begins  commonly  when  the  tree  is  from  nine  to 
ten  years  old,  and  only  in  exceptional  cases  four  to  five  years 

1 I add  to  the  foregoing  only  this,  that  the  tree  in  the  Botanical  Garden  at 
Frankfort-on-the-Maine,  nine  years’  old,  at  the  end  of  its  last  vegetation-period, 
had  reached  a height  of  6^  meters  and  a trunk-circumference  of  48  cm.,  but  as 
yet  has  never  blossomed.  On  the  other  hand  19  smaller  specimens,  among 
which  only  one  female  tree  was  found,  blossomed  in  June  last  year.  Owing  to 
the  unfavourable  weather  of  the  autumn,  their  abundant  fruits  did  not  become 
fully  ripe,  but  attained  their  full  size  and  had  deposited  fat  in  the  mesocarp. 

Professor  Wallach  did  me  the  kindness  to  allow  his  pupil,  W.  Sundheim,  in 
the  chemical  laboratory  of  the  University  of  Bonn,  to  undertake  the  extraction 
and  estimate  of  the  gravity  of  the  fruit.  The  result  was  as  follows  : From 
100  fruits  dried  in  the  open  air,  and  6'i  5 1 grammes  in  weight,  there  was  ex- 
tracted of  fat,  060625  grammes;  shell  (epidermis  and  mesocarp),  C36  grammes; 
kernel  (putamen  and  embryo),  4^15  grammes.  The  fat  formed  29'37  per  cent, 
of  the  weight  of  the  shell,  and  IC23  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  entire  fruit. 
The  colouring  matter  extracted  is  not  brought  into  the  calculation. 

2 See  Fliickiger,  “ Pharmakognosie,”  2 Aur.,  p.  21. 


LACQUER  WORK. 


343 


earlier,  as  in  the  district  of  Yoshino,  province  of  Yamato.  The 
two  most  important  instruments  used  in  obtaining  it,  are  the 
Kaki-gama  or  scratching  sickle  (Plate  III.  fig.  io),  a thin  iron  plate 
bent  like  a fish-hook,  with  its  U-shaped  end  tempered  and  sharp- 
ened like  a knife  on  the  concave  side,  corresponding  to  the  lancet 
of  our  foresters  ; and  the  Natsu-bera  or  summer  spatula  (Plate  III., 
fig.  1 1),  a flat  iron  spoon  with  a short,  bent-over  point.  The 
first  is  used  to  cut  the  tree,  but  the  Natsu-bera  for  scraping  out 
the  channels  when  full  of  lac,  and  lifting  it  into  the  Go  or  small 
wooden  or  bamboo  pail.  In  the  case  of  old  trees  with  a thick, 
rugged  bark,  this  must  first  be  cleared  away  and  the  trunk  made 
smooth  before  the  Kaki-gama  can  be  used.  This  bark  scraping 
is  effected  by  the  Kawa-muki  or  bark  peeler,  a long,  somewhat 
sickle-shaped,  bent  knife.  The  straight  knife  or  H6ch6  (Plate 
III.,  fig.  i),  and  the  Ye-guri,  punch  or  gouge  (Plate  III.,  fig.  2), 
are  also  occasionally  used  by  the  lac-tapster.  If  he  is  sensitive 
to  the  poisonous  vapour  of  the  sap,  he  protects  his  hands  by 
Te-bukuro  or  mittens. 

Almost  all  the  workmen  engaged  in  extracting  the  lac  come 
from  the  vicinity  of  Fukui  in  the  province  of  Echizen.  They 
number  some  fifteen  or  sixteen  hundred.  They  go  out  into  the 
several  lac-districts  in  spring,  mostly  toward  the  north,  where  they 
are  employed  by  the  lac-dealers,  who  buy  the  trees  from  the 
peasants  and  point  them  out  to  their  workmen,  usually  1,000 
young  trees  to  each.  Where  the  trees  are  older,  from  600  to  800 
will  keep  a Shokunin  busy  for  the  entire  summer.  Ten  years  ago 
the  average  price  of  100  trees  was  from  30  to  36  yen,  but  it  is  now 
almost  doubled,  owing  to  the  greater  demand  for  raw  lac,  and  its 
increased  price. 

When  the  lac-tapster  has  made  all  his  preparations  and  cleared 
his  trees  of  bark,  he  takes  the  Kaki-gama,  and  with  a quick  stroke 
in  a horizontal  direction  makes  an  incision  through  the  rind  and 
bast  about  two  millimeters  broad,  on  the  lower  part  of  the  trunk. 
He  passes  the  hook  of  the  knife  through  this  girdle-cutting,  in 
order  to  remove  any  bits  of  bark  which  may  have  fallen  in,  and 
then  a span  (15  to  20  cm.)  higher,  on  the  opposite  side,  makes  a 
second  and  a third  gash  the  same  distance  apart,  then  afresh  on 
the  other  side  in  six  to  ten  places,  quickly  following,  as  far  as  he 
can  reach.  I have  seen  a practised  Urushi-shokunin  make  an 
incision  each  second.  Then  he  goes  to  another  tree  and  does  the 
same.  When  he  has  cut  ten  or  fifteen  trees,  he  returns  to  the 
first  and  collects  the  raw  lac  or  Ki-urushi  in  the  same  order.  It 
is  a greyish  white  thick  emulsion,  which  becomes  first  yellowish 
brown  and  soon  after  black,  on  exposure  to  the  air.  It  fills  the 
gash  but  does  not  usually  run  over.  It  is  taken  out  with  the 
point  of  the  Natsu-bera  and  then  scraped  off  over  the  edge  of  the 
little  pail  (Go)  which  the  workman  carries  in  his  left  hand. 

When  he  has  finished  this  work,  he  goes  to  another  group  of 


344  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


trees,  and  performs  the  same  operation,  and  so  on.  After  four  days 
he  returns  to  the  first  trees  and  makes  this  time  new  incisions 
parallel  to  the  others,  and  about  two  millimeters  lower,  then  to 
the  others  in  the  same  way,  scraping  out  the  exudations  from  the 
new  series  as  he  did  in  the  first  instance.  As  this  operation  is 
repeated  with  the  same  interval  some  fifteen  or  twenty  times,  it 
will  be  seen  that  the  work  of  the  lac-tapster  occupies  not  less  than 
60  to  80,  and  often  100  days  before  it  is  finished.  If  the  tree  is 
to  be  sacrificed  to  the  lac-extraction,  then  he  makes  incisions  in 
all  parts  of  the  tree  not  yet  cut,  even  the  branches,  but  at  greater 
distances.  If,  however,  it  is  to  be  kept  for  further  yield,  and 
especially  for  wax-extraction,  the  treatment  is  more  careful,  and 
the  incisions  more  sparing.  In  the  first  case,  where  the  tree  is 
made  to  yield  its  utmost,  it  is  customary  to  cut  down  the  branches 
after  the  leaves  have  fallen,  and  to  bind  the  thicker  parts  together 
in  fagots  of  one  meter  length,  and  to  put  them  with  the  tops 
in  warm  water.  The  parts  of  the  branches  which  protrude  out 
of  the  water  are  then  scratched,  the  lac  extracted,  the  fagots  are 
turned  and  the  process  repeated  on  the  other  side.  The  sap  can 
be  made  to  circulate  anew,  not  only  in  water  but  by  the  heat  of 
fire.  But  the  lac  so  extracted,  Se-shime,  or  Shime-urushi,  is  con- 
sidered the  poorest  of  its  kind,  and  is  used  only  in  groundwork. 
The  best  Ki-urushi  comes  from  the  lower  part  of  the  tree  and 
flows  best  during  the  hottest  part  of  the  year.  It  is  of  an  even, 
viscid  constituency  and  a tan-brown  colour.  The  poorer  qualities 
are  generally  darker,  and  not  homogeneous,  somewhat  granulated 
and  almost  jelly-like  in  thickness.  These  are  obtained  from  the 
branches  and  higher  parts  of  the  trunk. 

One  lac  tree  yields  on  the  average  under  exhaustive  treatment, 
to  which  the  tree  of  course  is  sacrificed,  only  i-5  to  3 go,  or  53'50 
ccm.  of  raw  lac,  corresponding  to  about  27  to  54  grammes,  as  its 
specific  gravity  is  a little  above  that  of  water.1 

According  to  Dallas,3  in  1874  the  lac  yield  of  Okitama-ken 
(district  of  Yonezawa  in  Uzen),  one  of  the  principal  districts  of 
lac-culture,  was  3,608  kin,  or  Japanese  pounds  (a  S92'S93  gr.)=2,i65 
kilogrammes.  Besides  this  there  was  manufactured  from  the  fat 
of  the  fruit  62,598  kin  = 37,559  kilogrammes  of  Ro-soku  or  candles. 
If  the  average  yield  be  40  grammes  raw  lac  per  tree,  60,140  trees 
must  be  sacrificed  to  gain  these  2,165  kilogrammes. 

Ki-urushi  is  always  packed  in  Taru  (tubs)  of  the  size  and  form 
of  our  common  wooden  pails.  They  are  made  of  Sugi  ( Cryp - 
tomeria  japoncia ),  bound  with  bamboo  hoops  and  covered  with  a 

1 W.  Williams,  in  “The  Middle  Kingdom,”  says  that  in  China,  each  1,000 
trees  are  supposed  to  yield  an  average  of  only  20  lbs.  of  lac.  This  makes  (one 
pound  avoirdupois=4S3'6  grammes)  in  all  9,072  grammes,  or  only  nine  grammes 
per  tree. 

2 “Notes  collected  in  the  Okitama-ken.”  Trans.  As.  Soc.  of  Japan,  1S75, 

p.  1 18. 


LACQUER  WORK. 


round  cover  like  the  bottom  of  the  tub.  Before  they  are  closed 
up,  two  sheets  of  strong,  oiled  bast  paper  are  laid  on  the  lac, 
large  enough  to  overhang  the  rim,  between  it  and  the  cover.  As 
soon  as  the  cover  is  fastened  on,  the  paper  is  bound  over  the 
edge  of  the  tub  from  4 to  6 cm.,  and  straw  rope  is  then  wound 
around  tight  from  nine  to  twelve  times.  The  sealing  is  thus  so 
perfect  that  during  transportation,  even  if  upset  or  laid  in  a hori- 
zontal position,  the  tub  is  safe  from  leakage  or  overflow. 

I was  told  in  Yonezawa  that  such  a tub  holds  usually  8 J Kuwanme 
(1  Kauwnme=iooo  Me=3'37i  kg.)  or  29-848  kilogrammes.  Quin, 
however,  states  in  his  above-mentioned  work,  that  it  contains  about 
four  English  gallons,  or  a round  18  kilogrammes,  which  seems  to 
me  also  more  probable.  From  this  it  appears  that  the  above- 
named  product  of  Ki-urushi  in  Yonazawa-ken,  2,165  kilogrammes, 
could  have  been  carried  in  120  Taru.  The  quantity  of  Ki-urushi 
yielded  by  the  whole  country  varies  apparently  between  60,000 
and  100,000  kin,  corresponding  to  35,556-59,259  kilogramms,  or 
from  1,975-3,292  Taru  or  tubs  at  18  kilogrammes  each. 

In  1875,  twenty  Momme  or  75  grammes  of  Ki-urushi  were  bought 
for  2 Shu  (about  sixpence) ; in  1882,  however,  only  875  Momme= 
32-8  gramms.  The  price  also  was  advanced  to  about  fifteen 
shillings  the  kilogramme,  against  seven  shillings  in  1 87 5.1 


1 According  to  official  statements,  which  however  include  very  many  un- 
doubtedly erroneous  data,  the  raw  lac  production  of  Japan  for  the  years 
1876-77-78,  was  60,656  kin,  99,26 7 kin,  and  66,639  kin,  respectively,  in  value 
37,742  yen,  49,800  yen,  and  49,179  yen.  In  1878,  the  yield  was  estimated  in 
Fu,  and  Ken,  as  follows  : — 


Kioto-fu  . 

756  kii 

Aitchi-ken 

. 2,210  „ 

Miye-ken  . 

53  ,, 

Yamanashi-ken 

429  ,, 

Kanagawa-ken . 

• 1,309  ,, 

Gifu-ken  . 

- 5,014  ,, 

Nagano-ken 

• 8,656  „ 

Gumba-ken 

458  „ 

Tochigi-ken 

• 3,oi4  ,, 

Fukushima-ken 

. 3,614  ,, 

Miyagi-ken 

562  „ 

Iwate-ken 

8,801  „ 

Yamagata-ken . 

. 4,624  kin. 

Akita-ken 

• 2,771  „ 

Fukui-ken 

• 2,697  „ 

Ishikawa-ken  . 

• 7,785  „ 

Niigata-ken 

• 3,887  „ 

Shimane-ken  . 

205  „ 

Okayama-ken  . 

225  „ 

Hiroshima-ken 

• 1,516  „ 

Wakayama-ken 

• i,295  „ 

Kochi-ken 

• 3,504  ,, 

Yehime-ken 

• i,75o  „ 

Fukuoka-ken  . 

600  „ 

in  all  65,735  kin.  Apart  from  the  fact  that  this  sum  does  not  agree  with  the 
total  amount  given  above,  many  of  the  single  items  have  such  a mark  of  arbitrari- 
ness, that  it  will  not  do  to  rely  upon  these  statements.  They  make  K6chi  and 
Yehime-ken,  for  instance,  or  the  island  of  Shikoku,  a very  large  lac-producer, 
while  the  cultivation  of  the  lac  tree  is  limited  almost  entirely  to  the  eastern 
part,  the  province  of  Awa  and  the  bordering  .Sanuki.  I did  not  see  lac  trees 
anywhere  in  Tosa  and  Iyo,  nor  hear  of  their  culture  anywhere  in  the  districts  I 
did  not  visit.  The  provinces  of  Owari,  Mino  and  Shinano  (Aichi-Gifu  and 
Nagato-ken),  appear  here  also  as  large  producers,  while  I sought  lac  trees  in 
vain  in  all  three,  and  as  in  Tokio,  was  referred  at  every  inquiry  to  the  north, 
and  particularly  to  Aidzu,  which  had  long  been  celebrated  for  its  wax,  but  as  a 
lac-producer  was  far  behind  the  provinces  of  Echigo  and  Uzen. 

According  to  the  reports  of  Quin,  the  yearly  extract  of  raw  lac  in  Japan  is 


34-6  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


Ki-urushi  or  raw  lac,  like  the  varieties  of  lac  prepared  from  it, 
is  kept  in  wooden  vessels  (tubs  or  flat  round  boxes),  and  protected 
carefully  from  light  and  dust.  It  cannot  be  used  by  the  lacquerer 
without  further  preparation,  but  must  first  go  through  various 
processes  of  purifying  and  transformation,  the  first  of  which  con- 
sists in  freeing  it  from  the  mechanically  introduced  bits  of  bark 
and  wood.  To  effect  this,  it  is  pressed  through  cotton  cloth,  and 
then  is  called  Ki-sho-mi,  i.e.,  raw  lac  free  from  foreign  substances. 

Before  I go  farther,  I will  give  the  results  of  my  own,  and  par- 
ticularly of  Korschelt’s,  investigation  of  this  substance.  Ki-sho-mi, 
or  purified  raw  lac,  is  a grey  to  tan-brown,  syrupy,  very  sticky 
liquid  of  varied  consistency  and  a specific  gravity  but  little  greater 
than  that  of  water.  Korschelt  estimated  this  at  I ’0020-1  ’0379, 
with  which  my  own  observations  agree  very  well.  A peculiar, 
sweetish  smell  is  especially  noticeable  in  it,  if  it  has  been  long  in 
a closed  vessel.  Under  a powerful  microscope  a brownish  mass 
scattered  with  small  globules  of  two  sorts  may  be  discovered,  viz., 
a very  numerous  small  dark  brown,  and  a more  sparsely  scattered 
larger  light-coloured  sort.  On  adding  water  the  latter  disappear, 
while  pure  alcohol  dissolves  only  the  first  kind.  Alcohol,  like  all 
solvents  of  resin, — ether,  chloroform,  bi-sulphide  of  carbon,  benzine, 
— dissolves  when  cold,  but  much  easier  when  moderately  warmed, 
a large  quantity  (between  60  and  80'  per  cent.)  of  raw  lac,  while 
water  has  scarcely  any  influence,  save  to  take  up  a small  percentage 
of  the  raw  lac,  after  long  shaking,  which  shows  that  this  lacquer 
is  of  a gummy  resinous  character.  The  constituents  are  as  follows: 

1.  A very  small  proportion  of  volatile  acid.  This  disappears 
very  soon  in  ordinary  temperature  and  the  drying  of  the  lacquer- 
paint,  but  more  rapidly  when  the  lacquer  is  distilled  with  water. 
I attribute  the  poisonous  properties  of  raw  lac,  and  the  lacquer- 
disease,  to  this  not  yet  sufficiently  understood  substance. 

2.  Water  in  varying  quantities,  from  10  to  34  per  cent,  accord- 
ing to  whether  the  raw  lac  is  obtained  from  young  or  old  trees, 
trunks  or  branches,  in  spring,  summer,  or  autumn.  It  can  be 
expelled  by  stirring  in  the  sun  or  over  a slow  fire,  but  especially 
by  distillation  in  a water-bath. 

3.  A nitrogenous  substance  which  Korschelt  considers  as  albu- 
men. Its  quantity  varies  from  17  to  3'5  per  cent. 

4.  Gum,  which  in  all  essential  characteristics  seems  to  be  the 

from  30,000  to  35,000  tubs.  If  he  is  followed  in  his  estimate  of  four  gallons  to 
the  tub,  or  a weight  of  18  kilogrammes,  we  have  the  enormous  quantity  of 
540,000  to  630,000  kilogrammes,  or  more  than  five  or  six  times  the  heavy  yield 
of  1877.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  this  statement  is  erroneous.  This  is 
seen  also  in  Quin’s  own  words,  that  every  year  about  1,500  lac  tapsters  are  sent 
out  into  the  several  districts  of  the  country,  and  that  each  one  can  collect 
about  4%  Taru  or  tubs  of  lac. 

Given  now,  the  maximum  of  collection  to  these  1,500  persons,  and  we  have 
1,500x4^=6,750  tubs,  and  to  each  tub  18  kilogrammes,  the  total  production 
amounts  to  only  121,500  kilogrammes. 


LACQUER  WORK. 


347 


same  as  gum  Arabic,  and  amounts  to  from  3 to  6-5  per  cent,  of 
the  whole. 

5.  Lac-acid  or  Urushi-acid  is  the  predominant  and  most  im- 
portant ingredient.  Its  quantity  is  usually  between  60  and  80 
per  cent  of  the  total  weight,  and  in  the  best  lac  of  Yoshino  amounts 
to  85  per  cent.  Analyses  made  by  Korschelt  from  seven  different 
lac-samples,  give  the  following  result : 


Constituents  of 
the  Raw  Lac. 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

Yoshino,  Prov. 
Yamato. 

Hottamura, 
j Prov.  Hidachi. 

Southern  Sagami. 

Northern  Echigo. 

Hachi6ji,  Prov. 

Sagami. 

Unknown  origin, 

j bought  in  Tokio. 

The  same. 

Lac  Acid 

85-15 

64-62 

65-83 

66-92 

8o'00 

64-07 

58-24 

Gum 

3'iS 

5-56 

5-02 

4‘7S 

4-69 

6-05 

6-32 

Nitrogenous  Substance 

2-28 

2'IO 

2'OI 

1-72 

3'3i 

3"43 

2-27 

Oil 

? 

0"09 

o"o6 

o-o6 

? 

0-23 

? 

Water 

9-42 

27-63 

24-08 

26-55 

12*00 

26-22 

33-17 

The  small  quantity  of  oil  found  in  several  of  the  foregoing 
analyses  is  not  an  original  property  of  the  lac  itself,  but  came  in 
the  process  of  obtaining  it  from  the  tree,  as  the  tapster  oils  his 
knife  and  spatula  with  E-no-abura  (Perilla  oil)  in  order  to  prevent 
the  lac  adhering  to  the  iron. 

. The  principal  and  most  important  constituent  of  the  lac  is  the 
already-mentioned  lac-  or  urushi-acid,  Cu  H18  02  which  is  distin- 
guished by  the  microscope  as  little  brown  globules,  and  extracted 
best  in  pure,  warm  alcohol.  This  formula  ascertained  by  Korschelt 
in  an  elementary  analysis,  is  distinguished  from  that  of  the  Borneo 
camphor  by  6 parts  less  of  carbon. 

Lac-acid  shares  with  resinous  acids  its  solubility  in  alcohol,  ether, 
chloroform  and  other  liquids,  and  in  many  cases  the  relation  to 
metallic  bases  also,  but  is  much  more  active,  inasmuch  as  its 
alcoholic  solution  enables  it  to  decompose  nitrates  and  chlorates. 
The  reaction  in  sugar  of  lead  solution  is  peculiar.  It  forms  in 
contact  with  lac-acid  at  once  a grey,  flaky  precipitate  of  lac-acid 
lead.  Most  interesting  of  all,  however,  is  the  conversion  of  the  lac- 
acid  into  an  exceedingly  steady  neutral  substance,  oxylac-acid, 
whose  properties  will  be  discussed  further  on  under  the  lacquer 
process. 

The  Ki-sho-mi  or  purified  lac,  according  to  my  observations, 
when  closely  mixed  with  water  added  to  it,  takes  it  up  gradually 
and  completely,  especially  if  it  previously  contained  proportion-v 
ably  but  little  water.  It  loses  in  this  way  its  fluidity,  however, 


348  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


and  becomes  of  a jelly-like  thickness,  which  when  painted  on  wood 
or  other  groundwork,  dries  very  quickly.  On  the  other  hand, 
besides  heat,  camphor  or  Shono  is  the  only  material  for  thinning 
the  lac  known  to  the  Japanese  from  earlier  times  and  is  the  only 
one  still  used.  It  is  taken  in  its  usual  granulated  and  crystalline 
condition,  pulverized  and  mixed  with  the  lac  by  the  spatula  and 
thus  made  liquid.  Camphor  oil,  although  it  answers  the  same 
purpose  very  well,  as  my  experiments  with  it  in  the  presence  of  my 
Japanese  lacquerers  proved,  appears  never  to  be  used  by  them. 

Among  the  properties  remaining  to  be  noted  in  the  material  under 
treatment  are  these  ; that  it  turns  to  black  on  exposure  to  the  light, 
dries  easily  in  a damp  atmosphere  in  ordinary  temperature,  and 
that  its  evaporation  produces  a kind  of  poison  which  is  the  cause 
of  the  lac-disease. 

The  drying  of  fresh  lacquer-painting  differs  from  that  of  our 
resinous  varnishes  in  that  it  is  not  promoted  by  artificial  heat,  but 
is  best  accomplished  in  a damp  atmosphere,  as  free  as  possible 
from  dust,  in  the  ordinary  temperature,  between  io°  and  250  C.  or 
at  most  30°  C.  The  direct  rays  of  the  sun  are  injurious,  because 
the  heat  is  uneven,  and  the  stronger  it  is  the  more  it  hinders  drying. 
The  lacquerer  fulfils  the  necessary  conditions  by  choosing  a dark 
room  (chest,  closet  or  chamber)  in  the  most  quiet  retired  place, 
and  provides  against  the  insufficient  moisture  of  the  atmosphere 
by  some  artificial  means. 

In  a small  shop,  where  a roomy  chest  with  some  boards  inside 
resting  on  cross-pieces  suffices  for  the  work,  the  boards,  the  inner 
walls  and  the  cover  are  all  washed  with  cold  water  before  the 
freshly  painted  lacquer  wares  are  placed  in  it  to  dry.  In  other 
cases  a large  cupboard  is  treated  the  same  way,  for  the  same 
purpose.  If  it  is  necessary  to  use  an  entire  room,  it  is  customary 
to  hang  wet  cloths  on  the  walls,  and  to  set  vessels  of  water  about 
in  order  that  the  necessary  moisture  of  the  atmosphere  may  be 
gained  through  evaporation. 

Father  d’Incarville  says  on  page  127  of  his  before-cited  work  : 
“ Ici  a Peking,  ou  Fair  est  extremement  sec,  pour  secher  le  vernis, 
il  faut  n^cessairement  1’exposer  dans  un  endroit  humide,  entoure 
de  natte,  que  1’on  arrosera  d’eau  fraiche  ; autrement  le  vernis  ne 
secheroit  pas  ; si  c’est  une  piece  raise  en  place,  qu’on  ne  puisse 
detacher,  ils  sont  obliges  de  Fentourer  ainsi  de  linges  mouillies.”1 

The  lac-acid  extracted  by  means  of  pure  alcohol  does  not  possess 
this  peculiarity  of  drying,  as  I learned  in  1874,  and  as  the  numerous 
experiments  of  Korschelt  have  shown  later.  It  hardens  only  when 
it  is  mixed  with  the  albumen  and  water,  as  in  lac.  The  mixture, 
however,  loses  this  property  when  heated  over  60°  C.,  i.e.,  above  the 
temperature  in  which  albumen  coagulates. 

1 In  this  connection,  his  countryman  Watin,  in  his  book  on  the  Art  ot 
Decorators,  Gilders  and  Lacquerers,  says,  “This  observation  seems  contrary 
to  all  experience.” 


LACQUER  WORK. 


349 


Korschelt  has  pointed  out  further  that  the  albumen  present  in 
raw  lac  acts  in  drying  as  a ferment  upon  the  lac-acid,  and  that  the 
hardening  of  the  lacquer-paint  is  due  to  a process  of  oxydising,  by 
which  the  lac-acid  taking  up  oxygen  is  converted  into  oxylac-acid, 
according  to  the  formula  Cu  H18  02  + O = C14  H18  03.  When  Kor- 
schelt investigated  still  further  this  oxy-urushic  acid  which  he  ob- 
tained in  the  form  of  a brown  powder,  he  found  that  it  is  entirely 
insoluble  in  all  the  solvents  of  lac-acid,  and  that  both  potash  and 
soda  lye,  ammonia  in  all  degrees  of  concentration  and  of  every 
temperature,  and  most  acids,  strong  saltpetre  excepted,  have  no 
effect  upon  it.  It  is  therefore  evident  that  the  remarkable  resist- 
ance of  dry  Japanese  lacquer-work  to  these  influences  is  due  to 
the  presence  of  this  oxylac-acid. 

Korschelt’s  investigations  and  opinions  do  not  favour  the  ac- 
cepted theory  that  in  the  drying  of  lacquer-paint  water  is  used  for 
making  hydrates.  But  this  leaves  me  without  an  explanation 
of  the  thickening  of  the  raw-lac  to  which  I have  alluded  before, 
especially  of  the  Se-shime-urushi,  when  water  is  added, — a process 
any  one  may  observe,  and  in  which  a separation  of  the  hydrogen 
is  not  perceptible. 

In  conclusion,  I will  mention  the  lacquer-poisoning  or  Urushi- 
kabure  as  the  Japanese  call  it,  to  which  I have  already  referred 
briefly  on  p.  343.  It  is  a peculiar,  not  very  painful,  and  not  at  all 
fatal,  but  always  very  disagreeable  disease,  always  attacking  one 
new  to  the  work,  whether  he  be  lac-tapster,  dealer,  or  lacquerer.  It 
appears  in  a mild  reddening  and  swelling  of  the  back  of  the  hands, 
the  face,  eyelids,  ears,  the  region  of  the  navel  and  lower  parts  of 
the  body,  especially  the  scrotum.  In  all  these  parts  great  heat  is 
felt  and  violent  itching  and  burning,  causing  many  sleepless  nights. 
In  two  or  three  days  the  crisis  is  reached,  and  the  swelling  im- 
mediately subsides.  In  severe  cases,  small  festering  boils  form 
also.  This  lacquer  disease,  admirably  described  by  Father  d’ln- 
carville  on  page  119  of  his  work,  to  which  I have  now  frequently 
alluded,  is  not  only  caused  by  direct  handling  of  the  lac,  but  by 
its  evaporation  chiefly,  especially  that  of  the  sharp  Se-shime,  to 
which  I owed  my  own  illness. 

The  poison,  however,  is  a volatile  substance,  and  has  nothing  to 
do  with  the  lac-acid  and  its  higher  oxydation,  as  Korschelt  believed. 
If  the  poisonous  property  disappears  in  the  drying  of  the  paint, 
this  amounts  to  nothing  save  that  the  volatile  poison  fully  escapes 
in  this  manner.  A considerable  part  of  it  is  driven  off  in  the 
preparation  of  the  several  kinds  of  lacquer,  and  by  stirring  in  open 
vessels.  For  this  reason,  the  lacquers  mixed  with  colours  are 
regarded  far  less  dangerous  than  raw  lac  and  its  direct  derivatives. 
When  such  lac  has  been  for  a long  time  shut  up  in  a closed  box 
or  tub,  the  experienced  workman  turns  away  his  face  when  the 
vessel  is  opened  that  he  may  not  inhale  the  accumulated  vapour. 
This  is  noted  by  d’Incarville  also  in  the  following  : “ II  faut  prendre 


35° 


ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


garde,  en  couvrant  et  decouvrant  les  vases  qui  contiennent  le  vernis, 
de  s’exposer  a sa  vapeur  ; on  tourne  la  tete  pour  l’eviter  ; sans  cette 
attention  Ton  courroit  risque  de  gagner  les  clous  de  vernis.” 

Preparation  of  the  Raw  Lac  for  the  Lacquerer. 

Ki-sh6-mi,  the  raw  lac  (Ki-urushi)  purified  from  foreign  sub- 
stances, is  ground  for  some  time  in  a shallow  wooden  tub,  to  crush 
its  grain  and  give  it  a more  uniform  liquidity.  It  is  then  pressed 
through  cotton  cloth  (wata-goshi)  or  hemp-linen  (nuno-goshi), 
In  this  way  the  several  varieties  of  Se-shime1  which  appear  in  the 
price  list  are  obtained,  and  are  much  used  not  only  for  ground- 
work, but  also  in  the  final  (polishing)  work  upon  the  lacquer 
wares.  Thus  Se-shime  is  nothing  else  but  a purified,  filtered  and 
evenly  flowing  raw  lac. 

In  order  to  describe  the  remaining  varieties  of  lacquer,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  follow  the  mechanical  purification  in  its  removal 
of  a considerable  part  of  the  water  admixture.  This  is  done  by 
evaporation  in  the  sun,  or  by  mild  heat  over  a coal  fire.  The 
Ki-sh6-mi,  or  Se-shime,  is  poured  into  shallow  pans,  which  have  an 
average  diameter  of  o-5  to  I meter,  and  walls  2 to  4 centimeters 
thick,  and  is  stirred  constantly  with  a flat  paddle.  In  the  northern 
cities  specially  engaged  in  the  lacquer  industry  (Niigata,  Waka- 
matsu,  Yonezawa,  Hojiri,  etc.),  these  pans  are  made  of  cross 
sections  of  Tochi  ( JEsculus  turbinata,  Bl.),  and  in  Tokio  and  other 
southern  cities,  out  of  such  cuttings  from  the  trunks  of  the  Keaki 
( Zelkowa  Keaki , Sieb.).  The  lac  is  heated  in  the  former  over  a 
moderate  coal  fire,  in  the  latter  in  the  sun,  the  pan  being  inclined 
against  a wall,  so  that  the  contents,  as  they  are  stirred  may  have 
the  full  benefit  of  the  sun’s  rays.  The  work  takes  usually  a 
few  hours,  the  quantity  of  water  is  noticeably  reduced,  and  the  so- 
treated  Kurome-urushi  becomes  a syrupy,  greyish  brown  liquid 
like  Se-shimp.  ’ In  the  three  principal  cities  of  the  country  (T6kio, 
Kioto  and  Osaka)  this  preparation  and  that  of  the  hereinafter 
named  varieties  is  made  by  a particular  guild  of  lacquer  dealers, 
which  ten  years  ago  numbered  sixteen  members.  These  dealers, 
or  Urushi-ya,  recognise  in  their  price  list  16  to  20  varieties  of 
lacquer.  The  workmen  of  other  cities  informed  me  that  this  was 
an  unnecessary  division,  and  maintained  that  for  all  practical 
necessities,  5 to  6 varieties  would  suffice.  The  Urushi-ya  is  evi- 
dently a medium  which  furnishes  a better  though  higher-priced 
material  to  the  lacquerer  than  that  which  he  gets  by  preparing  it 
for  himself,  as  is  done  in  the  cities  where  a more  limited  lacquer 
industry  is  carried  on. 

1 The  word  Se-shime  is  not  to  be  taken  here  in  the  narrow  sense  of  lac  ob- 
tained from  the  branches  of  the  tree,  but  is  derived  from  seshimeru  (to  make 
firm  and  durable),  and  refers  to  its  use  in  groundwork.  Only  a small  part 
of  this  Se-shime-urushi  is  branch  lac. 


LACQUER  WORK. 


35i 


The  differences  between  the  several  varieties  in  the  price  list  are 
certainly  small.  A number  of  them  are  not  found  among  dealers 
in  Tokio  at  all,  as,  for  example,  the  Saya-hana,  whose  significance 
departed  as  the  old  swords  and  their  sheaths  lost  their  place  in  the 
common  esteem.  At  all  events,  Se-shime,  Nashiji,  Shu-urushi,  Ro- 
iro,  Nuritate  and  Hana-urushi  are  the  varieties  which  are  most 
valued  and  used  in  the  best  workmanship. 

Urushi  Nedan  Dzuke , or  Lac  Price  List  of  Tokio,  for  the  years 
1875  and  1882,  combined  and  arranged  in  order. 


I.  According  to  the  number  of  Momme  (a  weight 
of  375  gr.),  which  may  be  bought  for  2 shu, 

. or  50  pfeninge. 

I. 

Number  of  Momme 
which  one  gets 
for  2 shu. 

I] 

Price  of 
gramme  i 

a kilo- 
in  marks. 

11.  According  to  the  price  for  1 kilogramme  in 
marks. 

1875- 

1882. 

1875- 

1882. 

i.  Nashiji,  i.e.  pear  ground,  greyish  brown 

lacquer  

7 

4'5 

20-95 

29-63 

2.  Ro-iro,  i.e.  wax  colour,  best  black  lustre 
lacquer  

9 

S-2S 

1670 

2539 

3.  Shu-urushi,  i.e.  cinnabar  lacquer  . . 

12 

6-25 

I2'22 

2i'33 

4.  Nuritate,  finishing  lacquer  .... 

12 

6-i66 

1 2'22 

21-62 

5.  Saya-hana,  sword  sheaths,  flower  lac- 

quer   

12 

— 

I2'22 

— 

6.  Hako-shita,  i.e.  groundwork  for  boxes 

12 

6-125 

I2'22 

2177 

7.  Shun-kei,  yellowish  lacquer  .... 

15 

7'375 

9-78 

18-07 

8.  J6-tame,  best  light  brown  lacquer  . . 

15 

7-375 

978 

18-07 

9.  Jo-hana,  best  flower  lacquer  .... 

J5 

7'° 

978 

19-04 

10.  Jo-naka,  Jo-chiu-hana,  or  Naka-nuri, 

for  use  between  the  layers  .... 

17-5 

7-875 

8 "04 

1637 

11.  Yoshino,  purified  raw-lac,  from  Yoshi- 

no  in  Yamato 

17-5 

875 

8-04 

17-51 

12.  Jo-chiu-tame,  light  brown  middle  lac- 

quer   

17-5 

— . 

8-04 

— 

13.  Ki-sho-mi,  purified  raw  lac  .... 

20*0 

875 

7’33 

17-51 

14.  Chiu-hana,  flower  lacquer,  2nd  quality 

20*0 

875 

7'33 

17-51 

15.  Wata-goshi-Se-shime,  i.e.  Seshime 

pressed  through  cotton 

20 'O 

— 

7'33 

— 

16.  Men  - goshi  - Se-shime,  i.e.  S.  pressed 

through  cotton  cloth 

— 

875 

— 

17-51 

17.  Nuno-goshi  Se-shime,  i.e.  S.  pressed 

through  hemp-linen 

22 'O 

9*37  5 

6-67 

14-22 

18.  Kuro-tame,  black-brown  lacquer  . . 

25‘ 

10-625 

5-87 

12-55 

19.  Chiu-tame  (Naka-tame)  light  brown 

middle  lacquer,  2nd  quality  .... 

25' 

— 

5-87 

— 

20.  Nami-tame,  ordinary  light  brown  lac- 

quer   

32'S 

14375 

4-52 

9-27 

This  list  shows  that  the  several  varieties  of  lacquer  differ  greatly 
in  price,  that  even  the  least  important  are  very  costly,  and  that 
the  price  has  increased  remarkably  of  late  years.  If  in  spite 


352 


ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


of  this,  the  common  lacquer  wares  are  sold  at  very  low  prices, 
it  is  to  be  explained  by  the  fact  that  it  takes  but  a very  small 
quantity  of  this  expensive  material  to  paint  over  a large  surface, 
and  that  the  necessities  and  wages  of  the  Japanese  workmen  are 
very  small. 

Nashi-ji  and  Shu-urushi,  and  the  nearly  related  Shiyun-kei 
and  Jo-tame,  are  classed  together  as  Suki-urushi,  i.e.  transparent 
lacquer.  They  are  free  from  iron  admixture,  are  of  a reddish 
yellow  colour,  and  transparent  in  thin  layers,  and  are  used  mainly 
in  the  final  operations  of  the  lacquerer.  Nashi-ji  gets  its  name 
“ pear  ground  ” from  its  use  in  a kind  of  surface  decoration  with 
coarse  gold  powder  or  its  bronze  substitute,  which  is  said  to  be 
an  imitation  in  colour  of  the  Japanese  pears.  This  most  expen- 
sive of  all  lacquers  contains  I per  cent,  of  Shio,  or  gamboge,  which 
is  added  in  powder  or  concentrated  solution  to  the  Ki-sho-mi 
after  it  has  been  pressed  through  hemp-linen,  either  before  or 
while  it  is  being  stirred  in  the  sun.  From  16  to  18  hours  are  neces- 
sary for  the  evaporation  of  the  water,  steady  stirring,  according  to 
the  degree  of  warmth  and  amount  of  moisture  in  the  air. 

The  Nashi-ji  is  then  pressed  twice  through  the  cotton  filter, 
and  can  be  used  without  any  further  process.  Shiyun-kei  is  pre- 
pared in  a similar  way,  but  with  less  quantity  of  raw  lac,  and 
with  an  addition  of  Ye-no-abura  (Perilla  oil).  Instead  of  gamboge, 
also  plum  juice  (from  the  fruit  of  the  Mume)  is  used,  or  the 
yellow  extract  of  Kuchinashi,  i.e.  the  fruit  of  Gardenia  florida.  Jo- 
tame  is  obtained  by  exactly  the  same  process  save  that  a thicker 
raw  lac  is  used. 

Shu-urushi,  cinnabar  lacquer,  is  a transparent  variety,  which  is 
prepared  like  Nashi-ji  from  the  best  raw  lac  taken  from  the 
lower  part  of  the  trunk,  at  the  hot  Doy6  (dog-days),  but  is  dis- . 
tinguished  from  it  by  an  addition  of  from  I to  io  per  cent,  of 
Yegoma-no-abura.  It  is  called  cinnabar  lacquer,  because  cinnabar 
is  carefully  and  thoroughly  rubbed  into  it,  and  it  is  used  in  pro- 
ducing this  colour  in  painting.  To  produce  very  ordinary  red 
colour,  Beni-gara  or  colcothar  is  sometimes  used. 

Kuro-urushi  is  the  collective  name  of  all  black  lacquer,  which 
is  prepared  by  adding  to  the  purified  and  filtered  raw  lac  a 
solution  of  some  salt  of  iron  (green  vitriol  or  acetous  ferric 
oxyde)  or  Toshiro  (iron  filings  water)  and  then  expelling  the 
water  again  by  stirring.  In  the  preparation  of  Ro-iro-urushi,  or 
best  black  lustrous  lacquer,  a very  good  quality  of  purified  raw  lac 
is  used,  and  to  Wata  or  Nuno-goshi,  Haguro,  a solution  of  acetous 
protoxide  of  iron  is  added,  and  the  whole  is  stirred  in  shallow 
pails  or  small  tubs  in  the  sun  or  over  a moderate  fire,  till  the 
water  is  fully  evaporated.  (This  protoxide  of  iron  is  the  material 
generally  used  by  Japanese  women  for  blacking  the  teeth.  It  is 
obtained  by  pouring  rice  beer  or  vinegar  over  iron  nails  or  iron 
filings  and  keeping  the  solution  for  several  days  in  a warm  place.) 


LACQUER  WORK. 


353 


The  quantity  of  iron  solution  added  is  determined  by  the  colour. 
The  iron  contents  vary  from  O'S  to  2 per  cent.  When  all  the  water 
is  expelled,  the  Ro-iro-urushi  is  passed  twice  through  cotton  cloth, 
and  is  ready  for  use  as  a black  lacquer,  without  further  treat- 
ment. 

Hana-urushi,  flower  lacquer,  is  also  a black  lacquer,  like  the 
preceding,  and  similarly  prepared.  It  contains  somewhat  less  iron, 
but  has  a slight  addition  of  Yegoma-no-abura,  while  Haka-shita  is 
prepared  like  Ro-iro  without  oil,  but  of  a much  poorer  quality 
of  raw  lac.  Saya-hana,  Jo-hana,  J6-chiu-hana  and  Chiu-hana  are 
several  kinds  of  flower  lacquer,  as  appears  on  the  price  list.  Naka 
is  a synonym  of  Chiu,  meaning  “between,”  and  in  the  word  Naka- 
urushi  signifies  a black  lacquer  of  poorer  quality  which  is  employed 
generally  to  finish  the  groundwork.  All  these  cheaper  black 
lacquers,  which  are  made  from  the  poorer  varieties  of  raw  lac  and 
used  chiefly  in  groundwork,  contain  Yegoma-no-abura.  In  Nuritate, 
which  must  be  classed  with  them,  the  oil  amounts  to  10  per 
cent.  In  the  northern  cities,  where  each  lacquerer  prepares  all 
his  lacquer  materials  for  himself  as  he  needs  them,  only  one  kind 
of  black  lacquer  is  made,  and  is  designated  simply  as  Kuro- 
urushi. 

The  different  grades  of  chestnut  brown,  or  Kuri-iro-urushi  are 
made  by  mixing  the  black  and  cinnabar  lacquers  together.  Gold- 
yellow  or  Kin-iro  is  made  by  genuine  gold  powder  or  its  bronze 
substitute,  and  Gin-iro  or  silver  white  by  means  of  silver  dust. 
Kiw6-urushi,  i.e.  orpiment  lacquer,  is  greenish  yellow  in  colour,  and 
is  made  by  an  admixture  of  the  yellow  powder  of  sulphide  of 
arsenic  with  transparent  lacquer.  Awo-urushi  or  green  lacquer  is 
produced  in  a similar  way,  by  mixing  very  thoroughly  with  trans- 
parent lacquer  a green  powder  called  Sei-shitsu  (pronounced 
Sests’).1 

As  this  exhausts  the  number  of  Japanese  lacquer  colours,  it 
appears  that  the  lighter  shades  of  colour,  white,  yellow,  blue  and 
red  with  their  many  shades  and  combinations,  and  the  light  green 
also,  are  wanting.  The  Japanese  and  Chinese  have  made  many 
attempts  to  get  them,  and  their  failure  is  to  be  attributed  to  the 
peculiarity  of  the  lacquer. 

In  conclusion,  I add  to  this  description  of  the  several  varieties 
of  lacquer  and  their  preparation,  a list  of  other  materials  and 
utensils  used  by  the  Japanese  lacquerer.  Of  colours  and  other 
decorative  material  there  are  : I.  Shu,  cinnabar ; 2.  Kiwo,  orpi- 
ment ; 3.  Ai,  or  indigo  from  Polygonum  tinctorium ; 4.  Sei- 

1 I found  to  my  surprise,  in  the  analysis  of  this  Sei-shitsu, — concerning  which 
during  my  stay  in  Japan  I could  only  obtain  the  explanation  that  it  was  “ a 
kind  of  green  colour,”  as  Hepburn  remarks  in  his  dictionary, — that  it  is  a 
mixture  of  Japanese  indigo  with  orpiment.  Later,  when  I procured  the  before- 
mentioned  work  of  Father  d’Incarville,  his  observation  on  page  137  astonished 
me  ; “ Pour  le  vert,  ils  se  servent  d’orpiment  qu’ils  melent  avec  de  l’indigo.” 

II.  A A 


354  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS 


shitsu,  a mixture  of  2 and  3 ; 5.  Beni-gara,  red  oxide  of  iron ; 6. 
Beni,  carthamin  ; 7.  Shio,  gamboge  ; 8.  Tonotsuchi,  white  lead  ; 9. 
Sumi,  charcoal,  particularly  a.  Matsu-no-sumi-no-ko,  i.e.  pulverized 
pine  charcoal ; b.  H6-no-ki-sumi,  magnolia  charcoal ; c.  Tsubaki-no- 
sumi,  camelia  charcoal ; d.  Ro-iro-dzumi,  charcoal  of  Lagerstromia 
indica  ; 10.  Aogai,  mother  of  pearl  of  Haliotis  and  large  species  of 
Trochus;  11.  several  sorts  of  yellow  and  green  gold  dust  (Yaki- 
gane  and  Koban)  ; 12.  Gin-pun,  silver  dust;  13.  Kin-baku,  genuine 
gold  foil ; 14.  Gin-baku,  silver  foil ; 15.  Shari-kaganai,  tin  foil ; 16. 
Shari-nashi-ji,  tin  dust. 

There  are  used  in  groundwork:  1.  Nuno,  hemp  canvas;  2. 
Kokuso,  hemp  bast  or  cotton  wadding  cut  into  small  pieces ; 3. 
Kami,  bark  paper  ; 4.  Sh6n6,  camphor ; 5.  Nikawa,  animal  glue  ; 

6.  Shibu,  the  astringent  juice  of  unripe  persimons  ( Diospyros 
Kaki ) ; 7.  Hai-dzumi,  lamp  black  ; 8.  Ji-no-ko,  finely  pulverized 
brick  dust;  9.  To-no-ko,  iron  ochre  powder;  10.  To-ishi,  whet- 
stones of  several  kinds  for  grinding;  11.  Ho-no-sumi,  and  other 
above-named  charcoals  for  the  same  purpose;  12.  Tsuno-ko, 
pulverized  burnt  hartshorn  for  polishing  after  lacquering;  13. 
Tane-abura,  for  the  same  purpose,  and  for  cleaning  the  pencils 
and  brushes  ; 14.  Nori,  paste. 

The  utensils  for  lacquering  are  simple  and  in  general  well 
adapted  to  the  work.  Illustrations  of  those  most  used  may  be  seen 
in  Plates  III.  and  IV.  The  originals  are  in  the  Royal  Industrial 
Art  Museum  in  Berlin.  The  following  are  used  in  groundwork : 1. 
Hocho,  a straight,  sharp  kitchen  knife  (Plate  III.  1);  2.  Ko-gatana, 
a straight,  stiff,  but  smaller  pocket-knife  carried  in  a case ; 3. 
Ye-guri,  a hollow  chisel  or  gouge  (III.  2)  ; 4.  Hasami,  a pair 
of  shears  resembling  our  wool-shears  (III.  3)  ; 5.  Hera,  a wooden 
spatula  (III.  4,  5) ; 6.  Take-bera,  a pointed  bamboo  spatula  (III.  6); 

7.  Hake,  a flat  brush  of  human  hair  (III.  7)  ; 8.  Unoke-hake, 
a flat  brush  of  rabbit’s  hair  (IV.  3)  ; 9.  Abu,  a rack  for  drying 
the  brushes  ; 10.  J6-ban,  a little  wooden  box  to  hold  the  tools,  on 
whose  projecting  cover  the  different  groundworks  are  prepared,  the 
brushes  cleaned  and  the  spatulas  sharpened.  These  two  instru- 
ments are  the  most  important.  The  spatulas  are  made  out  of  Hi- 
no-ki  ( Retinispora  obtusa ) or  some  kindred  variety  of  pine.  They 
have  a pointed,  rounded-off  handle,  and  an  elastic,  flexible  plate, 
thinner  and  wider  in  front,  growing  broader  to  the  end,  which  is 
from  I to  3 fingers  broad,  and  cut  off  diagonally.  The  flat  brushes 
also,  or  Hake,  are  of  different  breadth  according  to  the  purpose 
which  they  serve.  A strand  of  long,  black  human  hair,  glued 
tightly  together,  is  laid  along  the  length  of  and  between  two  thin 
wooden  plates,  which  are  glued  together  and  bound  on  the  long 
sides  by  bands,  the  hair  projecting  from  1 to  2 millimeters.  When 
the  hair  has  been  used  till  it  is  worn  away,  the  wood  is  sharpened 
off  like  a lead  pencil,  and  the  hair  carefully  and  evenly  trimmed 
off.  The  colours  and  other  materials  that  are  to  be  used  in 


LACQUER  WORK. 


355 


lacquering  are  crushed  on  a board  or  the  cover  of  the  J6-ban,  and 
then  mixed  thoroughly  into  the  lacquer  with  the  spatula.  This 
also  takes  the  place  of  the  pestle  in  the  pulverizing  mortar.  With 
it  is  carried  the  cement  and  jelly-like  materials  for  the  groundwork, 
the  brush  taking  up  all  the  lacquer  varnishes.  ^ 

In  the  delicate  final  work,  several  different  Fude  or  roundP 
brushes  (IV.  6-n)  are  used,  made  from  rat,  rabbit  and  deer  hair,  in 
bamboo  handles  with  bamboo  protectors,  as  some  of  the  illustra- 
tions show,  which  can  be  pushed  down  over  the  brush  when  it  has 
been  cleaned  after  using.  The  Fude-tate  is  a brush  carrier,  for  the 
preservation  of  the  foregoing  (Fig.  2).  For  laying  on  the  fine 
jelly-like  colours,  a little  palette  of  tortoise-shell  or  buffalo-horn, 
called  Tsuno-ban  (III.  8),  is  used,  being  pushed  over  the  thumb  of 
the  left  hand.  Several  little  Nashi-ji-tsutsu,  dust  sieves,  or  Tsutsu- 
furui,  pipe-sieves,  are  used,  according  to  the  size  of  the  surface, 
freshly  painted  with  lacquer,  which  is  to  be  strewn  evenly  with 
some  kind  of  powder.  These  are  made  by  cutting  quills  or  bamboo 
canes  diagonally  across,  and  pasting  a porous  fabric  of  silk  or 
other  stuff  over  the  openings.  See  Plate  IV.  Fig.  1.  A small 
stick  with  a Tai-ki  or  little  fish-tooth  (from  Serranus  marginalis, 
the  Tai)  on  the  end  is  shown  by  Plate  IV.  Fig.  2,  and  used  for 
polishing  bent  corners  and  other  furrows  into  which  the  sharpened 
charcoal  will  not  reach.  Plate  IV.  Fig.  3 shows  a Yanagi-yoji 
or  willow- wood  brush,  universally  used  by  the  Japanese  as  a 
tooth-brush.  It  serves  to  brush  away  superfluous  powder,  while 
the  pointed  end  of  the  handle,  or  a specially  pointed  stick,  as  the 
Hirame-fude,  is  used  for  picking  up  and  laying  on  of  gold  foil  or 
mother-of-pearl  leaves  on  the  fresh  layer  of  lacquer.  Kebo  (IV.  5) 
is  the  long-haired  brush  of  deer  or  horse-hair  which  is  used  to 
brush  off  any  dust  that  may  have  settled  on  the  lacquered  article. 
Plate  III.  Fig.  9,  represents  the  Saji,  or  spoon  used  to  put  the  gold 
and  silver  dust  into  the  pipe  sieve.  The  back  can  be  used  also 
instead  of  a spatula  for  laying  single  layers  of  groundwork  on 
concave  surfaces. 

Wood  (Ki)  stands  first  among  the  materials  from  which  articles 
to  be  lacquered  are  made.  Wood  of  the  pine  tribe  is  used  chiefly, 
and  Hino-ki,  or  the  wood  of  Retinispora  obtusa,  is  considered  far 
the  best,  as  it  is  white,  free  from  knots,  and  not  very  resinous. 
Sawara  ( Retinispora  pisifera) , and  Hiba  ( Thujopsis  dolabrata) 
stand  second,  and  then  follow  firs,  pines,  and  cryptomeria.  The 
wood  of  the  H6-no-ki  [Magnolia  hypoleuca)  excels  in  fineness  of 
grain  and  elasticity.  The  thin  side-walls  of  the  popular  light 
oval  bread-baskets,  for  example,  made  principally  in  Shidzuoka 
and  Niigata,  are  of  this  wood.  The  light  wood  of  the  Kiri,  too 
[Paulownia  imperialist,  is  much  used  for  lacquer  wares.  The  wood 
of  several  other  foliaceous  trees  distinguished  for  toughness  and 
firmness,  like  Keyaki  [Zelkowa  Keaki),  Sakura  [Prunns  pseudo- 
cerasus ) and  Buna  [Fagus  Sieboldi)  are  turned  by  the  lathe  into 


356  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


vessels  and  then  lacquered.  In  Wakamatsu  and  Yonezawa,  many 
of  the  Wan,  or  soup  bowls  of  the  Japanese,  are  made  out  of  Buna. 
They  are  heavier  and  less  durable  than  those  made  from  Keaki 
or  Katsura  ( Cercidiphyllum  japonicuwi).  Only  the  wood  of  the 
camphor  laurel  is  entirely  unsuitable  for  lacquering  on  account  of 
its  exuding  camphor  gum  and  its  previously  mentioned  property 
of  thinning  the  varnish. 

Other  articles  made  from  stiff  paper  pulp,  e.g.,  from  Ikkambari,  a 
sort  of  papier  mache,  and  Kami-kawa  or  paper  leather,  are  lacquered, 
also  some  from  Tsuno,  horn,  and  Bekko,  tortoise-shell,  from  bamboo 
cane  or  Take,  whose  outer  skin  must  first  be  taken  off,  from  Tetsu, 
iron  and  Aka-gane,  copper,  the  various  unglazed  clay  wares, 
especially  porcelain  (in  Nagasaki  and  Nagoya  chiefly),  also 
Banko-yaki  and  common  earthenware  (in  Ise  and  Nagoya). 

The  following  important  rules  are  observed  by  the  lacquerer  : 

1.  Every  coat  must  be  laid  on  evenly  and  then  gone  over  cross- 
wise with  the  spatula  or  brush,  first  in  one  direction  and  then  after- 
wards in  the  other. 

2.  No  new  coat  must  be  put  on  before  the  last  one  is  dry. 

3.  It  can  be  best  determined  when  a smooth  surface  is  dry 
by  the  condensation  and  disappearance  of  moisture  breathed 
upon  it. 

4.  Only  the  groundwork  can  be  dried  in  the  open  air  or  direct 
sunlight,  and  then  only  when  the  coating  contains  very  little  or  no 
lac  admixture. 

5.  The  drying  of  all  genuine  lacquer  coats  must  take  place  in  the 
damp,  unwarmed  atmosphere  of  a chest,  cupboard  or  chamber.  In 
order  to  secure  this  the  chest  is  laid  on  its  side  and  washed  with  a 
wet  cloth.  Then  the  lacquered  articles  are  put  in,  and  the  cover, 
which  has  been  washed  also,  is  closed.  The  drying  cupboard  with 
shelves  is  treated  in  the  same  way. 

6.  Such  an  arrangement  serves  to  keep  off  draughts  of  air,  dust, 
and  light  during  the  drying. 

7.  Every  fine,  finishing  lacquer-varnish  before  it  is  laid  on  must 
be  pressed  once  or  twice  through  Yoshino-gami,  (a  fine  porous  but 
strong  Broussonettia  bast  paper)  by  turning  at  both  ends  in  an  op- 
posite direction.  Moderately  warmed,  it  flows  more  freely,  and 
hastens  the  process. 

8.  After  almost  every  new  coating,  according  to  its  nature,  comes 
rubbing  off,  or  polishing  with  polishing  stone,  with  magnolia  char- 
coal or  burned  hartshorn  fin  the  first  two  cases  of  course  with 
the  addition  of  water),  according  as  this  operation  follows  ground- 
work or  a later  coating. 

9.  The  carefully  lacquered  article  when  finished  must  not  in  any 
wise  reveal  the  make  or  material  of  its  framework,  must  be  free 
from  accidental  unevennesses,  cracks  and  spots,  must  have  a mirror- 
like surface  and  not  change  in  drying  nor  by  heating  with  warm 
water.  Finally,  when  breathed  upon  the  moisture  must  disappear 


TOOLS  USED  IN  LACQUER  INDUSTRY. 


[Page  421. 


LACQUER  WORK. 


357 


quickly  and  evenly  from  the  outside  toward  the  centre,  as  on 
polished  steel. 

The  Japanese  lacquering  process  which  I shall  treat  of  in  the 
following  pages  is  as  different  from  ours  as  the  material  employed, 
but  still  it  is  not  always  the  same ; for  instance,  in  what  concerns 
the  method  or  painting  the  groundwork,  which  can  vary  very 
greatly  not  only  according  to  the  nature  of  the  material  underneath 
but  also  the  article.  It  appears  to  me  necessary  only  to  set  forth 
the  better,  more  careful  manner  of  treatment,  with  wood  as  material, 
after  which  the  more  valuable  old  lacquer  wares  were  made,  as  also 
the  before-mentioned  samples  of  the  collection  which  I placed  in 
the  Royal  Industrial  Art  Museum  in  Berlin.  In  conclusion,  I shall 
briefly  show  the  manufacture  of  the  common  market  ware  and 
the  process  of  lacquering  ceramic  productions. 

We  distinguish  two  classes  of  Japanese  lacquerers,  as  has  been 
said  before — the  Nushi-ya  and  the  Makiye-shi. 

A. — Work  of  the  Nushi-ya. 

a.  Preparatory  or  Groundwork , Jap.  Shita-ji,  also  called  Togi-tate 
and  N aka-nuri-togi-tate. 

1.  The  Kokuso-o-kau  or  luting  process.  After  the  article  is 
placed  in  the  hands  of  the  lacquerer,  completed  and  smoothed  by  the 
joiner,  the  lines  of  joining,  the  wooden  pin-heads,  knots,  and  other 
defective  places  are  shaved  off  with  knife  and  chisel,  and  the  cracks 
or  furrows  filled  up  with  a kind  of  putty.  This  lute  or  cement, 
Kokuso,  is  made  as  follows  : equal  quantities  of  rice-paste  and 
Se-shime-urushi  are  mixed  tpgether,  then  reduced  with  finely 
scraped  hemp  bast,  lint  or  cotton  wadding  as  evenly  as  possible 
to  a jelly.  This  is  laid  on  with  a pointed  spatula  (Take-bera). 
The  putty,  at  first  a greyish  brown,  turns  to  blackish  brown  very 
soon,  and  holds  exceedingly  fast. 

2.  The  Ki-gatame,  i.e.  the  sizing  or  staining  of  the  wood  (from 
Ki  = wood,  katameru  = to  size).  The  staining  material  is  Se-shime- 
urushi  with  or  without  the  addition  of  paste,  and  is  applied  with 
the  spatula  or  flat  brush.  This  process  has  a double  purpose,  viz. 
to  fill  up  the  cracks  and  pores  in  the  wood  which  still  exist,  and 
to  furnish  a groundwork  upon  which  the  paper  or  covering  (4)  will 
stick  better. 

3.  The  Hi-komi  (hiku  = to  cover,  komu  = to  press  in)  is  only  used 
on  the  places  already  treated  with  Kokuso-o-kau,  and  serves  to 
fill  up,  smooth  off,  and  as  an  entire  protection  against  the  striking 
in  of  the  following  coats.  The  putty  used  is  a mixture  of  Ji-no-ko 
(Ji  = ground.,  ko  = powder) — a yellowish  brown  or  red  powder,  made 
from  bricks  or  pieces  of  common  pottery  (Kawarake),  with  some 
water,  paste  and  Se-shime-urushi.  After  this  is  dry  follows  rub- 
bing down  of  unevenness  with  Omura-do,  a sandstone  from  Omura 
in  Hizen. 


353  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


4.  The  Nuno-kise  or  Kami-kise,  i.e.  covering  (kiseru)  with  hemp 
canvas  or  paper.  Paste  and  Se-shime-urushi  are  mixed  thoroughly 
to  a thin  pulp,  with  which  the  article  is  thinly  coated.  A sheet  of 
Mino-gami  (strong  Broussonetia  bast  paper  from  the  province  of 
Mino),  or  thin  hempen  cloth,  is  laid  on  and  pressed  down  smooth 
and  firm  with  the  spatula.  The  edges  are  clipped  off  evenly  with 
the  shears,  and  a thin  coat  of  lacquer  is  put  on  with  the  spatula  or 
brush.  The  great  importance  of  this  whole  process  to  the  durability 
of  the  lacquer  ware  is  obvious.  On  the  one  hand  the  cover  forms 
a sort  of  partition,  which  prevents  the  exudations  of  the  volatile 
oil  and  resin  of  the  wood  from  penetrating  the  lacquer  varnish  out- 
side, and  on  the  other  gives  to  the  wood  also  greater  firmness, 
hindering  especially  its  warping.  Naturally,  only  the  strong,  long- 
fibred  Japanese  hand-made  paper  will  answer  this  purpose,  and 
not  the  chopped-up  machine-made  paper  of  the  “ rag  engine.” 

5.  The  Kata-ji  (Kata  = firm,  ji  = ground),  is  a fairly  thick  coat  of 
stiff  putty,  which  is  prepared  like  the  Hi-kome  (3)  and  applied  with 
the  spatula.  It  is  often  repeated  after  drying  and  smoothing  off 
the  inequalities  by  means  of  6mura-do. 

6.  The  Kiri-ko,  i.e.  mixed  powder.  Pulverized  ochre  (To-no-ko), 
is  mixed  with  water  to  a stiff  paste  and  then  tempered  with  Se-shime, 
a little  Ji-no-ko  (brick  dust)  and  paste  (Nori),  and  thoroughly 
mixed.  It  becomes  thus  a pulp  which  is  easily  laid  on  with  the 
spatula  or  brush  (Hake),  and  dries  in  the  open  air  in  from  1 to  2 
days.  Then  follows  again  the  polishing  off  the  unevennesses. 

7.  The  Ji-gatame  (ji  = ground,  katameru  = to  make  strong).  For 
this  process  only  Se-shime-urushi  is  used,  worked  beforehand  with 
water  into  a thin  paste.  The  article  to  be  lacquered  is  painted  over 
lightly  with  it  and  then  rubbed  quickly  over  with  a cloth.  When 
dry  it  shows  a blackish  brown  colour. 

8.  The  Sabi,  derived  from  Sabi-iro,  i.e.  colour  of  iron-rust.  The 
article  treated  with  Ji-gatame,  is  now  painted  over  with  a tolerably 
stiff  mixture  prepared  like  that  for  the  Kiri-ko  (No.  6),  with  the 
exception  of  the  paste,  and  sometimes  of  the  brick-dust  also. 
Rubbing  (togi)  again  follows  drying,  this  time  with  sandstone  and 
water,  till  the  surface  is  smooth  and  the  colour  a dark  greyish 
brown. 

9.  The  Sumi-bike,  or  coating  (hiku)  with  India-ink.  A poor 
quality  of  the  ink  is  ground  hard  with  water  and  then  rubbed  in 
with  a little  ball  of  cotton. 

10.  The  Naka-nuri  (naka  = middle,  inner;  muri  = lacquering). 
Naka-nuri-urushi  a poor  kind  of  Hana-urushi  (see  page  353)  is  a 
shiny,  black,  thick  lacquer,  which  is  mixed  with  from  ^ to  XV  of  its 
bulk  of  Se-shime,  and  a few  drops  of  Sake  or  rice-beer,  and  then 
pressed  through  a layer  of  several  sheets  of  Yoshino  paper.  The 
application  is  made  with  a flat  brush,  and  the  drying  takes  place 
in  a closed,  damp  room. 

Then  follows  the  Naka-nuri-togi,  i.e.  the  rubbing  down  (togu)  of 


LACQUER  WORK. 


359 


the  Naka-nuri  coating.  This  work  consumes  4 great  deal  of  time, 
but  is  very  important.  It  must  be  continued  till  all  the  lustre  has 
disappeared  and  the  surface  is  perfectly  smooth.  The  workman 
uses  for  this  process  the  fine-pored  light  Ho-no-ki-sumi,  the  char- 
coal of  Magnolia  hypoleuca,  which  he  holds  in  the  first  three  fingers 
of  his  right  hand,  and  a wet  cloth  is  held  in  the  remaining  part  of 
the  hand.  Besides  these,  he  has  by  his  side  ready  for  use  a pail  of 
fresh  water,  and  a small  polishing  stone  on  which  he  rubs  off  and 
sharpens  his  charcoal  from  time  to  time.  When  the  work  is  fin- 
ished, the  article  is  perfectly  smooth  and  of  a dead  black  colour. 
The  groundwork  is  now  ended.  It  has  served  the  purpose  of 
making  the  wood  more  durable,  and  covering  it  so  that  nothing 
can  be  seen  of  its  nature  or  the  lacquering  be  influenced  by  it,  and 
so  that  the  further  coatings  will  not  strike  in. 

The  divergences  from  this  very  minute  but  thorough  ground- 
work process,  which  was  always  formerly  followed  in  making  the 
best  lacquer  wares,  are  such  as  are  calculated  to  save  material, 
especially  Se-shime-urushi,  and  time.  They  are  as  follows  : — 

1.  In  process  4,  the  article  to  be  lacquered  is  not  covered  with 
canvas  or  Mino-gami,  but  it  is  considered  enough  to  cover  the 
joints,  which  have  been  smoothed  over  with  Kokuso,  with  strips  of 
cheap  writing  paper. 

2.  The  Shita-ji  (Shita  = under,  ji  = ground)  takes  the  place  of  the 
operations  3,  6,  and  7.  The  lute  used  in  making  this  groundwork 
contains  no  lacquer-varnish,  but  is  a mixture  of  boiled  glue,  brick- 
dust,  lampblack,  and  hot  water.  This  is  used  to  paint  over  the 
bottom  of  tea  trays,  but  not  the  sides,  nor  dishes,  boxes,  etc. 

3.  The  Sabi  is  applied  twice. 

4.  Between  the  9th  and  10th  process,  there  is  a new  one,  a coating 
of  Shibu,  the  juice  of  unripe  fruits  of  the  persimon  ( Diospyros  kaki). 

5.  The  Naka-nuri-togi  is  much  more  superficially  done. 

In  Wakamatsu,  Yonezawa,  Niigata  and  other  northern  cities 
where  lacquer  industry  is  a specialty,  a mixture  of  Shibu  and 
pulverized  pine-charcoal  or  lampblack  follows  immediately  after 
puttying  (Kokuso-o-kau),  and  then  comes  rubbing  off,  which  ends 
the  groundwork  process. 

Ceramics  which  are  to  be  ornamented  with  lacquer  must  be  un- 
glazed. Putty  will  not  adhere  to  glazed  clay  wares,  nor  will 
lacquer,  as  is  shown  by  three  Chinese  vases  in  the  Royal  Porcelain 
Collection  at  Dresden,  whose  lacquering  on  glaze  has  pulled  off  in 
many  places.  The  groundwork  is  done  by  Sabi  (see  process  8, 
above)  and  Naka-nuri. 

b.  Final  Work  of  the  Nuri-mono-shi. 

Whatever  may  be  the  manner  of  groundwork,  the  process  of 
rubbing  till  a smooth  though  not  reflecting  surface  of  dark  grey 
to  grey  black  is  reached,  is  the  final  one.  On  this  under  layer  are 
laid  all  the  varied  coats  which  impart  to  the  finished  Japanese  wares 


3'6o  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS . 


their  varied  appearance.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  give  here  all 
the  manipulations  and  artifices,  still  a short  description  of  the  most 
important  categories  of  ordinary  Japanese  lacquer  wares  and  their 
mode  of  preparation  seems  to  me  demanded.  There  will  be  con- 
sidered : 


a.  Simple  Lacquer  Wares  of  One  Colour. 

1.  Nuri-tateis  not  only  the  name  for  a finishing  lacquer,  but  also 
of  a particular  process,  viz. : the  simple  lacquer  coating  which  is 
not  followed  by  rubbing  and  polishing.  It  shows  striation  in  one 
direction  produced  by  the  strokes  of  the  brush,  is  finished  with  one 
coating  on  the  groundwork  after  the  Naka-nuri-togi,  and  after 
hanging  or  lying  in  the  drying  room  from  I to  2 days  is  perfectly 
firm.  As  I have  said  before  concerning  the  several  lacquer  colours, 
black  is  obtained  by  a coat  of  Jo-hana  or  Ro-iro,  red  by  cinnabar 
lacquer,  greenish  yellow  by  orpiment  lacquer,  and  green  by  adding 
Sei-shitsu  to  a transparent  lacquer.  By  mixing  black  with 
cinnabar  a brown  of  various  shades  is  obtained,  also  clouds  of  light 
green  by  a larger  quantity  of  orpiment,  and  dark  green  by  the 
admixture  of  Jo-hana  or  some  other  black  lacquer  with  the  green. 

2.  Shun-kei-urushi  or  Nojiro-Shun-kei  is  the  name  of  a 
peculiarly  lacquered,  yellow  wooden  ware  from  Nojiro,  a small 
town  north  of  Akita,  near  the  Japan  Sea.  Usually  in  the  common 
lacquer  wares  the  groundwork  is  made  entirely  to  conceal  the 
character  of  the  wood  beneath  it,  but  in  this  variety  the  natural 
veining  of  the  wood  is  well  preserved.  After  a careful  stain- 
ing of  the  wood  with  Se-shime  lacquer,  with  or  without  the 
pore-filling  admixture,  follows  a careful  rubbing,  then  a lighter 
coat  of  solution  of  gamboge,  or  some  other  yellow  liquid  dye  (eg. 
from  the  fruit  of  Gardenia  florida),  and  finally  a thin  coating  of 
transparent  lacquer,  the  Shun-kei-urushi.  Generally  the  yellow 
vegetable  dye  is  mixed  with  this  last  and  put  on  at  the  same  time. 
On  account  of  the  large  proportion  of  oil  in  this  lacquer,  the  usual 
rubbing  and  polishing  cannot  follow  its  application,  and  the  article 
must  be  left  as  it  is.  There  must  therefore  be  greater  care  and 
cleanliness  in  the  preparation  and  use  of  this  lacquer  than  ordinarily, 
so  that  the  finished  product  may  be  free  from  spots  and  brush 
strokes.  In  this  way  it  shows  a transparent  yellow  or  brownish 
yellow  colour,  the  veins  and  spots  of  the  wood,  and  a high  lustre. 
Nojiro-Shun-kei  is,  however,  a rather  expensive  ware  and  is  seldom 
exported.1 

1 I did  not  visit  Nojiro,  and  only  saw  imitations  in  Tokio,  which  do  not  equal 
the  beauty  of  the  originals,  of  which  the  Royal  Industrial  Art  Museum  in  Berlin 
has  several  fine  samples.  It  is  doubtful  whether  these  are  made  exactly  as 
described  above,  for  all  who  have  mentioned  Nojiro-Shun-kei  say  that  its 
method  of  manufacture  is  a trade  secret,  and  that  the  workmen  do  not  all  follow 
the  same  method.  See  K.  Hagmeier,  in  “ Mittheil.  der  deutschen  Gesellsch. 
Ostasiens,”  12  Heft,  p.  65. 


LACQUER  WORK. 


361 


3.  Tsuya-keshi  (tsuya  = lustre,  kesu  = to  wash  out,  drive  away),  is 
a dull  black  lacquer  coating,  obtained  by  painting  on  the  ground- 
work with  Ro-iro-urushi,  and  polishing  after  drying  with  Ro-iro- 
dzumi  (coal  of  the  Lagerstromia  indica),  then  a coating  of  Se-shime- 
urushi,  and  rubbing  with  soft  paper. 

4.  The  Ro-iro.  This  lustrous  black  lacquer  is  accomplished 
very  much  as  the  preceding,  only  that  at  the  end  of  the  process  it 
is  further  treated  with  Suri-urushi  (polishing  lacquer).  Polishing  is 
accomplished  by  three  alternate  rubbings  of  Se-shime-urushi  and 
powder  of  burnt  hartshorn.  The  fingers  and  ball  of  the  left  hand 
are  used  in  rubbing  instead  of  leather. 


/3.  Coloured  Lacquer  Wares,  with  Marbled  Surface. 

I.  Tsugaru-nuri,  Tsugaru  lacquer  (see  Plate  V.  Fig  a).  This 
variety  takes  its  name  from  the  district  of  Tsugaru  (pronounced 
Tsungaru),  in  the  north  of  Hondo,  opposite  the  island  of  Yezo,  in 
whose  capital  city,  Hiro-saki,  this  method  of  lacquering  is  much 
employed,  and  reaches  its  greatest  technical  perfection.  The 
peculiarity  of  Tsugaru-lacquer  consists  essentially  in  having  four 
or  more  colours,  black,  red,  yellow,  and  green,  proceeding  from 
Ro-iro,  cinnabar,  orpiment,  and  Sei-shitsu  lacquer  mingled  in  several 
motley  combinations.  Sometimes  it  is  in  regular  stripes,  some- 
times with  more  or  less  irregular  spots  and  indistinct  figures,  again 
in  an  utterly  indiscriminate  mixture  of  spots  and  points,  that  these 
colours  appear.  One  of  the  colours  is  usually  more  prominent 
than  the  others,  and  often  one  is  entirely  wanting. 

Tsugaru-nuri  is  not  frequently  seen,  at  least  in  European  collec- 
tions, as  its  manufacture  demands  much  time,  and  its  price  is  cor- 
respondingly high.  The  best  older  specimens  of  it,  and  of  Wakasa- 
nuri  (the  following  group),  I saw  at  the  Hague  (Museum  of 
Curiosities),  and  in  the  Ethnographical  Museum  at  Munich. 

Tsugaru-nuri  is  made  by  going  over  the  groundwork  after  the 
Naka-nuri-togi  process,  with  a tough  putty  made  of  the  white  of 
eggs  or  some  kindred  substance  (eg.  Tofu  and  Ro-iro-urushi),  to 
form  an  uneven  surface,  which  is  then  painted  with  red,  yellow  and 
green  lacquer,  succeeding  each  other  in  any  desired  order,  followed 
by  a coat  of  transparent  lacquer.  The  surface  is  then  rubbed  with 
charcoal  and  water  till  the  desired  marble  appearance  is  obtained. 
Its  character  depends  on  the  manner  in  which  the  putty  is  laid  on, 
whether  evenly  on  the  groundwork  with  the  figures  and  furrows 
pressed  in,  or  transferred  by  a stippler  to  the  ground  coating, 
making  an  uneven  surface  from  first  to  last.  It  also  evidently 
depends  on  the  order  in  which  the  several  colours  follow  each 
other,  and  finally  on  the  amount  of  polishing  off.  When  this  is 
finished,  then  follows  the  final  work  : first  a coating  of  Se-shime 
mixed  with  Nashi-ji,  again  rubbing  with  charcoal  and  then  polishing 


362  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


till  a mirror-like  appearance  is  produced,  in  which  rape  oil  and  bole 
or  some  other  fine  mineral  powder  are  used  with  Seshime. 

2.  Wakasa-nuri,  Wakasa  lacquer  (Plate  V.  Fig.  b ).  The  province 
of  Wakasa,  from  which  it  derives  its  name,  lies  on  the  Japan  Sea, 
north  of  the  Biwa  Lake.  It  is  said  that  this  kind  of  lacquer  first 
came  into  vogue  in  its  capital  Obama,  from  Chinese  samples.  It  is 
distinguished  from  Tsugaru-nuri  especially  in  having  gold-yellow, 
orange,  and  brown  in  addition  in  its  colouring.  These  last  pre- 
dominate largely  also,  often  appearing  alone  or  in  connection  with 
only  a part  of  the  Tsugaru  colours.  Gold-yellow,  brown,  and 
orange  are  generally  produced  from  gold,  and  but  seldom  from 
silver  foil.  As  in  the  process  given  for  Tsugaru  lacquering,  an 
uneven  surface  is  laid  on  the  finished  groundwork.  Then  come 
coats  of  several  lacquer  colours,  one  after  the  other.  After  the  last 
colour,  the  gold  foil  is  laid  on,  and  made  fast  by  the  brush.  It 
accommodates  itself  to  the  uneven  surface  and  adheres  firmly 
everywhere.  The  article  is  allowed  to  dry,  then  given  a coat  of 
transparent  lacquer,  which  is  repeated  if  necessary  till  the  hollows 
are  filled  up,  and  a smooth  surface  is  obtained.  The  usual  rubbing 
with  magnolia  charcoal  and  water  follows,  by  which  process  the 
necessary  lustre  is  reached. 

Plate  V.  Fig.  b shows  an  imitation  of  such  a specimen  of 
Wakasa-nuri  with  bronze  colours,  but  does  not  equal  the  beauty 
and  polish  of  the  original  in  the  Industrial  Art  Museum  in  Berlin. 
This  specimen,  now  1 80  years  old,  is  a little  box  of  great  beauty, 
and  of  such  lustre  that  it  seems  as  if  freshly  polished.  Neverthe- 
less the  pictorial  representation  of  a part  of  its  upper  surface  serves 
to  illustrate  the  manner  of  its  accomplishment.  It  will  be  seen 
how,  after  the  production  of  the  uneven  groundwork,  twigs  of 
Arbor-vitae  (Retinispora)  are  pressed  into  the  hollows  of  the  albu- 
minous putty,  and  then  when  fully  dry  are  taken  away  again.  The 
succession  of  the  lacquer  coats  is  also  easily  observed,  viz.  black, 
greenish  yellow,  and  red.  Then  came  the  laying  on  of  the  gold- 
foil,  the  filling  of  the  unevennesses  with  transparent  lacquer,  the 
rubbing  with  magnolia  charcoal  and  water,  the  repeated  very  thin 
coat  of  transparent  lacquer,  and  then  the  process  of  polishing  as 
has  been  given  in  other  cases.  In  conformity  to  this,  we  see  the 
gold  foil  stand  out  in  its  natural  colour,  wherever  it  lies  on  the 
ridges  of  the  groundwork,  and  then  in  shading  to  brown  where  it 
has  been  placed  in  the  hollows,  and  covered  over  with  several  thick 
layers  of  the  transparent  lacquer.  Where  the  edges  of  the  twigs 
pressed  the  putty  upwards,  red,  greenish  yellow,  and  black  bands 
or  rings  or  spots  succeed  the  yellow  of  the  gold  foil  in  the  order 
in  which  (counting  backwards)  the  coats  of  lacquer  were  laid  on. 

3.  Shi-tan-nuri,  i.e.  sandal-wood  lacquer.  Under  this  class  are 
imitations  of  the  red  sandal-wood  or  Shi-tan  (see  p.  253).  They 
are  produced  as  follows  : After  the  groundwork  is  finished,  the 
article  receives  a coat  of  cinnabar  lacquer.  Before  it  is  fully  dry 


Plate  V 


Rein  .JananR 


Wrl.vWUk  EngelnuLnil,  Leipzig.  Zitk.Anstv  Werner  k Winter,  Frankfnrt^/M 

LACQUER  PATTERN 

a.  Tsugaru-nuri,  b.Wakasa- nuri. 


LACQUER  WORK. 


363 


it  is  marked  in  interrupted  parallel  lines  with  a sharpened  stick. 
After  drying  comes  smoothing  with  charcoal  as  usual,  aftd  then 
laying  on  of  India-ink  in  stripes,  and  a washing  away  of  the  edges,  so 
that  red  and  black  stripes  alternate,  but  not  showing  any  resem- 
blance to  wood.  A thin  coat  of  Se-shime  and  the  polishing  process 
follows.  The  effect  is  surprising,  but  it  needs  a great  deal  of  prac- 
tice and  a skilful  hand,  especially  in  rubbing  with  the  magnolia 
charcoal. 

This  kind  of  Japanese  lacquer  ware  is  seldom  met  with  in  the 
European  collections.  I found  it  in  1881,  in  the  shop  of  Larkin, 
Grafton  Street,  London,  on  a wooden  vase  which  was  made  in  the 
shape  of  a blunted  cone  1 meter  in  height,  56  centimeters  in  cir- 
cumference at  the  bottom,  and  a diameter  at  the  top  of  30  centi- 
meters. Its  price  was  ^100.  The  ground  showed  the  most  beau- 
tiful imitation  of  red  sandal-wood  that  I have  ever  seen.  The 
decorations,  original  of  their  kind,  were  of  raised  gold  lacquer  work 
and  inlaid  with  ivory  and  mother  of  pearl,  and  represented  the 
Schichi-ken  or  seven  wise  men  of  China,1  cranes  and  bamboo  cane. 

4.  Suri-hegashi-nuri,  i.e.  lacquer  work  obtained  by  hegu  = stripping 
off,  and  suri  = to  polish.  To  prepare  this,  a coat  of  black  lacquer 
(Rd-iro-urushi)  follows  the  Naka-nuri-togi,  or  final  process  of  the 
groundwork,  then  a slight  rubbing  with  charcoal  and  water,  a 
coating  of  red  lacquer  made  from  cinnabar  and  Nashi-ji-urushi, 
and  then  a second  rubbing  with  charcoal  and  water.  The  dark 
figures  are  produced  by  continual  rubbing  with  sharpened  charcoal 
on  particular  places,  even  to  piercing  through  the  cinnabar  lacquer. 
The  articles  are  repeatedly  rubbed  over  with  balls  of  wadding  and 
Se-shime-urushi,  to  fill  up  the  hollows,  and  are  finally  polished  as 
usual  after  the  last  drying.  They  are  coarsely  marbled,  or  show 
either  single  black  spots  on  a red  ground,  or  the  reverse,  red  spots 
on  black  ground.  There  are  many  variations  of  this  process, 
among  them  that  in  which  gold-foil  is  spread  out  over  a layer  of 
black  or  brown  lacquer,  and  symmetrical  figures  are  engraved  in  it 
when  dry,  at  the  pleasure  of  the  designer.  Afterwards  it  is  filled 
up  and  covered  with  transparent  lacquer,  and  then  follows  polishing. 

5.  Same-gawa-nuri,  i.e.  “ Shark-skin  lacquer,”  or  Same-dzaya,  i.e. 
“ shark  sword-sheath,” 2 We  have  now  to  consider  a peculiar 

1 These  “Seven  Wise  Ones ” (Schichi-ken)  were  the  cynics  of  China,  mis- 
anthropes who  went  so  far  as  to  not  only  rend  their  clothes  and  go  about  naked, 
but  also  to  choose  their  place  of  abode  in  bamboo  thickets,  like  the  wild  beasts. 

2 Shark  skin  must  not  be  here  understood  to  mean  the  coarse  shark  skin 
called  Shagreen,  or  the  skin  of  the  Hypolophus  Sephen , Mull,  and  Henle,  but  the 
skin  covered  with  bony  tubercles  from  the  back  of  several  species  of  Rhinobatus 
or  roaches  of  the  coasts  of  Hither  and  Further  India,  also  of  Southern  China, 
especially  that  of  Rhinobatus  armatus , Gray,  and  Rh.  granulatus,  Cuv.  (See  Muller 
and  Henle  : “ Systematische  Beschreibung  der  Plagiostomen,”  Berlin,  1841,  p. 

1 17.)  At  any  rate  I saw  in  the  French  exhibition  the  skin  of  a Rhinobatus  from 
Cochin  China,  marked  “ Pegu  de  Requin,”  and  answering  entirely  to  that  used 
in  Japan. 


364  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


method  of  lacquering  which  derives  its  name  from  the  shark  skin 
(Hai-haut),  or  the  sword  sheath  (Saya),  principally  employed  in  its 
decoration.  Usually  the  shark  skin  is  firmly  pressed,  by  means  of 
a tailor’s  flat-iron,  on  the  article  to  be  lacquered,  without  previous 
groundwork,  but  after  it  has  been  coated  with  fresh  rice  paste. 
Its  uneven  surface  is  then  filed  down  with  an  iron  file,  the  hollows 
filled  with  applications  of  Sabi  (p.  358),  and  then  follow  the  rubbing 
with  charcoal,  coat  of  Ro-iro-urushi,  repeated  rubbing  with  mag- 
nolia charcoal,  and  finally  the  polishing  with  burnt  hartshorn  and 
Seshime-urushi  three  times  repeated.  The  finished  product  now 
shows  a black  ground,  sprinkled  closely  with  tiny,  white  circles. 

In  the  Ducal  Museum  at  Gotha,  there  is  a small  old  box  in  this 
style  of  lacquer.  Where  the  circles  appear  grey  or  bluish,  the 
shark  skin  has  been  previously  dyed  with  indigo.  This  shade  of 
lacquer,  which  is  generally  found  on  old  sword  sheaths,  is  called 
Ai-dzame  (Ai  = indigo,  and  dzame  = shark).  Since  the  old  swords 
and  their  sheaths  have  gone  out  of  use,  Same-no-kawa  is  but  little 
employed  in  lacquering.1 


7.  Coloured  Lacquer  obtained  by  Dusting  with  Glistening  Powder. 

1.  Ao-gai-nuri  or  Ao-gai-togi-dashi,  mother-of-pearl  lacquer,  in 
making  which  the  coarse  or  finely  pulverized  mother-of-pearl  from 
varieties  of  Trochus  and  of  Haliotus  is  used.  If  whole  surfaces 
are  to  be  strewn  and  evenly  adorned,  the  work  is  quite  analogous 
to  that  where  metal  powder  is  employed.  If,  on  the  contrary, 
definitely  outlined  decorations  are  intended,  it  is  customary  to 
paste  stencil  patterns  of  tin-foil  on  the  surface  of  the  groundwork, 
and  giving  the  open  spaces  a coating  of  Ro-iro-urushi,  to  sprinkle 
them  with  Ao-gai  or  mother-of-pearl  powder.  When  dry  the 
patterns  are  removed,  and  the  whole  is  coated  with  a mixture  of 
Ro.-iro  and  Se-shime-urushi,  and  then  the  strewn  mother-of-pearl  is 
carefully  rubbed  with  magnolia  charcoal.  A second  coat  of  the 
same  lacquer  varnish  follows,  then  the  second  rubbing,  and  finally 
polishing.  The  same  course  is  pursued  in  the  simpler  work  of 
strewing  the  whole  surface  evenly  with  mother-of-pearl.  The 
beautiful  green  and  violet  iridescence  of  small  mother-of-pearl 
pieces  on  the  lacquer  wares  decorated  with  it  depends  on  its 
varying  position  toward  the  light  and  the  uneven  coating  of  the 
transparent  lacquer  varnish. 

2.  Shari-nashi-ji,  i.e.  tin  (dust)  pear  ground.  The  tin  dust  (or 
bronze  powder  instead)  is  strewn  with  a little  sieve,  evenly  or  in 

1 The  Paris  manufacturer,  Giraudon,  some  years  since  applied  for  a patent  for 
the  employment  of  the  same  kind  of  shark  skin  which  the  Chinese  and  Japanese 
formerly  used  in  lacquering.  At  the  Universal  Exhibition  in  Antwerp  his  exhibit 
contained  a magnificent  collection  of  “Articles  de  luxe  en  Requin  de  Chine,”  such 
as  cabinets,  glove-boxes,  bowls,  etc.,  all  covered  with  well-polished  shark  skin, 
and  which  were  sold  at  enormously  high  prices. 


Rein.  JapanR 


Plate  11 


ftrl.  v.  Wdh.  Engebiuam,  Ltipzig. 


LACQUER  PATTERN 

a.Kin-ji,  b.Nashi-ji,  c.Moku-me. 


LACQUER  WORK. 


365 


stripes  and  figures  on  the  moist  coat  of  Naka-nuri  (see  10th  process 
of  groundwork),  and  when  dry  covered  with  a coat  of  Se-shime. 
With  this  it  takes  a brown  colour,  like  the  scattered  powder  of 
a precious  metal.  The  gold  ground  becomes  lighter  yellow  and 
more  lustrous  with  age,  the  scattered  tin  or  bronze  dust  on  the  con- 
trary grows  darker  and  duller,  as  may  be  easily  observed  in  many 
of  the  common  Japanese  lacquer  wares.  It  is  to  be  understood  that 
the  strewing  of  metal  powder  does  not  finish  the  work,  but  that  a 
coat  of  transparent  lacquer,  and  the  polishing  process  must  follow. 

3.  Simple  lacquer  wares,  ornamented  by  inlaid  work.  I rank 
this  group  next  to  the  preceding,  because  its  execution,  though 
demanding  some  skill,  does  not  any  more  than  the  foregoing  neces- 
sitate a real  artistic  talent.  The  precious  metals  also  are  either  not 
at  all,  or  at  least  only  exceptionally,  employed  in  this.  The  inlaid 
mother-of-pearl  work,  Ao-gai-zaiku,  as  cabinets,  boxes,  dishes,  etc., 
which  are  brought  in  such  numbers  to  Europe,  and  made  chiefly  at 
Nagasaki,  belong  principally  to  this  class.  It  is.  customary,  how- 
ever, to  incrust  even  the  finest  lacquer  wares  with  mother-of-pearl, 
ivory,  and  precious  metals,  and  to  form  from  them  reliefs  of  flowers 
and  other  natural  objects. 

This  branch  of  lacquer  industry  is  already  old,  as  articles  in  the 
Dutch,  Dresden  and  other  collections  testify.  The  common  Ao-gai 
comes  from  the  inside  of  the  shell  of  the  Haliotis,  each  shell  yield- 
ing only  one  thin  plate.  The  finer  or  Ma-gai  Ao-gai,  ie.  Ao-gai 
imitation,  is  the  product  of  the  large  Trochus,  and  comes  princi- 
pally from  the  Riu-kiu  islands.  Both  kinds  (in  Trochus,  the  last 
convolution),  are  scaled  off  in  thin,  transparent  sheets,  in  a pains- 
taking primitive  way. 

The  mother-of-pearl  sheets  are  laid  on  the  design,  which  is 
pricked  through  with  India-ink  and  brush.  The  painting  colours 
(Prussian  blue,  gamboge,  and  a mixture  of  the  two  for  green,  also 
sienna,  carmine,  cartharmine,  etc.)  are  rubbed  together  with  hot 
glue-water  and  laid  on  with  the  brush  according  to  the  pattern,  on 
the  right  places  in  the  mother-of-pearl.  When  dry,  their  painted 
portions  are  covered  with  silver-foil  laid  on  with  glue-water,  and 
again  dried.  Then  the  mother-of-pearl  is  cut  Avith  a sharp  chisel 
into  the  shapes  designated  on  its  opposite  side  (leaves,  flowers,  etc.), 
with  their  corresponding  transparent  colours.  They  are  glued  on 
the  dull  groundwork  of  vases,  plates,  cabinets,  etc.,  and  all  the 
hollow  intervals  of  space  are  filled  up  with  black  lacquer.  Then 
the  whole  surface,  including  the  inlaid  work,  is  covered  with  two 
coats  of  transparent  varnish,  and  if  necessary  rubbed  with  charcoal 
and  polished.  The  underlying  silvef-foil  is  used  to  protect  the 
colours  on  the  underside  of  the  mother-of-pearl  from  the  lacquer, 
and  to  bring  them  out  more  clearly ; but  this  is  done  only  in  the 
more  valuable  articles.  Instead  of  mother-of-pearl  an  inlay  of  tin 
is  sometimes  used,  which  is  treated  of  course  differently,  and  then 
never  loses  its  colour  and  polish. 


366  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


B. — Work  of  the  Makiye-shi. 

This  has  for  its  object  the  artistic  ornamentation  of  lacquer-wares 
in  which  the  use  of  gold  and  silver  dust  plays  an  important  part. 
The  representation  of  a picture,  or  description  of  any  other  work  of 
art,  has  its  great  difficulties,  and  it  is  moreover  impossible  to  teach 
an  art  by  description.  The  Makiye-shi  or  gold-lacquer  painter 
practises  a real  art.  He  must  combine  a long  apprenticeship, 
often  from  eight  to  ten  years,  with  unmistakable  natural  talent, 
before  he  can  succeed  in  working  as  a master  in  his  department, 
and  be  able  to  create  with  skilled  hand  those  artistic  decorations 
whose  perfect  beauty  we  admire  in  many  of  the  Japanese  lacquered 
articles. 

On  this  account,  the  following  can  be  but  a brief  statement  of 
the  universal  method  of  his  work,  and  of  the  principles  recognised 
everywhere  as  governing  it,  notwithstanding  its  great  variety.  In 
addition  to  the  rules  already  (p.  356)  stated,  which  are  the  same 
for  all  workers,  these  principles  are  as  follows  : — 

1.  The  Naka-nuri-togi  or  final  process  of  the  groundwork  must 
be  performed  with  the  greatest  care,  and  form  a perfectly  smooth 
surface. 

2.  On  this  base  the  design  is  sketched  freehand  with  a fine 
brush  and  a thin  paste  of  white  lead  or  some  other  colour,  and 
water,  or — when  the  artist  is  less  skilled — a pattern  is  pricked 
through  and  then  put  on  with  Shita-makiye,  i.e.  “drawing  of  the 
under  ground.”  This  is  done  in  a brownish  red  thin  colour,  made 
by  mixing  red  oxide  of  iron  (Beni-gara)  with  Se-shime-urushi. 

3.  Gold,  silver  and  other  colours  are  almost  all  strewn  in  powder 
over  the  moist  Shita-makiye,  or  at  the  side,  and  then  swept  on  with 
a brush  (Plate  IV.  figs.  5,  6,  or  3).  This  is  done  especially  in  cases 
like  wood  imitation,  when  the  colour  is  to  shade  away  and  diminish 
from  a certain  line.  Polishing  of  course  follows  the  drying  of  a 
coat  of  light-coloured  varnish,  usually  Nashi-ji. 

4.  That  which  is  to  stand  out  in  relief  is  at  first  sketched  in  out- 
line only,  and  not  treated  further  till  alt  is  finished  on  the  surface. 

The  most  notable  and  important  decorative  material  of  the 
Makiye-shi  is  gold.  It  is  used  in  a powder  in  two  principal  shades, 
under  the  names  Yaki-gane  and  Koban.  Yaki-gane,  i.e.  burnt 
metal,  or  Yaki-kin,  i.e.  burnt  gold,  is  a pure,  deep  yellow,  so-called 
ducat  gold  ; Koban  on  the  other  hand  is  a green  coin-gold,  an  alloy 
of  7'4  parts  gold  and  26  parts  silver.  Other  alloys  poorer  in  gold 
are  also  used.  A large  number  of  varieties  of  gold  and  silver  filings 
are  distinguished  according  to  the  grade  of  fineness,  and  are 
separated  by  a sieve,  and  called  by  particular  names  ; — Kin-pun  or 
Keshi-ko  is  the  finest  gold,  and  Gin-pun  the  finest  silver-dust. 
It  is  obtained  by  covering  with  glue  the  corresponding  metal  foil 
of  the  gold  beater,  pulverizing  it  when  dry,  and  then  separating  the 
metal  from  the  glue  by  washing. 


LACQUER  WORK. 


36  7 


As  some  of  these  powders  are  more  often  used,  the  names  of  the 
most  important  are  given,  in  the  order  of  their  fineness,  so  that  the 
coarsest  stand  first,  in  order  to  be  able  to  use  the  shorter  numbers 
for  their  long  designations  : 

1.  Kiri-kane,  small  square  leaves  of  gold-foil. 

2.  Yaki-gane,  hira-me  tsune  san. 

3.  „ hira-me  sh6  san. 

4.  ,,  nashi-ji  sho  san. 

5.  „ koma-ka-me  tsune. 

6.  „ mi-jin  tsune. 

7.  „ koma-ka-me  mi-jin. 

8.  „ maru  ara-goku. 

9.  „ goku  gashira  dai. . 

10.  „ goku  gashira  shiu. 

11.  „ maru  goku  mi-jin. 

12.  Koban,  ara-goku. 

13.  „ ara-mi-jin. 

14.  „ mi-jin  tsune. 

15.  „ hana-ko. 

16.  Gin-pun,  silver-dust. 

Besides  these  pure  gold  and  silver  powders  and  filings,  there  are 
several  mixtures  of  these  with  colours  for  shading.  To  these 
belong  : — 

17.  Aka-fun,  red  powder,  a mixture  of  cinnabar  with  gold  or  silver 
dust. 

18.  Kuro-fun,  black  powder,  a mixture  of  camellia  charcoal  and 
gold  or  silver  dust. 

19.  Kuri-iro-fun,  chestnut-brown  powder,  a mixture  of  gold  dust, 
cinnabar,  and  camellia  charcoal. 

20.  Nedzumi-iro-fun,  grey  rat  colour,  made  of  equal  parts  of 
silver  dust  and  camellia  charcoal  with  some  cinnabar. 

21.  Shu-muki-gara,  old  scrapings  of  cinnabar  lacquer,  finely 
pulverized. 

22.  Matsu-no-sumi-no-ko,  fir-charcoal  powder. 

The  decorations  of  the  Makiye-shi  may  be  classed  in  two  groups, 
viz. — 

(a)  Hira-makiye,  i.e.  flat  gold  lacquer  work. 

( b ) Taka-makiye,  i.e.  raised  gold  lacquer  work. 

(a). — Hira-makiye,  Flat  Gold  Lacquer  Work. 

As  the  name  indicates,  these  decorations  remain  flat  or  smooth 
on  the  surface,  while  those  of  the  second  class  stand  out  in  bas  relief. 
Hira-makiye  embraces  all  the  ornamentation  of  the  finer  Chinese 
wares,  e.g.  those  of  Canton  and  Foochow,  and  a large  number  of  the 
most  prized  and  most  used  of  the  Japanese.  They  are  principally 
surface  decorations  with  gold  dust,  as  follows  : — 


These  names  are  difficult 
to  translate  Mi-jin  and 
also  fun  (pun)  mean,  fine 
’ dust ; tsune  is  common, 
ara  = coarse,  goku  (koku) 
= thick,  komaka  = first 
powder. 


368  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


1.  Nashi-ji,  pear  ground  (see  p.  352).  This  designation  is  gene- 
rally understood  to  mean  a ground  of  black  lacquer  on  which 
coarse  or  fine  gold  dust  is  evenly  strewn,  and  then  varnished  over 
with  a transparent  lacquer.  We  have  here  to  treat  of  Nashi-ji  in 
its  first  original  meaning.  The  black  groundwork,  according  to 
the  quantity  of  gold  dust  scattered  over  it,  either  predominates  or 
is  more  covered,  indeed  in  the  most  valuable  Nashi-ji  disappears 
entirely.  Its  appearance  then  resembles  in  its  fresh  condition, 
Aventurine,  so  that  Wagener’s  designation  “ Aventurine  lacquer  ” 
( Dingl . Polytechn.  Journ .,  1875,  p.  366),  appears  very  suitable. 
Plate  VI.  P'ig.  b,  gives  a sample  in  bronze.  The  original  of  this 
made  from  the  powder  of  ducat-gold  shows  this  colour  only  when 
fresh,  but  becomes  much  yellower  and  more  lustrous  with  time. 
The  production  of  Nashi-ji  is  simple.  The  moderately  fine  gold 
dust  is  strewn  on  the  coating  of  Shita-makiye-urushi  with  a little 
hand  sieve,  usually  similar  to  that  mentioned  in  No.  4 of  our  list 
of  implements  used  in  lacquer  work.  After  it  is  dry,  the  dust  that 
does  not  adhere,  is  carefully  swept  away,  and  then  a coat  of  Nashi- 
ji-urushi  is  given,  which  commonly  takes  from  6 to  7 days  to  dry. 
Then  comes  the  usual  rubbing  with  magnolia  charcoal  and  water, 
and  afterwards  polishing.  Both  operations  manifestly  require  great 
care  and  skill. 

Nashi-ji  is  one  of  the  most  frequent  and  popular  modes  of  sur- 
face decoration.  The  fine  particles  of  gold  dust  and  foil  have 
at  first  a brownish  yellow  colour,  but  always  with  age  become 
brighter  and  more  brilliant,  because  of  the  greater  transparency  of 
the  lacquer  varnish,  so  that  one  can  judge  of  the  age  and  quality  of 
the  lacquered  articles  by  the  evenness,  fineness,  and  colouring  of 
the  coating.  In  many  of  these  older  gold  lacquer  wares,  as  bowls 
and  boxes  of  various  kinds,  the  inside  is  covered  also  very  care- 
fully with  Nashi-ji  of  the  best  kind.  The  work  is  as  ancient  as 
ornamentation  with  mother-of-pearl.  Both  may  be  traced  back 
to  the  end  of  the  eighth  century,  to  the  time  when  the  Emperor 
Kuwammu-Tenno  made  the  city  of  Tokio  the  permanent  resi- 
dence of  himself  and  his  successors.  The  Nashi-ji,  which  is  an 
imitation  in  ordinary  lacquer  ware  with  tin  and  bronze,  has  already 
been  described. 

2.  Kin-ji,  “ Gold  ground.”  The  groundwork  which  is  to  be 
ornamented  in  this  particular  way  is  first  given  a coat  of  thin 
Shita-makiye-urushi,  and  then  quickly  and.  evenly  strewn  with  a 
fine  gold  powder  (No.  7,  or  some  other  on  the  list)  by  means  of  a 
sieve,  till  entirely  covered.  After  drying  and  brushing  off  the  non- 
adhering particles,  comes  a coat  of  Nashi-ji-urushi,  then  another 
drying,  rubbing  with  magnolia  charcoal,  and  a thorough  polishing, 
in  which  Yoshino-urushi,  or  Se-shime,  hartshorn,  and  other  sub- 
stances are  used  to  produce  a perfectly  even,  mirror-like  gold 
surface.  Kin-ji,  like  Nashi-ji,  also  grows  lighter  and  brighter 
with  increasing  age,  while  its  imitations  with  tin  dust  or  bronze, 


LACQUER  WORK. 


369 


tarnish  after  a little  while,  lose  their  metallic  lustre,  and  become  a 
dull  yellowish  brown.  Plate  VI.,  fig.  a,  represents  such  an  imitation. 

This  costly  decoration,  Kin-ji,  which  looks  like  a thin  covering 
of  gold  leaf,  is  found  very  often  in  old  lacquer  wares  of  great  value, 
e.g..  on  boxes,  medicine  chests,  India-ink  boxes,  and  other  articles. 
Gin-ji,  or  silver-ground,  is  used  much  less  often  on  larger  surfaces, 
but  is  prepared  with  silver  dust  in  much  the  same  manner.  In  Plate 
VII.  the  moon  and  one  chrysanthemum  are  imitations  of  Gin-ji. 

3.  Mokume,  spotted  texture  (moku  = veined  or  curled  wood, 
kime  = texture),  or  curled  form  (Plate  VI.,  fig.  c).  The  veins  and 
speckling  of  the  wood  is  sketched  with  white  lead  or  colcothar, 
but  the  working  out  is  done  by  degrees,  perhaps  beginning  at  the 
middle  of  the  surface  to  be  decorated,  or  from  the  centre  of  one 
of  the  spots.  The  Makiye-shi  presses  through  Yoshino  paper  the 
brownish  red  colour,  which  is  made  by  mixing  red  oxide  of  iron 
and  Se-shime-urushi  together,  when  necessary  thinning  it  with 
camphor ; he  then  puts  his  little  horn  palette  (Tsune-ban,  see  Plate 
III.,  fig.  8)  over  the  thumb  of  his  left  hand,  lays  some  of  the  colour 
upon  it,  and  begins  his  work  at  the  centre  of  one  of  the  spots,  going 
over  the  faint  outlines  with  red  on  the  point  of  a fine  rat-hair  brush, 
and  then  covering  also  the  surface  so  outlined  with  the  same  colour. 
He  next  takes  his  little  sieve  (Plate  IV.,  fig.  1,  or  one  similar),  with 
a small  amount  of  gold  dust,  and  if,  as  in  this  case,  an  even,  gold, 
mirror-like  surface  is  desired,  strews  the  little  bit  of  surface  freshly 
coated  with  Shita-makiye ; or,  if  the  reflection  is  to  decrease,  grow- 
ing feebler  towards  the  centre,  the  dry  outer  side  lying  next  to  the 
edge,  in  which  case  the  powder  is  brushed  on  the  moist  figure, 
these  girdling  outlines,  eg.,  and  then  toward  the  centre  of  the 
spots.  Deep  yellow  is  obtained  from  a fine  powder  of  Yaki-gane, 
yellowish  green  and  light  yellow  from  Koban.  When  the  centre 
or  eye  of  the  spot  is  covered,  the  painter  proceeds  next  to  the  first 
girdle,  the  second,  and  so  on.  When  the  whole  ground  has  been 
treated  in  this  way,  and  left  in  the  damp  drying-room  for  a day, 
superfluous  particles  of  gold  dust  are  brushed  off,  and  the  surface 
of  the  Mokume  receives  a thin  coat  of  Nashi-ji-urushi,  for  which 
Se-shime  can  also  be  used.  Then  follows  longer  drying,  rubbing 
with  magnolia  charcoal,  another  varnish  of  the  same  lacquer, 
another  drying  and  rubbing  with  charcoal,  and  finally  the  work  to 
produce  the  proper  lustre. 

The  effect  of  Mokume  work  is  heightened  by  alternation  of  the 
so-called  yellow,  red,  and  green  gold  dust  by  other  tints,  and  by 
strewing  mother-of-pearl  powder  over  it.  This  surpasses  Nashi-ji 
and  Kin-ji,  and  wherever  it  appears  is  a mark  of  costly  lacquer- 
work. 

4.  Kara-kusa  = arabesques,  and  kumo  = clouds.1  Besides  the 

1 The  name  Kara-kusa,  China-weed,  used  for  arabesques,  indicates  the 
Chinese  origin  of  this  manner  of  decoration,  as  it  is  there  much  more  exten- 
sively employed,  especially  in  ornamenting  bronze  vases,  than  in  Japan. 

II.  B B 


370 


ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


already  mentioned  employment  of  gold  dust  in  wood  imitations, 
silver  dust,  mother-of-pearl,  and  powder  of  old  cinnabar  lacquer 
are  all  used  for  the  same  purpose.  After  the  whole  design  is 
outlined,  strewed  with  these  powders,  dried  and  coated  over  with 
Nashi-ji-urushi,  the  first  rubbing  with  charcoal,  and  then  a varnish 
of  Se-shime  takes  place.  In  order  to  bring  up  the  deep,  black 
interstices  to  the  level,  it  receives  now,  as  after  the  laying  on  of  the 
flowers  and  other  ornaments,  a coat  of  R6-iro-urushi.  After  drying, 
follows  the  second  rubbing,  and  then  polishing.  Veins  of  leaves, 
outlines  of  clouds,  and  other  prominent  lines  during  this  last  pro- 
cess are  emphasized  with  the  brush,  Shita-makiye  and  gold  dust, 
but  must  be  rubbed  off  with  charcoal  before  polishing.  (The  sample 
collection  in  Berlin  possesses  two  tables  of  this  kind  of  work.) 

5.  Monsha-nuri,  named  after  a silk  material  having  similar 
design,  is  a peculiar  kind  of  lacquer  ornamentation  which  may  be 
classed  here,  though  it  properly  does  not  belong  to  gold  lacquer. 
But  it  is  also  worked  by  the  Makiye-shi,  and  demands  no  less 
artistic  skill  than  the  before-mentioned  varieties.  After  the  figures 
(birds,  flowers,  etc.)  are  laid  on  with  Shita-makiye,  the  still  moist 
lacquer  is  strewn  with  finely  powdered  pine  charcoal  (other  kinds 
of  charcoal  weaken  the  lacquer  more  or  less  and  are  not  so  suitable). 
This  is  done  with  a little  sieve  which  is  made  by  cutting  a piece 
of  bamboo  cane  diagonally  across  and  then  covering  the  end  with 
fine  muslin,  gauze,  or  woven  wire.  When  dry,  the  superfluous 
powder  is  swept  away  with  a soft  brush,  and  the  entire  article 
receives  a coat  of  Ro-iro-urushi.  Then  follows  rubbing  and  polish- 
ing. The  figures  are  thus  made  to  have  a dull  appearance  against 
the  shining  black  surface.  The  effect  is  surprising.  It  is  obtained 
by  very  simple  means,  and  without  the  smallest  use  of  metal  dust. 
(There  is  a table  in  the  Berlin  collection,  with  the  Howd,  or 
Phoenix  of  the  Chinese  mythology,  represented  in  several  side  and 
front  positions  in  the  above  manner.) 

(b). — Taka-makiye — Raised  Gold  Lacquer  Work. 

In  addition  to  all  that  has  been  said  in  general  concerning  its 
production,  I will  only  add  that  the  Taka-makiye-urushi,  or  the 
putty  which  is  used  therein,  has  a brilliant  black  colour  when  dry. 
It  is  not  applied  directly  to  the  ground  reserved  by  the  outlined 
design,  but  this  is  treated  beforehand  with  a coat  of  Shita-makiye- 
urushi,  which  has  been  strewn  with  charcoal  dust  and  some  orpi- 
ment.  The  putty  itself  is  a mixture  of  black  lacquer,  lampblack, 
a little  white  lead  and  camphor.  The  reliefs  modelled  in  it  adhere 
very  strongly  to  the  groundwork  when  dry  and  have  the  appear- 
ance of  coats  of  Naka-nuri.  Like  these  they  are  rubbed  with  a 
pointed  piece  of  charcoal  till  all  the  small  furrows  are  smooth.  The 
further  processes  are  much  the  same  as  those  of  plain  surfaces,  and 
follow  in  this  order : coat  of  Shita-makiye,  scattering  metal  dust, 


LACQUER  WORK. 


37i 


varnishing  with  Nashi-ji-urushi  or  Se-shime,  rubbing  with  magnolia 
charcoal  and  water,  and  finally  the  several  processes  for  obtaining 
the  requisite  polish. 

In  cheap  lacquer  wares,  wherever  Taka-makiye  is  used,  bronze 
powder  and  tin  dust  are  substituted  for  precious  metal,  and  the 
whole  work  is  executed  at  low  price  and  correspondingly  small 
outlay  of  art  or  time.  It  is  in  the  same  relation  to  the  exquisite 
accomplishments  of  the  Makiye-shi,  that  the  wall  decoration  of  the 
house  painter  is  to  the  frescoes  of  the  eminent  artist.  A more 
comprehensive  discussion  of  the  many  art  fancies  and  methods  of 
which  the  Japanese  artist  avails  himself,  including  the  inlaying  of 
ivory,  mother-of-pearl,  and  precious  metals,  is  manifestly  quite  im- 
possible, and  any  further  explanation  in  this  direction  would  be 
neither  of  interest  nor  use. 

In  the  moonlight  autumn  scene  (Plate  VII.)  the  artist  has  em- 
ployed several  of  the  decorations  mentioned  under  Hira-makiye 
and  Taka-makiye.  In  it  we  have  night  represented  by  means  of 
the  irregularly  strewn  Nashi-ji  on  the  black  lacquer,  and  by  the 
moon  behind  a cloud.  Autumn  is  indicated  by  the  wild  geese 
(Gan)  flying  down,  and  the  two  favourite  flowers,  Kiku-no-hana 
( Chrysanthemum  sp .)  at  the  right,  and  Omina-meshi  (. Patrinia  sp.) 
at  the  left.  The  geese,  banks  of  the  stream,  and  flowers  are  in 
relief,  and  are  executed  last.  The  flowing  water  is  produced  very 
much  as  the  sample  of  spotted  lacquering  (Plate  VI.  fig.  c ),  and 
Kin-ji  (gold  ground), Gin-ji (silver  ground), and  Nashi-ji  (pear  ground) 
may  be  recognised  in  different  places.  There  is  also  noticeable  in 
the  feathers  of  the  geese,  the  careful  modelling  and  chasing  of  the 
relief  before  it  has  received  the  gold  ornamentation.  Only  one 
other  decorative  form  of  raised  lacquer  work,  the  Giy6-bu-Nashi-ji, 
remains  to  be  briefly  noticed.  It  is  often  seen  on  tree-trunks  and 
rocks,  is  always  done  in  pure  gold,  and  is  an  unmistakable  token 
of  careful  labour.  We  see  it  on  the  raised  banks  of  the  stream, 
laid  on  with  squares  of  gold  leaf  in  rows  like  paving  stones, 
decreasing  in  size  in  the  distance,  and  gradually  lost.  These  pieces 
of  gold  leaf,  called  Kiri-kane  (see  1,  p.  367),  are  laid  on  one  after 
the  other  with  the  point  of  the  Hirame-fude  (see  7,  p.  355)  on 
the  places  designed  and  still  moist  with  lacquer. 


Tsui-shiu,  Carved  Cinnabar  Lacquer,  or  Peking  Lacquer. 

In  our  Industrial  Art  Museums,  small  tables  are  to  be  seen 
from  China  and  Japan,  and  bearing  the  name  Peking  lacquer, 
or  carved  lacquer  work.  Some  of  these  are  made  with  open-work 
ornamentation,  and  there  are  dishes,  boxes  (Fig.  13),  and  other 
articles  which  differ  widely  from  the  earlier  mentioned  work  in  their 
beautiful  and  very  peculiar  modes  of  decoration.  On  the  ground- 
work intended  for  this  variety,  cinnabar  lacquer  is  applied  partly 


37  2 


ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


pure  and  partly  mixed  with  Ro-iro,  and  then  several  shades  of 
brown  in  even  layers,  till  finally  a firm  crust  from  I to  2 millimeters 
thick  is  formed.  The  varied  ornamentation  of  arabesques,  flowers, 
human  and  animal  figures,  life  scenes  and  whole  landscapes  and 
battle  pieces  are  then  engraved  upon  it,  or  carved  out  with  a sharp 
knife,  so  that  the  several  layers  of  different  coloured  material  are 
seen  distinctly.  This  work  of  course  is  only  possible  when  the 
lacquer  was  warm. 


Fig.  13. — cover  of  a box  ornamented  with  tsui-shiu. 


This  variety  of  lacquer  work  was  very  popular  in  China  in  earlier 
times.  The  Emperor  Kenriu,  for  instance,  in  A.D.  1766,  in  honour  of 
General  Akui,  who  had  successfully  put  down  a great  rebellion  at 
Pasen  in  Western  China,  ordered  a picture  of  the  battle  in  red 
lacquer,  and  also  a second  picture  of  equal  size  to  commemorate 
the  entry  of  the  victorious  troops  into  the  capital,  and  their  re- 
ception.1 

The  process  was  later  introduced  into  Japan  by  one  of  the 

1 See  Wikowski ; “Erklarung  zweier  chinesischer  Bilder  aus  rothem  Lack,” 
in  10  Heft  d.  deutschen  Gesellschaft  Ostasiens.  Yokohama,  1S76. 


LACQUER  WORK. 


373 


Chinese,  whose  son  so  altered  the  method,  that  he  employed  varie- 
gated mixtures  for  the  single  layers  between  the  black  and  red 
lacquer,  and  then  engraved  the  ornamentation  deeply,  or  more 
often  cut  it  diagonally,  so  that  the  several  colours  appeared  one 
after  another  in  parallel  bands. 

Such  work  is  no  longer  in  the  market  in  Japan,  and  is  only 
obtained  occasionally  from  dealers  in  antiquities.  Cheap  imita- 
tions, however,  are  very  frequently  seen.  According  to  one  process, 
the  ornaments  are  cut  in  wood  and  then  the  whole  article  is  evenly 
varnished  with  a thin  layer  of  lacquer,  and  after  drying,  the  carved 
parts  are  gone  over  with  a sharp  knife.  In  the  other,  which  is  still 
followed  to  a small  extent  in  Kioto,  a brown  or  dark  grey  putty  is 
prepared  from  boiled  glue,  ochre  and  Se-shime-urushi,  with  the 
addition  of  wheat  flour  (Ko-mugi-no-ko),  which  is  rolled  out  in  a 
thin  sheet.  This  is  spread  out  on  a board  which  has  been  freshly 
coated  with  Se-shime-urushi  to  secure  the  adhesion  of  the  putty. 
The  desired  ornamentation  is  pressed  into,  or  engraved  in  the 
putty  and  then  left  to  dry.  In  this  way  the  Kata,  or  pattern,  is 
obtained. 

A second  sheet  of  this  same  dough  is  now  rolled  out,  laid  on 
and  pressed  into  the  hollow  form  obtained  from  the  first  one,  so 
that  the  ornamentation  remains  raised  when  the  form  is  lifted  off. 
Such  a sheet  of  putty  with  its  figures  in  relief  is  then  applied  to 
the  article  which  is  to  be  decorated,  and  made  fast  to  it  by  a layer 
of  Se-shime.  The  design  is  afterward  re-engraved  so  that  it  may 
be  more  sharply  distinct.  When  the  material  has  become  fully  dry, 
the  article  is  varnished  once  or  more  times  with  liquid  red  or  brown 
lacquer.  Trays,  vases,  and  other  vessels  of  wood,  burned  clay  and 
porcelain  are  decorated  in  this  way.  The  artistic  value  and  the 
demand  for  them  are  however  very  small. 

Historical  Facts  Concerning  Japanese  Lacquer 
Industry. 

Although  the  age  of  this  industry  can  scarcely  be  known  exactly, 
and  the  legendary  history  which  dates  its  beginning  centuries 
before  the  Christian  era  deserves  little  credence,  it  may  be  accepted 
as  a fact  that  it  did  not  exist  before  the  campaign  against  Corea  in 
the  3rd  century  A.D.  The  Japanese  maintain  that  Urushi-no-ki,  the 
lacquer-tree,  was  earlier  known  in  the  forests  of  the  country,  and  that 
the  industry  which  is  founded  upon  the  use  of  its  sap  was  spon- 
taneously developed.  But  all  proof  of  this  is  wanting,  while  a 
variety  of  facts  point  to  China  as  its  source.  For  one,  Rhus 
vernicifera  has  not  been  found  growing  wild  anywhere  in  Japan, 
but  has  sometimes  been  confused  with  Rhus  sylvestris.  Others 
show  that  the  methods  and  utensils  used  in  Japan  are  precisely  the 
same  as  those  which  have  been  used  for  centuries  in  the  lacquer  in- 
dustry of  China.  This  much  may  be  certainly  derived  from  several 


374 


ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS 


portions  of  the  not  very  reliable  history  of  Japan,  that  this  branch 
of  industry  was  little  known  during  the  first  six  hundred  years. 
And  as  the  Japanese  owe  all  their  other  art  industries  to  China 
and  Corea,  we  may  be  safe  in  concluding  that  the  lacquer  art  also, 
and  probably  the  lacquer-tree  with  it,  became  known  to  the  J apanese 
from  their  western  neighbours  just  after  the  commencement  of  the 
third  century,  or,  after  their  first  expedition  to  Corea. 

Undoubtedly,  lacquer  as  a protective  and  an  ornamental  covering 
of  a variety  of  materials  and  articles  did  not  attain  great  importance 
before  the  middle  of  the  7th  century.  Kotoku-Tenn6,  the  36th 
Mikado  (645  to  654  A.D.)  was  the  first  to  have  the  paper  Kamuri, 
the  peculiar  ceremonial  head  covering  of  former  times,  covered 
with  black  lacquer.  The  ordinance  also  of  a somewhat  later  time, 
which  allowed  those  provinces  in  which  lacquer  industry  prevailed 
to  pay  their  taxes  to  the  State  in  the  form  of  lacquer  wares,  must 
be  regarded  as  substantial  encouragement  to  the  further  develop- 
ment and  extension  of  the  industry.  The  articles  at  that  time 
were  probably  all  lacquered  in  simple  black,  as  is  the  case  with  the 
two  oldest  lacquered  articles  known,  those  preserved  in  the  Todaiji 
temple  at  Nara.  One  of  these,  a Kesa-bako  or  scarf-box,  so  called 
because  in  it  are  kept  the  scarfs  or  sashes  which  the  bonzes  wore 
over  their  shoulders,  belonged  formerly  to  the  priest  Shdtoku  Taishi, 
who  lived  in  the  time  of  Kinmei  Tenno  (540  to  572  A.D.).  The 
other  is  a Saya  or  sword-sheath  which  is  said  to  have  belonged  to 
the  Emperor  Shomu,  and  so  dates  from  the  first  half  of  the  8th 
century.  Ornamentation  of  the  lacquer  coats  with  gold  dust,  and 
inlaying  with  mother-of-pearl,  may  be  traced  back  likewise  to  the 
8th  century. 

With  the  rising  luxury  of  the  court  and  the  Kuges,  while  the 
Fujiwara  controlled  the  government,  finer  lacquer  industry  was 
developed  in  Kioto  more  and  more.  The  increasing  feudal  power 
brought  it  also  to  the  Daimid  seats,  but  it  flourished  principally 
outside  of  Kidto,  in  Sakai  and  Kamakura.  It  was  the  custom  at 
Ki6to,  in  the  nth  and  12th  centuries  for  the  court  nobles  (Kuge) 
to  have  the  ox-chariots,  which  they  drove  by  special  rights, 
ornamented  with  gold  lacquer.  A new  impulse  was  given  to  this 
industry  at  Kioto  in  the  beginning  of  the  15th  century,  when 
Ashikaga  Yoshimitsu  in  the  height  of  his  power  displayed  a 
hitherto  unknown  splendour.  Nevertheless,  until  the  middle  of 
the  century  (time  of  Ashikaga  Yoshimasa),  the  Chinese  method 
was  faithfully  followed,  and  all  decorations,  consisting  mainly  of 
the  representation  of  blooming  plants,  were  kept  to  a plain  surface, 
Hira-makiye. 

Great  progress  was  shown  from  this  time,  more  freedom  was 
developed  in  the  choice  of  decorative  themes ; landscapes  were 
added  to  the  representation  of  the  varied  forms  of  nature,  and  were 
enlivened  by  a new  feature  of  great  importance,  viz.  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  Taka-makiye,  in  raised  gold  lacquer  work.  This 


LACQUER  IVOR  IE 


375 


decoration  in  relief,  with  several  other  specialties,  even  now  essen- 
tially distinguishes  Japanese  lacquer  wares  beyond  those  of  the 
Chinese,  e.g,  those  of  Canton. 

The  period  of  greatest  brilliancy  in  the  old  Japanese  lacquer  art 
was  unquestionably  the  end  of  the  17th  century,  the  time  of  the 
splendour-loving  Shogun  Tokugawa  Tsunayoshi  (1681  to  1709),  or 
Jokenin  according  to  his  posthumous  name.  Gold  lacquer  articles 
(small  chests,  boxes,  writing  utensils,  etc.)  of  this  time  are  veritable 
masterpieces  in  the  making  of  which  a workman  was  often  engaged 
for  years,  whose  ornamentation  was  performed  with  surprising 
patience,  care,  fineness,  and  truth  to  nature,  and  whose  price  in  our 
days  is  correspondingly  high,  for  the  great  artistic  perfection  of 
many  pieces  is  only  equalled  by  the  richness  of  the  gold  employed 
in  the  decorations. 

In  order  to  understand  this  period  and  its  industry  correctly,  we 
must  call  to  mind  how  at  this  time  the  country  was  almost  en- 
tirely shut  up  and  thrown  back  upon  itself ; how  firmly  grounded, 
fearing  no  foe,  was  the  rule  of  the  Tokugawa  Shdguns.  Thus 
Iyeyasu’s  successors  in  Yeddo  were  able  to  give  themselves  over 
undisturbed  to  the  refined  enjoyments  of  life,  and  as  the  treasures 
of  the  land  were  poured  in  upon  them,  and  Sado’s  mines  still 
yielded  rich  returns  of  gold  and  silver,  the  value  of  the  former 
reaching  four  or  five  times  that  of  the  latter,  it  did  not  matter  how 
much  time  nor  how  large  a quantity  of  the  precious  metals  were 
used  which  a fine  lacquer  work  demanded,  if  only  it  was  satis- 
factory in  other  regards. 

In  proportion  as  Yeddo,  the  city  of  the  Tokugawa,  from  the  year 
1600  grew  in  extent,  power  and  appearance,  it  became  more  and 
more  the  rendezvous  of  the  most  skilful  lacquer  workers.  The 
tomb  of  the  Shdgun  Hidetada,  in  the  Mausoleum  at  Shiba,  a 
part  of  Tokio,  which  dates  back  to  the  second  quarter  of  the  17th 
century,  is  undoubtedly  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  beautiful  of  the 
large  lacquered  products  of  a high  degree  of  perfection  which 
have  come  down  to  us  from  this  time. 

With  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century  the  Giyo-bu  Nashi-ji 
(see  p.  371)  was  added  to  the  former  modes  of  decoration.  It  is 
named  after  Giyo-bu  Taro,  an  influential  lacquerer  in  Yeddo,  whose 
method  was  largely  followed.  It  consisted  in  laying  small  squares 
of  gold-foil  in  places,  e.g. , on  the  pictured  trunks  of  trees,  a weari- 
some and  costly  mode  of  ornamentation,  such  as  we  often  see 
on  old  Japanese  lacquer  work,  but  which  we  cannot  appreciate  as 
thoroughly  as  the  Japanese  themselves. 

Many  of  the  fine  gold  lacquer  wares  of  the  time  of  the  Tokugawa 
Shogun  bear  the  simple  arms  of  this  family  or  of  some  Daimio 
who  had  ordered  them.  Among  them  are  the  many  beautiful  little 
chests,  with  box-like  over-hanging  covers.  They  were  used  at 
weddings  and  other  festal  occasions  for  sending  presents,  and  were 
carried  by  heavy,  elegant  silk  cords  with  tassels,  which  fastened 


376  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


the  stiff  silk  cover  which  went  around  the  chest  and  protected  it. 
Highly  prized  as  were  the  beautiful  fabrics,  bronzes  and  fine 
ceramics,  the  old  prosperous  families  seem  to  have  valued  nothing 
so  much,  next  to  their  swords,  as  a fine  piece  of  lacquer  work 
from  the  hand  of  a recognised  master. 

As  the  old  order  of  things  in  Japan  was  broken  up.  Shoguns 
and  Daimids  lost  their  power,  and  many  beautiful  specimens  of 
industrial  art  which  had  hitherto  been  treated  to  a certain  extent 
as  heir-looms,  and  had  been  exhibited  and  admired  with  pride  and 
pleasure,  were  neglected  and  trifled  away,  and  a large  number  of  the 
old  and  valuable  lacquered  articles  came  into  the  hands  of  traders 
and  strangers.  Their  price  at  that  time  (1868-1870)  is  said  to 
have  been  so  low  as  to  justify  the  often  repeated  expression  of  the 
seller,  that  it  would  be  more  profitable  to  burn  them  and  to  collect 
and  sell  the  gold  used  in  making  them. 

In  order  to  supply  the  export  of  Japanese  lacquer  wares,  which 
has  increased  each  year  since  then,  and  the  home  demand  also,  in 
which  the  much  used  vehicles,  Jin-riki-shas,  figure  prominently,  the 
increasing  competition  sought  above  all  quick  and  cheap  labour 
on  the  part  of  the  lacquerer.  His  talent  seemed  directed  only  to 
this  want,  and  the  invention  of  new  forms  for  knick-knacks  and 
useful  articles  of  all  kinds,  and  to  become  educated  in  this  direction 
only. 

The  foreign  friend  and  connoisseur  of  Japanese  lacquer  work, 
said  rightly,  in  considering  these  indications,  “ Here  disappears  an 
illustrious  feature  from  the  past  of  Japan,  for  it  will  not  be  long 
before  the  last  competent  Makiye-shi  of  the  country  has  passed  away, 
the  last  who  understood  how  to  create  with  his  brush,  in  the  old 
way,  real  works  of  art.  Then  there  will  remain  only  the  ordinary 
manufacture  for  the  daily  market,  that  is  to  say,  only  a weak 
copy  of  the  former  artistic  ability  and  accomplishments.1  It  is 
high  time  therefore,  to  buy  up  and  to  save  for  our  own  collections 
the  still  remaining  products  of  ancient  art.”  2 But  lo,  with  this 
tendency  and  the  impulse  which  the  great  International  Exhibitions 
extended  to  Japan,  the  price  of  fine  gold  lacquer  work  rose  anew. 
The  really  artistic  lacquer  productions  were  once  more  made  to  pay, 
and  the  result  is  that  to-day  there  are  Makiye-shi  in  Japan  whose 
works  may  be  placed  side  by  side  with  the  best  of  earlier  times. 

1 Wagener  says  appropriately,  in  the  repeatedly  quoted  article  on  Japanese 
lacquer  wares,  that  there  are  the  same  grades  here  as  between  a child’s  picture 
book  and  a miniature  painting  from  a master  hand,  and  that  the  more  often  a 
connoisseur  beholds  a really  beautiful  specimen  of  Japanese  lacquer  work,  the 
greater  will  be  his  pleasure  in  the  art. 

2 The  Frenchman  Watlin  remarked  already  in  1773,  in  his  work  on  the  lacquer 
art:  “These  Asiatic  nations  (Chinese  and  Japanese)  no  longer  work  so  dili- 
gently and  finely  since,  full  of  astonishment  at  our  foolish  fancies,  they  cannot 
furnish  the  ready  made  articles  fast  enough  to  satisfy  our  insatiable  desires. 
They  work  more  carelessly  in  order  to  increase  the  quantity.  The  amateurs 
therefore  also  make  a great  difference  between  the  old  and  the  new  lacquer.” 


LACQUER  WORK. 


377 


At  the  last  Paris  Industrial  Exhibition  in  1878,  one  article,  a 
lacquered  three-winged  screen  (biobu),  was  prominent  above  all 
the  other  Japanese  lacquer  wares  for  the  richness  and  elegance 
of  its  decorations — an  exhibition  piece,  that  even  in  the  presence 
of  the  shields  of  Elkington,  the  bronzes  of  Barbedienne,  and  the 
beautiful  Indian  collection  of  the  Prince  of  Wales,  made  a great 
impression  on  the  lovers  of  art.  This  master  piece,  on  which, 
I was  told,  workmen  were  employed  two  full  years  in  Tdkio, 
showed  beyond  a doubt,  that  the  old  lacquer  art  is  still  well  under- 
stood, when  time  and  means  are  richly  furnished  for  carrying  it 
out.  A more  beautiful  ornamentation  in  raised  gold  lacquer  work 
is  scarcely  conceivable  than  the  magnificently  executed  red  and 
white  pseony  blossoms  in  gold  and  silver,  the  several  chrysanthe- 
mums and  other  flowers  with  their  leaves,  which  adorned  this  screen. 
The  Prize  Commissioners  rewarded  the  exhibitor,  Minoda  Chojiro, 
a merchant  of  T6kio,  with  the  gold  medal,  and  an  English  amateur 
paid  the  sum  of  60,000  frcs.  for  it. 

Whoever  has  followed  the  progress  of  this  industry  since  that 
time,  and  has  noted  its  products  in  those  shops  in  London,  Paris, 
and  Berlin,  which  have  made  it  their  specialty  to  collect  and  sell 
the  better  class  of  Japanese  products  of  art  industry,  must  indeed 
have  been  convinced  that  the  endeavours  and  progress  in  this 
branch  have  not  been  limited  to  the  great  universal  exhibitions, 
and  cannot  fail  of  receiving  wider  recognition  on  the  part  of  pur- 
chasers. 

The  lacquer  industry  of  to-day  is  concentrated  principally  in 
and  around  T6kio,  and  the  greatest  export  of  its  wares  is  by  way 
of  Yokohama.  Most  of  the  lacquer  wares  of  Shidzuoka  and  the 
northern  provincial  cities,  Wakamatsu,  Yonezawa,  Niigata  and 
Noshiro  are  sent  to  this  point.  Shidzuoka  and  Niigata  furnish 
among  other  things  great  part  of  the  favourite  oval  bread  baskets, 
made  from  magnolia  wood,  with  or  without  the  rattan  covering. 
In  Niigata  not  less  than  200  families  were  supported,  in  1874,  by 
the  lacquer  industry. 

In  the  valley  of  the  upper  Sai-gawa  and  of  the  Kiso-gawa,  in 
the  province  of  Shinano,  along  the  Nakasendo,  the  towns  Hirasawa, 
Nagai,  Yabuhara  and  Fukushima  manufacture  a large  amount  of 
cheap  wooden  lacquer  wares  for  the  home  market,  chiefly  soup 
bowls  and  other  wooden  dishes.  Instead  of  using  Kokuso-kau, 
the  joints  are  painted  over  with  a mixture  of  wheat  flour  and 
Se-shime-urushi.  Wakayama  and  Kioto  provide  the  market  of 
Osaka  and  Hioga  principally.  At  Nagoya  the  lacquer  decoration  is 
worked  mainly  upon  pottery  (porcelain  and  earthenware),  in  Kidto 
on  bronze  and  copper.  Nagasaki  furnishes  tortoise-shell  work  prin- 
cipally, and  imitations,  with  some  very  fine  gold  lacquer  decorations. 
Cabinets  and  other  articles  inlaid  with  mother-of-pearl  are  also 
sent  largely  from  here,  and  the  lacquered  Arita  vases  with  the 
wavy  border. 


378  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS . 


4.  Textile  Industry. 

Hemp , Linen  and  Muslin. — Banana  Fabrics. — Cotton  Industry. — 
Prmcipal  Works , Places  and  Chief  Notable  Products  of  Silk 
Weaving.  — Auxiliaries  thereto.  — Habutai,  Crape;  Kanoko, 
Brocade. — Use  of  Gold  and  Silver  Paper  i?i  Brocade. — Velvet 
Weaving. — Embroidery. 

Literature. 

1.  E.  von  Bavier:  “Japans  Seidenzucht,  Seidenhandel  und  Seiden- Industrie.” 
‘Zurich,  1874. 

2.  “Officielle  Berichte  iiber  die  Textil-Industrie  auf  den  grossen  Weltaustel- 
lungen  von  1873-1876-1878  zu  Wien,  Philadelphia,  und  Paris.” 

3.  Prestl. : “ Technologische  Encylopadie,  Bd.  14  und  Bd.  20.” 

4.  M.  Moyret:  “Traite  de  la  Teinture  des  Soies,  etc.”  Lyon,  1879. 

5.  E.  Parant:  “ Etude  sur  la  Fabrication  des  Tissus.”  Paris,  1883. 

6.  A.  Rondot : “Essai  sur  le  Commerce  de  la  Soie  en  France.”  Lyon,  1883. 

7.  C.  G.  Gilroy  : “ The  Art  of  Weaving  by  Hand  and  by  Power.”  London, 
1876. 

8.  M.  M. : “ The  Industrial  Arts.  Historical  Sketches.”  London,  1876. 

In  this  department  the  animal  raw-material  to  be  considered  is 
chiefly  silk  ; in  vegetable  fibres,  cotton  principally,  and  hemp,  be- 
sides Bohmeria  bast.  The  last  two  are  a substitute  for  flax.  Their 
woven  tissues  are  simple,  without  pattern,  and  some  of  them  are 
very  fine.  Nara  Jofu,  hemp  linen  (Asa-nuno),  from  the  old  city 
of  Nara  in  the  province  of  Yamato  has  a high  reputation.  It  has 
been  already  mentioned  (p.  165)  that  hemp  is  the  oldest  culti- 
vated texile  plant  of  Japan,  and  that  the  most  common  clothing 
of  the  country  people  is  made  of  a coarse  hemp  fabric,  coloured 
blue  with  indigo. 

Echigo  Jofu  is  a sort  of  muslin,  the  linen  made  from  the  fibres 
of  the  Nettle  hemp,  Kara-mushi  ( Boehmeria  nivea)  from  Echigo. 
It  is  bleached  on  the  snow,  and  is  not  inferior  in  appearance  to  the 
finest  hemp  linen.  A fabric  is  made  by  using  a strong  twisted 
thread  for  the  woof,  which  under  the  influence  of  steam  or  a bath 
crinkles  like  crape  silk  (which  see).  This  is  called  Echigo  Jofu 
Chijimi,  which  when  bleached  to  simple  white  or  printed  in  indigo 
and  other  colours,  furnishes  a popular  material  for  light  and  cool 
summer  clothing,  and  is  much  more  durable  than  calico.  The 
Basho-fu  or  banana  fabric  of  the  Riukiu  islands  has  been  sufficiently 
described  on  p.  168. 

The  manufacture  and  use  of  cotton  materials  (Jap.  Momen-mono), 
as  well  as  cotton  cultivation,  have  been  promoted  since  1600  A.D., 
first  under  the  Shogunate  of  Tokugawa.  The  summer  clothing 
of  the  more  prosperous  classes  and  of  the  inhabitants  of  cities 
generally,  has  been  from  that  time  mainly  of  cotton.  The  spin- 
ning and  weaving  of  cotton,  however,  has  never  advanced  beyond 


TEXTILE  INDUSTRY. 


379 


the  stage  of  a house  industry,  and  never  supplied  more  than 
the  domestic  need.  This  is  the  case  also  in  the  cities  of  the  pro- 
vinces of  Kawachi  and  Harima,  especially  of  Sakai  and  Himeji, 
which  have  the  largest  cotton  industry.  The  Riukiu  Islands 
furnish  cotton  materials,  usually  white  checks  on  a blue  ground, 
which  are  very  popular  on  account  of  their  strength  and  durability. 
The  looms  at  Morioka  in  the  North  supply  a considerable  part 
of  the  demand,  but  get  their  raw  material  from  the  southern 
provinces.  A cotton  stuff  from  Narumi  in  the  province  of  Owari, 
and  called  Narumi-shibori  is  very  celebrated.  The  dyeing  of  this 
fabric  is  similar  to  that  of  Kanoko-shibori  (which  see),  and  many 
houses  at  Arimatsu,  a pretty  village  on  the  Tokaido,  deal  in  it. 
The  industry  has  accomplished  all  that  was  possible  with  the  old 
looms  and  other  appliances,  but  with  the  opening  of  the  country 
to  foreign  competition,  can  scarcely  keep  its  position. 

However  notable  the  performances  of  the  nations  belonging  to 
the  Chinese  system  of  civilization  have  been  in  the  working  up  of 
the  before-mentioned  and  other  vegetable  textile  stuffs,  they  have 
never  expended  upon  them  any  real  art. 

It  was  in  the  nature  of  things  that  the  silk  manufacture  should 
have  reached  a far  higher  degree  of  perfection.  The  excellence 
and  remarkable  fitness  of  the  material  for  artistic  treatment,  and 
the  many  centuries  of  effort  had  so  operated,  that  even  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  e.g.,  in  Marco  Polo’s  time,  the  Chinese  could  furnish 
silk  velvet,  brocade,  and  other  fine  fabrics  at  moderately  cheap 
prices,  not  only  to  Western  Asia,  but  also  to  the  districts  near 
thereto. 

We  read  for  instance,  in  the  work  of  Antonio  de  Morga,1 2  that 
the  Chinese  junks  which  came  in  the  spring  with  the  then  ruling 
north-western  monsoon,  from  Macao,  Canton,  and  other  ports  to 
Manila,  brought  “ raw  silk,  velvet,  plain  and  also  embroidered  in 
various  patterns,  silk  brocade  of  many  colours  and  patterns,  and 
ornamented  with  gold  and  silver  (all  the  gold  threads,  however,  were 
of  paper  and  spurious),  damask,  satin,  taffetas,  etc.” 

Even  more  interesting  is  an  item  from  Linschoten,3  which  ex- 
pressly states  that  the  Portuguese  got  silver  from  Japan  in  exchange 
for  silk  wares,  which  they  brought  from  Macao,  although  at  the 
time  of  the  conquest  of  Malacca  (15  n A.D.)  by  Albuquerque,  ac- 
cording to  a note  made  by  the  son  of  this  Portuguese  general,  the 
Gores  (Japanese?)  brought  already  silk  and  brocade  among  other 
things  to  Malacca.3 

The  apparent  discrepancy  between  these  two  statements  is 

1 “The  Philippine  Islands,  Moluccas,  Siam,  Cambodia,  Japan  and  China  at 
the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century,  by  A.  de  Morga.”  London:  Hakluyt  Soc. 
1868,  p.  337  ff. 

2 “ The  voyage  of  J.  H.  van  Linschoten  to  the  East  Indies,  etc.,  from  the  old 
English  translation  of  1598,  by  A.  Burnell.”  Hakluyt  Society,  1875,  p.  147  ff. 

3 Crawford  : “Descriptive  Dictionary  of  the  Malay  Archipelago,”  p.  164. 


380  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


not:  difficult  to  reconcile.  As  appears  from  the  previous  observa- 
tions concerning  silk  culture  in  Japan  (observations  also  true 
of  silk  industry),  it  is  limited  to  Hondo,  the  principal  island.  It 
was  so  always,  undoubtedly.  It  is  therefore  easy  to  believe  that  in 
the  1 2th  century  this  island  exported  silk  stuffs,  while  the  island  of 
Kiushiu,  with  which  the  Portuguese  had  to  do,  almost  exclusively 
received  them  during  the  latter  part  of  the  16th  century  from 
China  via  Macao,  not  to  mention  the  fact  that  internal  wars  and 
dissensions  in  the  capital  Kioto  might  sometimes  check  the  expor- 
tation of  silk  to  the  southern  islands  ; so  that  Nagasaki  was  pro- 
bably more  easily  supplied  with  stuff  from  China  than  from  the 
manufacturing  and  commercial  cities  of  Hondo.  Be  this  as  it  may, 
however,  the  fact  remains  that  those  Europeans  who  were  particu- 
larly interested,  in  1859,  when  the  export  of  Japanese  silk  began, 
had  no  idea  of  the  high  standard  to  which  the  Japanese  silk  industry 
had  reached.  Nevertheless,  as  in  China,  so  also  in  Japan,  silk 
weaving  had  been  for  several  centuries  one  of  the  finest  examples 
of  artistic  excellence.  It  shows  to-day,  also,  what  high  develop- 
ment an  industry  can  attain,  even  with  imperfect  working  appliances, 
in  the  hands  of  an  artistic,  skilful,  and  persevering  people.  Up  to 
1859,  the  silk  culture  and  silk  manufacture  of  the  country  supplied 
nothing  more  than  the  domestic  trade.  Thunberg  thinks  the  reason 
that  the  fabrics  did  not  reach  European  markets,  was  solely  owing 
to  their  narrow  width.1 

When  at  the  Vienna  Exhibition  of  1873,  Japan  for  the  first  time 
displayed  the  variety,  richness,  and  tasteful  collection  of  its  Kinu, 
or  silk  factories,  not  only  were  the  ordinary  visitors  astonished 
at  these  unsuspected  accomplishments,  but  even  more  the  well- 
informed  Prize  Commissioners.  There  were  simple,  smooth  stuffs, 
and  surprisingly  beautiful  twilled  fabrics  full  of  softness  and  ele- 
gance, with  heavy  brocades  and  other  figured  materials  of  a beauty 
utterly  unanticipated,  besides  some  entirely  new  appliances  and 
designs.  Though,  it  is  true,  the  Chinese  were  the  teachers  and 
models  to  the  Japanese  in  silk  manufactures,  yet  here,  as  in  so 
many  other  instances,  the  pupil  has  outstripped  the  master.  There 
is  no  better  recognition  of  the  work  of  Japanese  silk  weaving  than 
the  judgment  of  the  competent  Prize  Commissioner  of  the  Vienna 
Exhibition,  Al.  Heimendahl,  the  President  of  the  Crefeld  Chamber 
of  Commerce.  He  writes  in  his  Report  on  Silk  and  Silk  Wares  as 
follows  : “ However  much  one  may  be  inclined  to  shake  the  head 

at  much  that  is  burlesque  and  bizarre  in  design,  and  at  the  peculiar 
tendencies  of  style,  all  that  is  not  beautiful  is  ennobled  by  one  com- 
mon feature,  everywhere  to  be  seen — pleasure  and  perseverance  in 
work.  But  besides  these  noted  eccentricities  there  is,  on  the  other 
hand,  such  a fine  sense  of  form  and  colour,  whether  it  be  manifest  in 

1 “ Silkens  handelen  blomstrar  val  innom  Riket,  men  for  den  smalhet,  som 
tygerne  har  aga  kunna  de  icke  utforasoch  af  Europeerne  nytjas.” — Thunberg  : 
Resa  uti  Europa,  Africa,  Asia,  iv.  p.  105.  Upsala,  1793. 


TEXTILE  INDUSTRY. 


381 


materials  of  the  softest  shading,  or  the  most  spirited  designs  ; in  or- 
naments of  mingled  gold  and  silver  which  do  not  so  much  imitate 
nature  as  use  her  suggestions  for  new  and  fantastic  forms— -that  they 
excel  anything  brought  to  the  Exhibition  from  European  art  looms.” 

While  the  silk  culture  of  Japan  received  a great  impulse  at  the 
Opening  of  the  new  commerce  and  the  restoration  of  Mikado-rule, 
silk  manufacture  has  been  much  and  variously  damaged  thereby. 
The  cheap  cotton  and  wool  stuffs  thrown  upon  the  market  from 
foreign  countries  for  several  decades,  compete  constantly  more 
strongly  with  silk  materials.  Most  of  the  velvet  looms  were  obliged 
fifteen  years  ago  to  suspend  competition  with  the  extraordinarily 
cheap  cotton  velvets  of  Manchester.  And  it  has  come  about  that 
the  export  of  raw  silk,  beginning  in  1859  and  rapidly  increasing  in 
succeeding  years,  to  which  that  of  silkworm  eggs  was  soon  added, 
has  had  a great  influence  on  the  price  of  raw  silk,  which  has  risen 
within  a few  years  to  ten  or  sixteen-fold.  Many  of  the  Japanese, 
under  such  circumstances,  found  themselves  obliged  to  give  up  their 
custom  of  wearing  silk  clothing,  and  to  use  the  much  cheaper  wool- 
len and  cotton  material. 

Japanese  silk  industry  on  the  other  hand,  with  all  its  fine  pro- 
ducts, could  not  gain  new  markets  of  any  consequence,  for  the 
change  from  hand  to  machine  weaving  has  not  yet  taken  place 
with  them.  They  still  work  after  their  old  fashion  with  hand- 
looms,  such  as  were  used  in  Europe  a hundred  years  ago.  Even 
the  change  from  narrow  breadths,  especially  in  smooth  fabrics,  of 
34  to  45  centimeters,  to  the  greater  widths  common  in  Europe  has 
been  accomplished  but  slowly,  and  is  not  even  yet  at  all  universal. 
After  the  steam  loom  had  begun  to  revolutionize  the  silk  industry 
in  Europe,  there  could  be  no  more  Japanese  competition.1  Not 
until  the  example  of  Europe  in  this  respect  is  followed  will  the 
cheaper  labour  power  and  greater  skill  and  aptitude  avail  to 
put  the  Japanese  on  a new  basis  of  competition  with  foreign  coun- 
tries in  its  silk  industry.  And  that,  of  course,  opens  to  house 
industry  no  very  inviting  future.  As  the  Filanda  founded  at  To- 
mioka  in  1872  with  its  steam  power  rendered  the  small  reeling  es- 
tablishments, which  could  no  longer  compete  with  it,  gradually 
useless,  hundreds  of  web  looms  and  those  dependent  upon  them 
will  be  concerned  in  the  new  manner  of  silk  manufacture. 

Ki6to  takes  now,  as  for  many  centuries  past,  the  first  place  in 
Japanese  silk  industry,  with  her  figured  silks  of  all  kinds,  especially 
gold  wrought  brocades,  rich  with  flowers  and  other  ornaments,  her 
figured  damasks  and  crapes,  reps,  velvet,  and  other  beautiful  fabrics. 
The  weaving  and  dyeing  establishments  are  located  in  the  western 
part  of  the  city  known  as  Nishi-jin,  i.e.,  “ West  barracks,”  and  are 
constantly  increasing.  According  to  Bavier,  there  are  1,800  silk 

1 The  Taiping  Revolution  gave  silk  weaving  in  China  as  well  as  art  industry 
of  all  kinds  a shock  from  which  the  country  has  never  fully  recovered.  Since 
1854,  the  export  has  in  no  year  reached  its  former  amount. 


382  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


weavers  in  Kioto  and  vicinity,  and  about  6,000  looms  with  a pro- 
duct in  raw  silk  of  6,000  bales  of  50  kilogrammes  each.  The  value 
of  the  fabric  manufactured  from  this  is  placed  at  20,000,000 
yen,  or  over  ^3,92 1,568.  The  silk  weavers  form  free  corporations, 
according  to  their  special  employments,  for  improvement  of  their 
common  concerns.  There  is  for  example  a Moyo-sha,  or  picture- 
weaving guild,  from  which  have  branched  off  the  Kin-ran-sha,  or 
silk-brocade  guild,  and  the  Tsuzure-sha  for  inlaid  brocade  work. 
Kidto  has  also  a Chirimen-sha,  or  crape  guild  ; and  from  it  have 
separated  the  Kanoko-sha,  also  a Habutai-sha,  a Shaori-sha  or 
gauze-weavers’  guild,  a Natsu-gi-sha  or  guild  for  manufacturers  of 
summer  goods,  a Birodo-sha  or  velvet-weavers’  guild,  and  several 
more.  Besides  the  old  domestic  dye-stuffs  (see  pages  175-182)  the 
European  aniline  dyes  are  used  more  and  more,  also  other  pro- 
ducts of  our  chemical  colour  industry,  and  so  successfully  too  that 
it  is  thought  in  Japan  that  Kioto  water  (of  the  Kamo-gawa) 
assimilates  them  as  no  others,  therefore  the  Kioto  dyers  cannot 
be  equalled. 

The  sale  of  Kioto  silk  wares  and  those  of  other  cities  is  carried 
on  principally  at  Osaka,  although  in  this  as  in  trade  generally 
Tokio  competes  with  it  very  strongly.  The  most  extensive  silk 
warehouses  are,  however,  in  Osaka,  old  well-known  houses  that 
employ  from  So-ioo  Bantos  (clerks),  and  carry  on  a very  large 
business. 

Kiriu,  a little  city  in  the  province  of  Joshiu  (Kodzuke)  east  of 
Mayebashi,  near  the  boundary  of  Shimotzuke,  has  next  to  Kioto 
the  most  important  silk  manufacture.  Like  many  other  places  in 
the  province,  particularly  Mayebashi,  Takasaki,  and  Isesaki, 
Kiriu,  is  distinguished  mainly  for  its  Shusu  (satin),  and  other  simple, 
light  silk  fabrics  and  half-silk  materials,  of  which  it  manufactures 
more  than  Kidto.  It  has  also  an  important  crape  manufacture,  and 
furnishes  besides  several  sorts  of  Obi,  or  ladies’  sashes.  Chirimen 
or  crape  silk  is  made  principally,  besides  here  and  at  Ki6to, — 

At  Tanabe  and  Miatsu  in  the  province  of  Tango. 

„ Nagahama  on  the  Biwa  Lake  „ „ „ Omi. 

„ Kano  and  Gifu  ,,  „ „ Mino. 

The  broad  Obi,  or  sashes  for  women  and  girls,  are  woven  in 
specially  fine  qualities — 

At  Hakata  in  the  province  of  Chikuzen  on  Kiushiu. 

„ Yonezawa  „ „ „ Uzen. 

and  in  the  before-mentioned  Kiriu.  Besides  these,  Fukushima  in 
Iwashiro,  Sendai  in  Rikuzen,  Akita  in  Ugo,  Kofu  in  Koshiu,  Kana- 
zawa in  Kaga,  Hachioji  in  Musashi,  and  even  Tokio  the  capital, 
carry  on  silk  industries  of  a particular  kind  ; Akita  for  instance, 
a many-striped  Tsumugi,  a strong  fabric  from  spun  silk  waste, 
whose  full  name  is  Kudzu-ito-tsumugi. 


TEXTILE  INDUSTRY. 


383 


Between  silk  culture,  which  properly  ends  with  the  delivery  of 
the  dead  cocoons  at  the  reeling  establishment  (when  the  cultivator 
does  not  himself  manage  the  reeling),  and  the  manufacture,  is  the 
silk  spinner.  He  works  up  the  silk  waste  into  hurt  or  floss  silk, 
which  is  of  great  importance  in  the  manufacture  of  velvet,  and  the 
grege  or  reeled  silk  into  organsin  and  trame,  warp  and  woof  threads. 
In  this  the  doubling  and  twisting  machines  are  used,  which  the 
French  call  moulins  and  therefore  designate  often  the  entire  pre- 
paration of  reeled  silk  for  its  several  purposes,  moulinage,  by  which 
the  thread  acquires  the  necessary  evenness,  strength  and  dura- 
bility. 

In  reeling  off  the  thread  of  the  cocoons,  from  3 to  15  (in  Japan 
usually  8 to  13)  threads  are  spun  together  in  a grege  thread  according 
to  the  size  (the  litre)  of  the  Ki-ito  or  raw  silk  that  may  be  desired. 
To  make  the  strong  Yama-mai  thread  from  5 to  6 cocoons  are 
generally  taken  in  reeling.  Usually  the  organsine  threads,  for  which 
the  best  reeled  silk  is  used,  have  a double  twisting,  and  are  therefore 
dull  compared  with  the  woof  threads,  as  in  all  smooth  lustrous  fabrics. 
With  crape  it  is  just  the  reverse.  Here  the  warp,  Jap. Tate,  is  smooth 
and  less  twisted  and  the  cross  threads,  Jap.  Yoko-ito,  or  woof 
threads,  Jap.  Naki-ito  on  the  other  hand  are  doubly  twisted  and 
dull.  In  weaving  smooth,  even  or  twilled  fabrics  like  Shusu  (satin), 
Nanako  (taffeta),  Sha  and  R6  (varieties  of  floss  silk),  Tsumugi 
(waste  material),  the  old  handlooms  or  Hata  are  used  in  Japan  and 
the  simbolt  loom  in  making  figured  silks  or  Mori-ginu.  This  latter 
has  essentially  the  same  arrangement  as  was  universal  in  Europe 
before  the  introduction  of  the  Jacquard  looms  in  damask  weaving. 
The  double  facing  or  the  interchange  (raising  and  dropping)  of  the 
groups  of  warp  threads  known  as  bobbins,  is  managed  by  a draw- 
boy  sitting  overhead  on  a board.  Many  sorts  of  figures  are 
wrought  with  this  variety  of  the  common  handloom.  Bavier  gives 
a very  good  representation  of  it  in  Plate  IV.  fig.  2 of  his  book,  but 
it  is  especially  adapted  to  the  manufacture  of  figured  satin,  crape 
and  brocade. 

It  remains  still  to  discuss  more  minutely  those  products  of 
Japanese  silk  industry  which  differ  essentially  from  the  European, 
or  are  distinguished  by  remarkable  beauty  and  quality. 

Habutaye  (pronounced  Habutai)  or  Kabe-habutai,  a peculiar 
ribbed  white  silk  fabric  is  one  of  the  most  magnificent  plain  silks 
that  Japan  can  show.  It  is  wavy  in  texture,  a medium  between 
crape  and  reps.  Both  warp  and  woof  are  much  thicker  than  in 
smooth  and  twilled  stuffs,  and  the  woof  threads  are  loose  and 
peculiarly  twisted.  One  thin  thread  of  two  strands  winds  in  long 
spirals  about  a thicker  thread  consisting  of  6 raw-silk  strands.  This 
produces  not  only  the  peculiar  wavy  ribbing  of  the  silk,  but  also 
its  greater  fulness  and  pliancy.  In  its  thickness  and  softness 
Habutai  resembles  velvet,  from  which  it  is  entirely  different  in 
other  respects. 


386  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


bound  fast  underneath  with  several  windings  of  hemp  thread. 
This  knotting  of  Kanoko-chirimen  is  a tedious,  unpaying  process, 
falling  usually  to  old  women  and  children.  When  the  under-bind- 
ing is  finished,  then  follows  the  bath,  and  dyeing,  drying  and 
stretching  of  the  deeply  wrinkled  material.  The  threads  used  for 
under-binding  become  free  and  are  pulled  out,  and  the  under- 
bound spots  make  a white  pattern  on  the  Turkish  red,  peach- 
blossom  or  violet  ground. 

The  Obi,  or  girdles  with  which  Japanese  ladies  fasten  their  long 
garments  (Kimono)  at  the  waist,  are  made  on  particular  looms,  from 
the  finest  silk.  They  are  varied  in  appearance ; sometimes  smooth, 
sometimes  ribbed  figured  fabrics  1 6 to  24  centimeters  broad,  and 
3 or  4^  meters  in  length,  so  that  they  may  be  tied  in  bows  at  the 
back.  The  finest  are  the  Hakata-obi,  but  the  Koyanagi-obi  also  in 
thick  satin  from  Kiriu,  the  ribbed  Donsu-obi  from  Yonezawa  and 
several  others  are  highly  prized. 

Garments  of  brocade,  Jap.  Nishiki,  i.e.  heavy  fringed  silk  in- 
wrought  with  gold  and  silver,  the  richest  and  costliest  which  textile 
industry  in  general  can  furnish,  have  always  been  used  for 
ceremonial  garments  by  Chinese  and  Japanese  princes,  and  for 
the  furnishings  of  the  richer  theatres  and  temples.  In  Kioto  the 
brocade  manufacture  has  stood  from  the  beginning  under  the 
special  protection  of  the  reigning  Mikado,  and  that  it  has  main- 
tained itself  in  full  strength  to  this  time,  in  spite  of  unfavourable 
conditions,  is  due  at  least  in  part  to  the  constant  imperial  protection 
and  encouragement. 

When  in  1868  Prince  Arisugawa  undertook  the  chief  command 
against  the  “ Eastern  Rebels  ” (adherents  of  the  Tokugawa  dynasty), 
he  received  from  the  Mikado  the  brocade  banner  and  sword,  as 
tokens  of  the  imperial  power  and  cause.  After  the  entry  into 
Yeddo,  every  Samurai  sewed  a brocade  stripe  on  his  Kimono  (coat), 
over  which  the  inhabitants  of  the  capital  of  the  Tokugawa  made 
merry,  calling  them  the  imperial  Kingire  or  brocade  rags. 

The  high  estimation  of  brocade  is  manifested  also  in  several 
proverbial  expressions,  eg.  : “ Kokio  ye  Nishiki,”  i.e.,  “ Clothe 
yourself  in  brocade  when  you  return  home ; ” the  sense  of  which 
is  ; “ Return  not  homeward  till  you  have  gained  something  for  your- 
self in  the  foreign  land.”  This  is  more  beautiful:  “Tzuzure  wo 
kite  mo  kokoro  wa  Nishiki,”  or  “ He  wears  rags,  it  is  true,  but  his 
heart  is  of  brocade.” 

There  are  two  kinds  of  brocade  in  Kioto — Ito-nishike,  gold- 
thread brocade,  and  Aya-nishiki,  silk  damask  brocade,  or  brocade 
inwrought  with  flowers.  A beautiful  piece  of  the  former,  44  centi- 
meters broad,  and  54.54  meters  long,  designed  for  the  Mikado,  was 
said  to  cost  30  yen  or  over  £ 6 ; another  of  the  same  width  and 
1 1 ‘5  meters  long,  45  yen,  about  £g  ; and  for  a third,  71  centimeters 
long  and  8 5 centimeters  broad,  50  yen,  or  ;£io,  was  offered. 

The  use  of  gold  and  silver  paper  in  the  Japanese  brocades  has 


Rein,  Japan.  II. 


Plate  VIII. 


Brocade  Pattern  from  Kioto. 


Wilhelm  Engelmann,  Leipzig. 


TEXTILE  INDUSTRY. 


387 


awakened  great  interest  with  European  silk  manufacturers.  The 
paper  is  cut  into  narrow  strips  and  is  then  either  spun  around 
silk  thread  or  is  itself  twisted  into  a thread,  and  woven  in.  The 
fabrics  in  this  way  look  just  as  if  they  were  inwrought  with  genuine 
gold  and  silver  threads,  but  differ  in  that  they  are  cheaper  and  more 
flexible. 

To  make  Kin-gami  or  gold  paper,  Usude-Torinoko-gami,  a Gampi 
or  Kodzo  paper  (see  Paper  Industry)  is  painted  over  on  one  side  with 
a mixture  of  raw  lacquer  (Ki-urushi)  and  sulphur  (Iwo),  and  rubbed 
smooth  with  paper  balls  or  pillows,  when  it  is  overlaid  with  genuine 
gold-foil  (Kin-paku)  and  then  the  entire  gold  covering  is  rubbed 
over  with  loose  cotton  balls.  The  Hon-kin-gami,  or  genuine  gold 
paper,  so  prepared,  can  be  used  immediately  after  drying.  In 
making  Gin-gami  or  silver  paper,  the  sulphur  must  of  course  be  left 
out.  This  is  prepared  with  Sh6fu  or  wheat-flour  paste  instead  of 
lacquer,  and  then  overlaid  with  Gin-paku,  or  silver-foil.  An  imita- 
tion is  made  with  tin-foil  (Shari  or  Sudzu-haku)  which  is  fastened  to 
the  paper  with  Shofu.  Silver  and  tin-foil  are  also  used  to  imitate 
genuine  gold  paper,  receiving  a coating  of  colour  for  this  purpose. 
Such  a coating  is  prepared  by  the  aid  of  a yellow  solution  and  glue- 
water,  through  which  the  white  metal  underneath  appears  of  a 
greenish  yellow  colour  with  a bright  lustre.  Other  gold-yellow 
shades  are  obtained  by  coating  the  white  metal-foil  with  a mixture 
of  Shdfu  and  Beni  (carthamine)  or  Beni-gara  (red  oxide  of  iron). 

The  real  and  the  imitated  gold  and  silver  paper  prepared  in  one 
way  or  the  other,  are  cut  by  a machine  into  narrow  strips,  Kin-shi 
and  Gin-shi,  or  gold  and  silver  threads,  which  are  spun  with  silk  or 
cotton  threads.  Of  course  only  the  real  gold  or  silver  paper  is 
used  in  valuable  brocades.  In  spinning  it  with  silk  the  thread  runs 
from  the  little  reel  of  a hanging  spindle  over  a frame.  The  strip  of 
gold  or  silver  paper  is  held  with  the  paper  side  towards  the  thread 
and  the  spindle  set  in  motion,  whereby  the  narrow  strip  winds  itself 
around  the  thread  and  is  bound  tightly  to  it.  When  one  strip  is 
wound,  another  is  taken,  and  so  on.1 

Tzudzu-re-no-nishiki  or  brocading  with  short  threads.  In  1875 
Yasuda  Mosaburo  manufactured  in  Kioto  a kind  of  brocade  bearing 
this  name,  after  a peculiar  process.  Warp  and  woof  consisted  of 
strong,  twisted  silk  and  gold-paper  threads.  The  case  of  the  loom 
was  wanting,  therefore  there  was  no  proper  fastening  and  the  cross 
threads  were  laid  in  with  the  fingers  and  pushed  in  with  a comb 
by  hand,  as  was  done  universally  in  olden  times.  The  pattern 

1 It  may  be  of  interest  to  know  that  the  Industrial  Art  Museum  in  Berlin 
has  not  only  samples  of  the  several  brocades,  but  also  these  paper  metal 
threads.  The  collection  contains  : Hon-kin-gami,  genuine  gold  paper,  and 
Usu-kin-gami,  thin  gold  paper,  Shari-gin-gami,  tin-silver  paper,  Shari-kin- 
gami,  tin-gold  paper,  also  the  same  with  a greenish  appearance,  and  Hon-kin- 
shi,  real  gold-paper  thread  over  silk,  Iro-hon-kin-shi,  gold-silver  threads  on  silk, 
Iro-kin-shi,  tin-foil  gold  on  cotton,  Kiri-kin-shi  cut  tin-gold  paper  strips,  and 
other  samples. 


388  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


on  paper  laid  under  the  warp,  and  the  coloured  woof  threads  were 
chosen  accordingly,  but  did  not  extend  across  the  entire  breadth 
but  only  so  far  as  needed  by  the  figure,  and  the  next  figures  were 
filled  out  with  other  colours  before  or  after.  Beautiful  table 
cloths  and  Fukusa,  i.e.  fabrics  for  wrapping  up  and  covering  presents, 
for  example,  fine  lacquer-wares  and  other  articles,  were  manufactured 
in  this  way,  as  well  as  material  for  little  bags — especially  Tabako- 
ire,  for  preserving  cut  tobacco.  Their  value  and  price  were  of 
course  far  behind  that  of  the  genuine  brocades. 

We  have  also  to  mention  the  Y uzen-somi.  A peculiar  art,  practised 
by  Hata  Zenshiki  and  others  in  Kioto,  consisting  in  painting  the 
pattern  on  the  finished  silk  fabric.  For  this  purpose,  the  interstices 
between  the  figures  of  the  design  are  covered  with  Nori  (paste)  to 
protect  from  capillary  attraction  and  the  running  of  the  colours  at 
the  edges.  The  rest  of  the  process  is  very  much  like  painting  on 
silk  in  general. 

In  the  manufacture  of  Birodo  or  velvet,  nothing  was  formerly 
attempted  but  the  plain  and  the  ribbed  fabric.1  The  apparatus  for 
making  it  resembles  our  earlier  velvet  looms.  The  pile  of  the  upper 
part  of  the  warp  is  wound  around  parallel  copper  sticks  or  needles. 
When  the  fabric  is  finished,  the  nap  or  meshes  are  cut  by  a knife 
running  between  two  jacks,  and  the  needles  are  taken  out.  The 
Japanese  velvet  manufacture  has  its  seat  in  Kioto  and  Nagahama. 
In  1874  it  was  entirely  abandoned  at  Ishida,  a place  east  of  the 
Biwa  Lake  and  not  far  from  Nagahama,  because,  as  one  manu- 
facturer told  me,  the  import  had  so  run  down  the  price,  and  on  the 
other  hand  the  export  of  raw  silk  had  so  increased  its  value,  that 
it  was  impossible  to  manufacture  with  profit. 

Nui-mono  or  Nui-haku,  embroidery,  especially  with  silk  on  silk 
or  woollen  material,  is  closely  connected  with  silk  weaving.  It  is 
a highly  developed  branch  of  Japanese  art  industry,  in  which  the 
ruling  traits  of  Japanese  workmen,  pleasure  and  satisfaction  in  the 
product  of  their  labour,  combined  with  carefulness,  great  skill,  and 
admirable  taste,  are  again  displayed.  By  an  ingenious  alternation 
and  combination  of  flat  embroidery  and  feather-stitch,  sewing  on 
cords  and  the  like,  and  a wise  choice,  association,  and  shading  of 
colours,  surprising  effects  are  produced,  and  a considerable  degree 
of  life  is  communicated  to  the  flowers,  birds,  butterflies,  and  other 
subjects  copied  by  the  needle. 

Embroidery  has  been  an  employment  in  Japanese  houses  from 
ancient  times  till  now.  Mothers  teach  their  daughters  at  an  early 
age  to  form  a pleasing  mosaic  with  different  coloured  patches,  from 
which  they  make  covers  for  chopsticks  and  tooth-picks,  battle- 
dores for  a kind  of  shuttle-cock  game,  and  other  articles.  When 
older,  making  and  adorning  of  dolls’  clothes  furnish  a large  oppor- 

1 During  the  last  few  years,  they  have,  however,  succeeded  in  covering  ribbed 
velvet  with  pictures  in  different  colours  and  shades,  which  are  real  works  of  art, 
and  at  least  equal  to  anything  of  the  kind  woven  in  France. 


Rein,  Japan  H. 


Plate  DC. 


-"'XX 


Veri.  v WiZk.  Eng ebtuuui,  Leipzig 


Li&LAnst  v Werner  k Whiter,  Frankfurt  W 


EMBROIDERY  PATTERN 


PAPER  INDUSTRY. 


389 


tunity  for  further  cultivation  of  skill  and  taste.  Embroidery,  how- 
ever, has  not  become  a means  of  livelihood  among  the  female 
population,  but  in  its  finest  forms  has  been  long  the  work  of  men. 
The  ceremonial  silk  garments,  theatre  costumes,  rich  robes  of  the 
priests,  Fukusa  or  silk  materials  for  wrapping  presents  and  other 
articles,  all  ornamented  with  Nui-haku,  and  many  other  fabrics,  are 
all  from  the  hands  of  men.  In  Kioto,  Nagoya  and  several  other 
cities,  they  embroider  the  beautiful  panels  of  screens,  pillow  covers, 
table  cloths,  etc.,  which  have  been  exported  for  some  time  past, 
and  are  so  justly  appreciated  in  Europe. 

If  one  walks  through  certain  streets  of  these  cities  on  a summer 
day,  he  will  see  men  and  boys  at  work  at  their  embroidery  in  front 
of  the  houses.  The  silk  or  woollen  material  to  be  embroidered  is 
stretched  over  a frame,  both  ends  of  which  are  laid  on  two  wooden 
blocks  or  some  other  supports,  some  50  or  60  centimeters  high,  so 
that  the  needle  may  be  easily  put  through  from  both  sides.  Birds, 
flowers,  and  other  things  to  be  copied  are  designed  on  a pattern 
or  stitched  free  hand  on  the  material.  Oftentimes  this  silk  em- 
broidery is  connected  very  skilfully  with  the  painting  or  printing 
of  the  material  and  also  with  the  designs  of  figured  silks,  including 
brocades,  and  in  such  case  appears  as  a further  decoration  in 
relief. 

(Plate  VIII.  p.  386  represents  a brocade  pattern,  and  Plate  IX. 
p.  388  a piece  of  Japanese  embroidery.) 


5.  Paper  Industry. 

General  Properties  of  Japanese  Paper.- — Materials  for  its  Manu- 
facture, and  Ilow  obtained.  — Making  and  Employment  of 
the  Principal  Kinds  of  Japanese  Bast-Paper. — Couched  Board  : 
Ita-me-gami  and  Hari-nuki. — Paper  Hangings. — Chirimen- 
gami,  or  Crape  Paper. — Leather  Paper , or  Kami-kawa. — Shi-fu, 
or  Paper  Fabric. — Oil  Paper , Waterproof  Cloaks,  Screens,  Lan- 
terns and  Fans. — Appendix:  Sumi-ire,  the  Japanese  Writing 
Box  and  its  contents : Brush,  Indian  Ink,  and  Ink  Dish. 


Literature. 

1.  Kaempfer  : “ History  of  Japan.”  Appendix.  1827. 

2.  Savatier  : Usages  et  Fabrication  du  Papier  Japonais,  in  “ Bull,  de  la  Soc. 
de  Geogr.  de  Rochefort.”  1881.  p.  20. 

3.  “Report  on  the  Manufacture  of  Paper  in  Japan”  (English  Consul’s 
Report).  1871. 

4.  “ Ko  yeki  koku  san  ko” (pronounced  Koekikosdnko),  i.e.  “ Observations 
on  the  Extension  of  the  Useful  Productions  of  the  Country.”  Vol.  viii.  By 
Okura  Nagatsume.  Osaka,  1884.  Vols.  v.  and  viii. 

5.  St.  Julien:  “ Industries  de  l’Empire  Chinois.”  Paris,  1869.  pp.  140- 150. 


39°  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


6.  “ Wiener  Ausstellungsberichte  iiber  die  XI.  Gruppe.”  By  R.  Weber,  E. 
Twerdy  und  Andern.  1873d 

7.  M.  Jametel : “ L’encre  de  Chine  d’apres  des  documents  Chinois.”  Paris, 
1882. 

The  manifold  uses  of  paper1 2 3  in  Japan  have  been  repeatedly 
mentioned  in  the  old  accounts  of  the  country.  E.  Kaempfer  especi- 
ally, nearly  two  hundred  years  ago,  observed  and  described  the 
making  and  use  of  this  paper  so  well,  that  he  has  not  found 
his  equal  during  the  long  period  of  the  Dutch  trade  privilege, 
and  still  less  in  the  preceding  time  of  the  Portuguese  trade  with 
this  Orient  of  the  Chinese.  If  much  that  he  has  written  is  un- 
reliable, it  must  be  attributed  chiefly  to  the  circumstances  under 
which  he  passed  two  years  in  Japan,  the  strict  commercial  limitations, 
and  the  lack  of  opportunity  to  enter  and  inspect  the  interior  of 
the  country. 

In  modern  times,  not  only  every  foreigner  in  Japan,  but  every 
visitor  at  the  Universal  Exhibitions  of  Vienna,  Philadelphia,  and 
Paris,  could  easily  observe  how  manifold  are  the  uses  of  this 
peculiar  material.  It  serves  all  the  purposes  for  which  we  use 
paper  : for  book  printing  and  making  of  wall  papers,  for  writing 
and  packing  material, — and  in  addition  to  these,  it  is  a substitute 
for  string  and  cloth,  oilcloth  and  leather,  and  even  wood,  iron,  and 
glass.  Many  of  its  uses  sprang  from  the  lack  of  proper  material, 
or  its  light,  cheap  nature—as  for  window  panes  and  handkerchiefs, 
umbrellas  and  parasols — and  will  surely,  though  gradually,  pass 
away  under  foreign  influence.  Others  are  founded  on  some  of  its 
properties,  especially  the  great  pliability,  firmness,  and  durability 
which  distinguishes  Japanese  hand-made  paper  over  our  machine- 
made,  and  even  over  our  firmer  rag-paper,  and  thus  will  last  as 
long  as  it  maintains  these  excellent  qualities.  These  advantages 
are  based  on  the  material  and  the  manner  of  manufacture,  for  the 
Japanese  hand- made  paper  is  made  of  the  very  tough  and  pliant 
inner  bark  of  from  three  to  six  species  of  deciduous  trees,  which 
have  long,  tough  fibre  cells,  and  in  transforming  this  into  paper 
pulp  it  is  not  cut  and  hacked,  but  by  pounding  and  beating  is  only 
softened  and  separated,  so  that  the  long  cells  remain  whole. 

In  this  way  the  Japanese  bark  paper  evinces  a surprising  tough- 
ness and  flexibility,  and  combines  the  softness  of  silk  paper  with 
the  firmness  of  a woven  texture.  Like  its  kindred  Tapa  of  the 
Polynesians,  it  occupies  a middle  place  between  our  smooth,  brittle 
machine  paper  and  a woven  fabric,  and  can  in  many  cases  be  em- 
ployed like  the  latter,  but  will  not  withstand  moisture.  As  the 
felting  and  twisting  of  the  long,  tender  fibres  is  excluded  by  the 

1 The  foundation  of  the  treatise  now  in  hand  has  been  chiefly  the  Report  of 
the  Prussian  Minister  of  Trade,  of  the  25th  of  January,  1875,  which  is  based  on 
personal  studies  and  observations. 

2 The  Japanese  name  for  paper  is  Kami,  and  as  an  affix  to  the  proper  name 

it  is  changed  into  garni,  for  which  the  Chinese  word  shi  is  often  used. 


PAPER  INDUSTRY. 


39i 


manner  of  making,  and  the  slimy  or  gum-like  vegetable  cements 
are  dissolved  in  water,  its  firmness  and  toughness  disappear  when 
it  is  wet,  that  is  in  all  cases  when  the  contact  with  water  is  not 
excluded  by  saturating  it  with  oil  or  lac. 

In  the  manufacture  of  the  Japanese  tub  or  hand-made  paper, 
the  workman  holds  the  form  or  scoop-net  so  that  the  parallel  bam- 
boo splinters  or  threads  run  from  right  to  left.  He  lifts  and  lowers 
the  form  in  front  of  him  and  at  right  angles  to  that  direction,  caus- 
ing the  fibres  of  the  material  to  move  toward  this  side  and  lie 
there.  The  consequence  is  that  each  sheet  of  Japanese  bark  paper 
is  torn  easily  and  straight  in  this  one  direction,  but  with  difficulty 
and  crooked  and  with  a fuzzy  edge  in  the  other.  The  Japanese 
knows  and  observes  this  fact  whenever  he  tears  a strip  off  for  a 
string,  making  the  rent  in  the  direction  of  the  parallel  fibres. 

The  smoothness,  evenness,  and  firmness  of  Japanese  paper  is  not 
effected  by  special  sizing  and  glazing.  Nevertheless  each  sheet 
has  usually  a rough  and  a smooth  side,  which  are  designated  Omote 
and  Ura,  i.e.  outer  and  inner  side.1  These  names  relate  to  the  pro- 
cess of  book  printing,  in  which  only  the  smooth  side  is  printed. 
The  sheet  is  then  so  arranged  in  the  middle  that  the  fold  comes 
on  the  outside,  the  parallel  ends  lying  one  above  another  in  the 
back,  the  rough  side  of  both  half  sheets  facing  inward,  and  the 
printed,  smooth  side  facing  outward.  The  one  side  becomes 
smooth,  however,  in  comparison  with  the  other  in  the  drying  pro- 
cess. After  the  prepared  and  shaped  sheet  is  firm  enough,  it  is 
pasted  up  with  a large  brush  against  a smooth,  planed  board,  and 
placed  in  the  air  to  dry.  The  side  next  to  the  board  will  naturally 
be  much  smoother  than  the  outside,  so  that  in  this  respect  the  de- 
signations Omote  and  Ura  must  be  changed  in  order  to  make 
them  harmonize  with  the  fact. 

The  porosity  of  Japanese  paper  unfits  it,  save  in  exceptional  in- 
stances, for  writing  on  with  pen  and  ink ; but  it  is  well  adapted  to 
the  Japanese  mode  of  writing  with  brush  and  Indian  ink,  from  the 
top  of  the  page  downward  and  in  rows  from  right  to  left.  The 
smooth,  firm,  machine-made  paper,  so  advantageous  for  our  way 
of  writing,  would  not  absorb  the  Indian  ink  so  well,  and  so  fail 
in  its  purpose.  In  consequence  of  its  porous  nature,  the  pure  bark 
paper  absorbs  moisture  and  holds  dust  more  easily  than  our  stiff, 
smoothed  machine  paper,  with  its  mineral  substances.  It  is  also 
more  open  to  the  depredation  of  insects.  The  hygroscopic  ab- 
sorption of  water  is,  however,  with  ordinary  dry  keeping  never  so 
great  as  to  appreciably  injure  it. 

There  is  no  peculiar  process  of  bleaching  in  Japan,  nor  anywhere 

1 German  drawing-paper  is  generally  smooth  on  one  side  and  granulated  on 
the  other,  as  is  the  beautiful  hand-made  paper  of  J.  W.  Zanders  in  Bergisch- 
Gladbach.  The  English  drawing-paper  is  like  German  writing-paper,  smooth 
on  both  sides,  while  the  French  Torchon  on  the  other  hand  is  particularly 
thick,  and  granulated  on  both  sides. 


392  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


else  in  Eastern  Asia,  or  in  the  Himalayas,  where  bark-paper  is 
made.  It  has  always  therefore  a yellow  tint,  varying  according  as 
the  raw  material  may  be  whitened  or  not  by  the  water  and  other 
ingredients  used  in  the  manufacture  for  softening  it. 

According  to  Grosier,1  Chinese  historians  report  that  the  art  of 
paper-making  was  invented  in  China  about  105  A.D.,  by  Tsai-lun. 
Previous  to  this,  the  Chinese  wrote  on  tissues  of  hemp  and  silk,  on 
bamboo  tablets  and  palm  leaves  ; and  in  Farther  India  palm  leaves 
are  still  used  in  this  way.  The  leaves  of  the  palmyra  palm 
(Borassus  fiabelliformis ) especially  serve  this  purpose  in  the  Malay 
Archipelago,  where,  as  in  the  South  Sea  Islands,  the  manufacture 
of  paper,  says  Crawford,2  remains  unknown  even  to  the  latest 
times. 

The  Chinese  make  paper  out  of  the  pith  of  the  Aralia  papyri- 
fera  from  Formosa,  which  is  the  so-called  rice-paper,  and  from  young 
bamboo  cane,  rice  and  wheat  straw,  rushes,  cotton,  hemp,  and  the 
inner  bark  of  several  plants,  especially  the  paper  mulberry.  They 
also  work  up  old  paper  into  new  of  an  inferior  kind,  as  do  also 
the  Japanese.  It  is  said  by  Grosier  that  the  people  of  a whole 
village  in  the  vicinity  of  Peking  support  themselves  by  collecting 
and  cleaning  waste  paper.  In  Southern  China,  the  brittle  paper 
made  from  bamboo,  the  pith  of  Aralia,  and  straw  is  most  manu- 
factured and  used  ; in  the  North  principally  the  stronger  bark- 
paper,  although  the  production  does  not  suffice  for  the  great 
demand  for  window  panes,  packing  paper,  and  other  things,  so 
that  much  is  imported  from  Corea. 

The  art  of  making  paper  from  the  bark  of  different  trees  was 
brought  from  Corea  to  Japan  about  610  A.D.,  and  some  say  still 
earlier.  Owing  to  the  manifold  uses  of  paper  in  Japan,  the  manu- 
facture gradually  became  one  of  the  most  important  and  extended 
branches  of  industry,  with  which  the  cultivation  of  shrubs  which 
furnished  raw  material,  the  paper  mulberry  and  three-forks  ( Edge - 
worthia ) went  hand-in-hand. 

Paper  and  its  manufactured  products  have  been  used  in  the 
countries  of  Chinese  civilization,  and  especially  in  Japan,  since  the 
earliest  times,  not  only  for  writing,  painting,  printing,  packing, 
handkerchiefs,  and  other  detersives,  but  also  for  fans,  screens, 
umbrellas  and  parasols,  lanterns,  doll’s  clothes,  waterproof  cloaks 
and  head  coverings,  tobacco  bags,  cases  and  boxes,  and  for  window- 
panes  instead  of  glass,  the  beautifully  made  lattices  of  the  sliding 
doors  being  covered  with  it.  It  serves  also  for  making  a strong 
thread  which  is  used  for  binding  instead  of  cord  and  straw  rope,  as 
well  as  for  the  woof  of  light  cool  fabrics,  and,  covered  with  gold 
and  silver,  for  the  fine  ornamentation  of  costly  brocades.  The 

1 Grosier:  “La  Chine.”  Vol.  vii.  p.  120. 

2 “The  art  of  making  a true  paper  from  fibrous  matter  reduced  to  a pulp  in 
water,  has  never  been  known  in,  or  introduced  into,  any  of  the  Indian  Islands.” — 
Crawford  : Descriptive  Dictionary  of  the  Indian  Islands.  London,  1856,  p.  327. 


PAPER  INDUSTRY. 


393 


hat  of  the  Samurai  was  made  of  black  lacquered  paper,  the  water- 
proof cloak  of  his  servant  and  companion  of  oiled  paper,  and  the 
hair  ornament  substituted  by  poor  girls  for  the  silk  kanoko,  was 
a paper  made  to  look  like  crape.1 


Raw  Materials  for  Japanese  Paper  Making. 

For  hand-made  or  tub  paper  are  used  : (i)  the  inner  bark  of 
Broussonetia  papyrifera ; (2)  of  Edgeworthia  papyrifera ; (3)  of 
Wickstroemia  canescens ; (4)  of  Morns  alba;  (5)  of  Aphananthe 
aspera ; (6)  exceptionally  of  Cannabis  sativa,  Boehmeria  platani- 
folia.  Wistaria  chinensis  and  several  other  plants,  also  cotton  ; (7) 
straw  ; (8)  old  paper.  As  cement  was  used  : (1)  the  mucilaginous 
root  of  Hibiscus  Manihot ; (2)  the  bast  mucilage  of  Hydrangea 
paniculata  ; (3)  of  Katsura  japonica  ; (4)  Rice  paste.2 

1.  Broussonetia  papyrifera , Vent.  ( Morus  papyrifera , L.)  Family 
Moreae,  the  paper  mulberry  tree,  Jap.  Kodzo  (also  Kozo-no-ki, 
Kozo,  Kago,  Kaji,  Kaji-no-ki,  according  to  the  district).  This 
most  important  plant  in  the  paper  industry,  since  the  strongest 
and  greatest  amount  of  paper  is  made  from  its  bark,3  comes  from 
China,4  but  has  been  cultivated  for  a long  time  in  all  the  provinces 
of  Japan  south  of  the  Tsugaru  Straits,  except  on  the  fertile  plains. 
It  is  found  in  mountain  valleys,  along  the  roads,  on  the  narrow 
ridges  which  separate  the  terraced  rice-fields  from  each  other,  on 
river  dams,  where  its  bushes,  as  willows  with  us,  help  to  make  them 
firm,  it  is  also  cultivated  in  dry  fields,  not  seldom  alternating  in 
rows  with  the  white  mulberry  or  tea  bush.  In  Iyo,  on  the  island 
of  Shikoku,  where  the  paper  mulberry,  just  as  in  the  neighbouring 
province  of  Tosa,  is  raised  frequently  on  the  hill  sides,  it  appears 
as  an  undergrowth  between  the  rows  of  sumachs.  Only  rarely 
does  one  find  a piece  of  good  arable  land  exclusively  devoted  to  a 
plantation  of  Broussonetia  bushes.  I speak  here  of  bushes,  and 

1 Kublai  Khan  had  paper  money  made  in  Peking  about,  1 260  A.D.,  the  time 
when  paper  was  first  known  in  Europe. 

2 In  the  paper  industry  of  Europe,  the  use  of  vegetable  pasting  materials  has 
been  more  and  more  adopted  during  the  last  fifteen  years,  superseding  the 
animal  glue.  In  Eastern  Asia  and  India  it  is  as  old  as  the  industry  itself. 

3 Although  this  great  importance  of  the  paper  mulberry  in  the  paper  industry 
of  Japan  has  been  thoroughly  emphasized  by  Kaempfer  and  Thunberg,  we  find 
in  the  otherwise  very  readable  official  report  of  the  Vienna  Exhibition  (Group 
XI.),  the  opinion  of  the  engine'er  and  paper  manufacturer,  E.  Twerdy,  that  the 
fibre  of  the  China  grass  ( Urtda  nivea)  is  most  likely  chiefly  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  Japanese  bark  paper. 

4 It  is  well  known  that  this  plant  is  extensively  found  in  Polynesia  also.  Its 
bark  furnishes  still  the  clothing  material  of  the  people  in  the  Fiji  Islands, 
Samoa,  Tonga,  Tahiti,  Hawaii,  etc.,  viz.  the  Tapa,  which  can  only  be  worn  in  dry 
weather.  “ The  measured  noise  of  the  Tapa  clapper  is  as  characteristic  and  as 
tuneful  in  the  Fiji  villages,  as  the  noise  of  the  threshing  in  ours  in  the  autumn.” — 
M.  Buchner,  “ Reise  durch  den  Stillen  Ocean,”  1878. 


394 


ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


emphasize  the  fact  that  I met  the  plant  as  a tree  in  Japan  only  in 
the  rarest  instance,  eg.  in  the  Botanical  Garden.  Its  cultivation 
for  the  paper  industry  resembles  our  treatment  of  basket  willows. 
Its  propagation  is  by  means  of  slips.  Every  autumn,  after  the 
leaves  have  fallen,  the  young  shoots  near  the  ground  are  cut  off, 
and  in  this  way,  after  three  or  four  years,  bushes  with  from  4 to  7 
one-year  shoots  are  obtained.  From  the  fourth  year  after  planting, 
onward,  these  reach  a height  of  from  1 to  3 meters  and  a circum- 
ference of  4 centimeters,  and  are  now  ready  to  be  used  for  paper. 
The  bark  does  not  entirely  ripen  till  after  the  leaves  have  fallen,  the 
harvest,  therefore,  does  not  usually  come  before  November,  after  that 
of  rice  and  other  field  products. 

The  collected  shoots  of  the  paper  mulberry  are  cut  into  lengths 
of  1 meter,  and  bound  together  in  small  fagots,  then  placed  in 
a covered  iron  kettle  of  boiling  water,  to  which  some  ashes  have 
been  added,  and  left  till  the  bark  is  easily  loosened.  When  it  is 
separated  from  the  wood,  the  bark  is  washed  in  running  water, 
then  dried  in  the  air  and  brought  to  market.  In  many  cases,  the 
operation  is  carried  a step  further,  and  the  epidermis  with  the  still 
green  parts  of  the  bark  is  removed  and  serves,  together  with  the 
unripe  bark  of  the  tips  of  the  shoot,  to  make  an  inferior  paper,  the 
Chiri-gami  (rubbish  paper).  The  outer  skin  and  green  parts  of 
the  bark  loosen  themselves  first,  and  with  a blunt  knife  are  easily 
scraped  away  from  the  white  fibre,  if  the  bark  has  had  a thorough 
maceration  in  running  water.  A longer  or  shorter  bleaching  of 
the  bast  in  the  sun  is  often  added,  but  is  not  at  all  universally 
practised. 

The  provinces  of  lyo  and  Tosa  on  the  island  of  Shikoku  furnish 
the  greatest  amount  of  K6zo  bark,  for  which  the  city  of  Osaka  is 
the  chief  market.  One  hundred  kilogrammes  of  raw  Broussonetia 
bark  yield  45  kg.  of  white  bast. 

The  Japanese,  according  to  the  colour  and  thickness  of  the  bark 
and  form  of  the  leaves,  distinguish  many  varieties  of  Kodzo,  to  which 
those  classified  in  Miquel’s  “ Prolusio  Florae  Japonicae”  and  in  the 
“ Enumeratio  Plantarum  ” of  Franchet  and  Savatier  as  independent 
species  belong,  viz.  Broussonetia  Kasinoki,  Sieb.,  and  B.  Kaempferi , 
Sieb.  The  typical  and  most  widely  distributed  form  has  generally 
symmetrical  three  or  five-lobed  leaves  whose  underside  is  covered, 
like  the  stems  of  5 or  6 centimeters  length  and  the  young  branches, 
with  a thick,  greyish  white  down,  and  whose  edges  are  serrated. 
The  bark  of  the  one-year  old  shoot  is  reddish  brown.  Plate  X. 
has  a well  outlined  picture  of  such  a paper-mulberry  bush,  as  it 
appears  in  midsummer.  The  illustration  is  taken  from  the  fifth 
part  of  the  Japanese  work  K6-yeki-koku  sanok,  and  is  only  un- 
reliable in  this,  that  it  does  not  show  the  serration  of  the  leaves. 
In  Plate  XI.,  is  a wood-cut  prepared  in  Tdkio  of  a variety  of 
the  paper  mulberry  on  pure  bast  paper  of  the  dioecious  plant.  On 
the  left  is  a twig  and  on  the  right  a catkin  not  fully  developed. 


BROUSSONETIA  PAPYRIFERA  VENT.  FROM  A JAPANESE  WOODCUT. 


[Page  470. 


TEXTILE  INDUSTRY. 


395 


This  illustration  together  with  Plate  X.  shows  great  difference  in 
the  leaves,  concerning  which  a Japanese  proverb  says,  that  no  two 
are  just  alike.  The  transformation  from  the  three  or  five-lobed 
leaf-form  of  the  younger  shoots  into  the  unsymmetrical  one-sided 
and  lobed,  and  then  into  the  undivided  oval  leaves  of  the  older 
plants,  is  but  faintly  delineated  in  this  plate. 

The  paper-mulberry  tree  was  introduced  into  Europe  as  early  as 
the  middle  of  the  last  century,  and  has  found  a moderately  extensive 
cultivation  as  an  ornamental  plant,  especially  in  Mediterranean 
countries.  In  the  milder  parts  of  Germany,  eg,  on  the  Rhine  and 
Main,  it  has  been  long  domesticated.  It  does  not  endure  the  cold 
of  a severe  winter.  A plantation  which  I made  on  a piece  of  good 
fertile  land  near  Marburg,  throve  excellently.  The  tallest  shoots 
by  the  second  summer  (1877)  reached  a height  of  i-5  to  16  meters, 
and  a circumference  of  7 centimeters.  Then  came  the  severe 
cold  of  the  winter  of  1879-80  and  killed  the  bushes  down  to  the 
roots.  Attempts  at  planting  the  paper  mulberry  on  some  railroad 
embankments  around  Frankfort  on  the  Main  failed,  because  of  the 
poor  quality  and  dryness  of  the  soil. 

2.  Edgeworthia  papyrifer,  S.  and  Z.  ( E . clvrysantha , Lindl.), 
family  Thymelseaceae.  The  Japanese  name  for  this  plant  (see  Plate 
XII.)  Mitsu-mata,  i.e.  “the  three  forks,”  is  very  descriptive.  It 
has  reference  to  the  characteristic  trichotomous  articulation  of  the 
branches,  a division  which  is  seen  even  in  the  tips  of  the  stronger 
one-year  old  seedlings,  but  is  not  fully  developed  till  during  the 
second  season. 

According  to  the  rule  of  the  Japanese  peasant,  the  seeds  should 
be  kept  dry  for  a summer  and  winter,  and  planted  at  the  beginning 
of  April,  or  ten  days  after  Higan  (the  spring  equinox).  It  is  sown 
in  rows  and  the  young  trees  are  treated,  like  most  other  field 
growths,  with  liquid  manure.  They  reach  a height  of  one-third 
to  a half  meter  by  the  end  of  summer,  and  are  transplanted  the 
following  spring,  and  cultivated  from  that  time  like  the  common 
paper-mulberry  bush.  The  bushes  of  the  Mitsu-mata  have  more 
branches  however  than  the  former,  although  the  shoots  never  grow 
more  than  two  meters  high,  usually  falling  far  behind  this,  and 
are  not  so  thick ; they  differ  from  Kodzo  bushes  also  at  first 
glance  in  the  prettier  light  green  colour  of  their  laurel-shaped, 
undivided  leaves. 

The  same  is  true  of  Edgeworthia  as  of  the  Lycoris  belonging 
to  the  family  of  Amaryllidese,  of  which  the  Japanese  say,  “Ha 
mizu  hana  miru,”  i.e.  “The  flowers  do  not  see  the  leaves.”  The 
flowering  season  falls  in  March  in  Middle  Hondo,  but  in  the  South 
a month  earlier.  The  seeds  ripen  during  the  beginning  of  May, 
before  the  leaves  have  come  fully  forth. 

The  cultivation  and  use  of  this  Indian  plant  are  much  more 
limited  than  those  of  the  Broussonetia.  If  the  soil  is  good  and  well 
tilled,  the  year-old  shoots  can  be  used  for  bast  and  paper  within 


396  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


three  or  four  years  after  sowing.  They  are  cut  in  November  or 
December  and  further  treated  like  those  of  Broussonetia. 

Mitsu-mata  is  found  mostly  in  the  provinces  of  Suruga,  Kai,  and 
Idzu,  and  within  a wide  circle  around  Fuji-san,  where  a great  deal 
of  paper  is  manufactured  ; and  at  Ishikawa  in  Kai,  Karasawa,  and 
other  places  on  the  Tdkaido  ; at  Atami  in  Idzu,  eg,  the  celebrated 
Suruga-banshi,  a sample  of  which  is  shown  in  Plate  XII.  Here 
high  mountains  protect  the  Mitsu-mata  plantations  from  the  rough 
winds  of  winter.  In  other  parts  of  the  country  they  are  more 
scattered,  and  appear  also  as  ornamental  plants  in  gardens.  In 
colder  districts  the  young  plants  must  be  covered  to  protect  them 
from  the  cold  of  the  nights.  When  von  Siebold  said  that  the 
Edgeworthia  is  of  spontaneous  growth  in  Japan,  he  was  as  surely 
deceived  as  when  he  stated  that  it  will  accommodate  itself  to  our 
climate. 

3.  Wickstroemia  canescens,  Meisn.  ( Passerina  Gampi , S.  and  Z.), 
family  of  the  Thymelaeacese.  The  Gampi  plant  is  a small  bush, 
related  to  our  spurge  laurel  - ( Daphne  Mezereum,  L.).  It  is  widely 
distributed  in  the  mountain  forests  of  the  middle  and  southern 
parts  of  the  country,  though  not  often  meeting  the  eye,  and  here 
in  June  develops  its  insignificant  reddish  brown  flowers  on  the  tips 
of  the  branches,  as  appears  in  the  woodcut  in  Plate  XIII.  I found 
it  usually  from  300  to  600  meters  elevation  above  the  sea,  as  in 
Mirio  and  Ise.  Gampi  is  not  cultivated.  In  preparing  it  for  paper 
the  bark  is  stripped  off  from  the  slender  branches  during  the 
summer,  just  where  it  grows,  is  dried  and  brought  to  market, 
or  used  in  the  vicinity.  In  Makidani-mura,  province  of  Mino, 
the  prices  of  Gampi  and  Kddzo  were  as  follows  in  the  summer  of 
1874: 

3 Kuwanme  or  11-193  kg.  clean  Gampi  bark,  1 yen  or  4 shillings. 

2 „ or  7462  „ „ Kddzo  „ 2 „ or  8 „ 

The  bark  of  the  paper  mulberry,  which  grows  also  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood, was  three  times  as  dear  as  the  Gampi.1 2  This  last  is 
used  by  itself  (for  Gampi  paper  or  Gampi-shi,  Plate  XIII.),  or 
mixed  with  Kddzo,  bark  material  in  making  paper.3 

4.  Morus  alba , L.,  Fam.  Moreae.  The  white  mulberry  tree  (seep. 
193),  Jap.  Kuwa,  furnishes  a bark,  the  Kuwa-no-kawa  from  which 
the  Kuwa-shi  or  mulberry  paper  in  Ichikawa,  (province  of  Koshiu), 

1 Dry  Mitsu-mata  bark  is  still  cheaper  than  Gampi.  During  the  same 
summer  30  Kuwanme  or  m'93  kg.  (a  common  horse-load)  of  the  former  was 
sold  for  7'5  yen,  or  30  shillings,  so  that  its  price  is  to  that  of  the  paper  mul- 
berry as  1:4. 

2 Several  of  the  bushes  of  the  Himalayan  countries  are  nearly  related  to  the 

Gampi,  and  likewise  supply  the  inhabitants  with  paper.  The  art  of  making  it 
is  said  to  have  come  from  Lhassa,  to  which  the  Chinese  brought  the  process. 
A well-known  paper  in  Hindustan  called  “the  Nepalese,”  is  made  in  Nepal 
from  the  bast  of  the  “ Sitabharua  ” ( Daphne  canabtna , Wall.).  Daphne  oleoides , 
Wall.,  and  D.  papyracea,  Wall.,  serve  the  same  purpose. 


Plate  XU. 


Edgeworthia  Papyrf-fera,  S.  & |_. . 

Japanese  Woodcut  Printed  on  Bast  Paper  made  from  the  same  in  Japan. 


\\y.  rtnV\ 


J £ .3  iSiatii^qeS  6 rttiowagbS 

.fiaqal  ni  omaa  aril  moil  sbam  ■isqa'l  laaH  no  bs>nh*I  lujbooW  aaanaqal 


\\\X  'sXrtH 


.61 


Plate  XIII. 


AWYv  »\»Y\ 


.naisM  .ansaaensD  eimsntailaiW 

.(t£qfil  ni  sciifia  aril  molt  abam  isqa*  iaaa  no  bstnii*  JoDbooW  saonsqBl 


, 

■ 


PAPER  INDUSTRY. 


397 


is  made.  It  is  almost  as  strong  as  Broussonetia  paper,  but  does  not 
possess  its  fineness  and  evenness,  and  therefore  is  not  as  suitable 
when  these  qualities  are  especially  necessary.  It  affords,  however, 
a very  fine  packing  material.1 

5.  Aphananthe  aspera , Planch  ( Homoiceltis  aspera , Bl.,  Prunus 
aspera,  Thunb.),  Fam.  Ulmaceae.  The  Japanese  call  this  plant 
(tree  and  bush)  Muku  or  Muku-no-ki  (see  p.  246).  The  rough 
leaves  of  this  woody  growth  serve  the  carpenter  for  polishing  pur- 
poses, like  shave  grass.  The  bark  is  peeled  off  in  the  woods  during 
the  summer  months  and  carried  in  bundles  to  the  paper  makers. 
Only  the  young,  bush-like  plants  are  used  for  this  purpose.  The 
skin  of  this  bark  is  dark-brown,  the  fibres  rough.  It  is  found  and 
worked  up  only  in  the  southern  parts  of  the  country,  eg.,  in  the 
provinces  Bungo  and  Iyo,  and  mixed  with  Broussonetia  fibres 
for  cheap  papers.  I met  collectors  of  Muku  bark  only  twice  in 
my  travels.  On  the  boundary  of  Hiuga  and  Bungo  it  is  called 
Mukubi. 

Those  kinds  of  bark  which,  besides  those  already  named,  are 
said  to  be  employed  here  and  there  in  paper-making  (I  myself,  have 
nowhere  seen  them  used),  have  been  already  mentioned  above.  It 
is  said  that  in  Chikuzen  young  bamboo-cane  is  chopped  up  and 
mixed  with  the  pulp  of  Kddzo.  Straw  admixtures,  chopped  fine, 
yield  only  inferior  wares,  as  purely  straw  paper  is  far  less  valuable 
than  bark  paper. 

Ho-gu,  or  Ho-gu-gami,  i.e.  used  paper,  and  its  repeated  working 
up  into  inferior,  but  nevertheless  strong  paper,  called  Suki-gae-shi, 
deserves  mention.  Just  as  with  us,  poor  people  in  Japan  and 
China  also,  seek  through  the  streets  and  rubbish  heaps  for  bones, 
old  iron,  and  rags,  and  even  old  paper.  Paper  printed  or  written 
on,  or  soiled  in  any  way  and  thrown  aside,  is  collected,  cleansed  as 
far  as  possible,  sorted  and  transformed  anew  into  paper  pulp.  The 
Suki-gae-shi  thus  made  is  used  for  packing  paper,  cleansing  pur- 
poses, and  pasteboard.  Its  value  in  proportion  to  the  original  bark 
paper  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  a dress  made  from  old  rags 
or  worn  garments  ripped  up  and  turned  is  to  a new  one. 

About  fifteen  years  ago,  the  Japanese  began  to  collect  cotton 
and  linen  rags  and  to  manufacture  machine  paper  after  European 
methods.  The  necessary  machines  have  been  imported  from  Europe, 
also  the  directors  of  the  factories,  of  which  there  are  already  a 
dozen.  Such  a one  was  first  established  in  the  vicinity  of  Kioto, 
and  another  at  Oji  near  T6kio.  Attempts  to  put  paper  made 
in  these  mills  on  the  European  market  were  thwarted  by  the 
prices.  A further  discussion  of  these  is  not  to  our  purpose  here, 
as  the  factories  were  established  generally  by  government  help, 

1 The  Vienna  Exhibition  of  1873,  contained  paper  samples  of  Zahony  from 
Podgora  near  Gorz,  which  showed  that  in  Europe  also,  in  the  districts  of  silk 
culture,  where  the  bark  of  the  white  mulberry  is  very  cheap  and  easy  to  obtain, 
they  have  tried  it  in  paper  industry. 


398  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


and  have  not  attained  the  rank  of  a domesticated  national  in- 
dustry. 

The  plants  which  furnish  mucilaginous  material  for  bark  paper- 
making instead  of  animal  glue,  are  as  follows  : — 

1.  Hibiscus  ManiJiot,  L.  The  Japanese  names  of  this  weed-like 
species  of  Malvaceae,  which  relate  sometimes  to  the  whole  plant,  and 
at  others  to  the  mucilaginous  roots,  are  Tororo,  Neri,  Nubeshi,  Tamo- 
Osho-ki,  Nori-kusa  (paste  weed),  Nebari  (glue  material),  Aki-no-gi, 
Tsunagi  (cement  material).  Tororo  is  a summer  growth  that,  on 
account  of  its  deeply-divided  five-lobed  leaves,  and  large  light 
yellow  blossoms,  was  brought  from  China  to  England  early  in  the 
1 8th  century,  as  an  ornamental  plant.  This  variety  is  found 
here  and  there  in  Japanese  gardens.  It  differs  in  its  narrow,  linear, 
lanceolate  leaf-lobes  from  another  whose  indentations  are  much 
less  deep,  and  which  has  broader  lobes  with  notched  edges.  Only 
this  variety  is  cultivated  for  paper  manufacture.  It  is  planted  in 
rows  like  dwarf  beans,  whose  height  is  also  about  the  same.  The 
sowing  takes  place  in  May,  the  flowering  occurs  in  late  summer, 
and  the  harvest  of  the  thin,  cylindrical  roots  in  October.  After 
cleansing  they  are  dried  in  the  sun,  and  hung  up  in  bundles 
in  a dry  place  till  used.  They  do  not  form  an  article  of  trade,  as 
each  paper-maker  cultivates  the  plant  himself  to  the  extent  of  his 
own  want,  which  he  estimates  for  the  winter,  as  in  summer  the 
following  species  takes  its  place. 

2.  Hydrangea  paniculata,  S.  and  Z.  This  is  a large  bush  grow- 
ing all  over  Japan,  found  in  mountain  forests  up  to  an  elevation  of 
1,500  m.  above  the  sea.  It  is  called  Shiro-utsugi  and  Nori-no-ki, 
i.e.  paste  tree,  but  in  Tosa  its  name  is  Tadzu  and  Kami-no-ki 
(paper  tree).  In  the  last-named  province  of  the  island  of  Shikoku, 
the  bush  is  sought  during  the  summer  in  the  mountain  forests, 
the  outer  skin  is  shaved  off  and  the  bark  is  then  peeled  in  finger- 
length  pieces,  and  brought  fresh  to  the  neighbouring  town.  Here 
it  is  placed  in  a shallow  vat,  water  is  poured  on  and  it  is  trodden 
with  the  feet  to  a coarse,  pulpy  mass.  It  is  then  put  into  pails  or 
tubs,  covered  with  palm  leaves  or  grass,  and  taken  without  delay 
to  the  paper-makers,  who  soon  make  use  of  it ; for  the  mucilaginous 
bark  of  the  Shiro-utsugi  can  only  be  used  when  fresh  as  a cement 
of  the  paper  fibres  and  a substitute  for  Hibiscus  roots. 

3.  Katsura  japonica , L.,  the  Sane  Katsura  or  Binan-Katsura  of 
the  Japanese  (see  p.  262),  is  also  said  by  several  Japanese  authors 
to  furnish  a mucilaginous  bark  to  the  paper  industry.  1 do  not 
know  its  use  by  personal  observation,  and  as  I am  acquainted  with 
many  of  the  principal  places  of  paper  manufacture,  I conclude 
that  the  employment  of  it  can  be  but  limited. 

4.  Nori,  paste,  like  the  mineral  substitutes,  is  only  used  in  the 
thicker  kinds  of  paper  to  make  them  closer  and  whiter.  Such 
papers  are  called  Nori-gami,  while  those  free  from  starch  bear  the 
name  of  Ki-gami. 


PAPER  INDUSTRY. 


399 


Manufacture  of  Bark  Paper. 

Although  the  materials  which  are  used  in  the  paper  industry  of 
Japan,  and  the  varieties  of  paper  made  from  them,  are  so  different, 
the  process  is  and  has  been  essentially  always  the  same,  and  the 
product  hand-made  or  tub  paper  throughout.  I have  already 
observed  that  in  modern  times  the  manufacture  of  machine  paper 
has  been  introduced  also  ; this  finds  its  use  in  newspaper  printing, 
and  has  the  advantage  of  being  capable  of  receiving  impression 
on  both  sides. 

Before  this,  however,  the  manufacture  of  paper  rested  entirely 
on  manual  labour.  Any  shortening  or  lightening  of  the  process 
by  water  power  or  machinery  was  unknown,  so  that  one  could 
speak  neither  of  paper  mills  nor  paper  factories.1  Paper-making 
was  and  is  still  (with  the  exception  of  a few  modern  factories 
mentioned  above),  a domestic  industry  in  the  true  sense  of  the 
word,  usually  consisting  of  but  one  or  two  scoop  vats  in  a house  ; 
but  found  in  hundreds  of  places.  Paper-making  is  often  performed 
by  simple  peasants,  who  let  it  rest  for  months  when,  in  summer, 
the  work  in  the  fields  claims  all  their  labour. 

Before  the  fibre,  which  has  been  freed  from  the  epidermis  and 
green  parts  of  the  bark,  is  further  treated,  the  edges  of  knot-holes  and 
other  defective  places  are  cut  out.  It  is  then  either  laid  for  several 
days  in  running  water,  or  at  once,  as  is  usually  the  case,  boiled 
in  an  iron  kettle  with  lye  from  a half-hour  to  three  hours,  till  it  is 
quite  soft  and  can  be  crushed  with  the  fingers.  The  lye  is  generally 
made  from  ashes,  but  sometimes  from  slaked  lime.  In  Itchikawa 
(province  of  Koshiu)  was  used,  in  1874,  a lye  on  Matsu-mata  bast, 
prepared  in  a pail  or  tub  by  pouring  hot  water  on  a mixture  of  2 To 
4 Sh6  of  wood  ashes  (Maki-hai)  and  6 Sho  of  buckwheat  straw  ashes 
(Soba-hai).  The  soft,  boiled  bast  pulp  was  washed  in  a tub  with 
fresh  water  till,  after  four  or  five  renewals,  the  water  was  perfectly 
clear.  The  process  of  preparing  Broussonetia  bast  in  Makidani- 
mura  (province  of  Mino)  was  similar,  except  that  here  flowing 
water  was  used  for  washing.  In  Tosa  and  Iyo  also,  and  at  Nibu  in 
the  province  of  Yamato,  where  the  interesting  Yoshino-gami  is 
prepared,  and  in  many  other  places,  I noticed  the  same  operations. 

With  Gampi  bast,  10  per  cent,  of  burned  lime  (Ishi-bai)  is  added 
to  the  water,  and  I have  seen  lime  used  in  Suruga  in  preparing 
Mitsu-mata  also.  The  reddish  brown  colour  which  the  bast  acquires 
in  this  lime  bath  disappears  after  washing  and  a longer  submersion 
in  running  water. 

The  bast  material  thus  prepared  in  one  way  or  the  other,  may  be 

1 When  the  paper  industry  was  established  with  us  in  Germany,  in  the  13th 
century,  there  were  no  stamp  mills,  which  were  introduced  later  from  Italy. 
The  raw  material  (rags)  was  boiled,  beaten,  and  stamped  as  in  Japan,  till  it  had 
become  a jelly-like  pulp  ready  for  the  vats. 


400  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


compared  to  our  so-called  half  stuff.  The  further  processes  are 
easy  and  simple.  The  wet  bast,  laid  on  broad  thick  boards  of  hard 
wood,  or  sometimes  on  smooth,  granite  slabs,  is  transformed  into 
an  even,  pulpy,  fibrous  mass  by  beating  with  cylindrical  rods,  or 
hammers  of  Kashi  wood  ( Quercus  glauca  and  Q.  acuta),  and  frequent 
stirring  and  mixing  with  water.  This  work  is  usually  performed  by 
women.  The  short-handled  hammers  of  from  one  to  two  pounds 
weight  have  often  little  channels  on  the  beating  surface  which 
run  together  at  the  middle  like  the  radii  of  a circle.  In  many 
cases  the  paper  pulp,  after  the  first  process,  is  again  boiled  in  a 
boiler  with  water  only ; but  this  depends  on  whether  the  separation 
of  the  fibres  is  complete  or  not. 

When  the  material  is  ready  it  is  handed  over  to  the  papermaker, 
whose  work  differs  but  little  from  the  process  of  our  hand-made 
paper.  He  mixes  the  fresh,  wet  balls  of  pulp  in  a vat,  a flat, 
quadrangular  box  called  Fune  or  6-haku,  with  the  necessary 
amount  of  water  and  the  mucilage  of  Hibiscus  Manihot.  The 
roots  of  this  plant  are  beaten  to  pieces  and  smashed  and  placed  in 
a bag  which  drips  either  into  the  vat  itself,  or  is  hung  in  a pail  of 
water  standing  near  and  pressed  out  from  time  to  time,  as  needed, 
into  the  contents  of  the  vat.  Barks  which  may  be  substituted  for 
this  Tororo,  like  that  of  Shiro-utsugi,  must  be  boiled  beforehand, 
Starch,  dye,  and  mineral  admixtures  such  as  clay  and  chalk,  when 
they  are  used,  are  all  put  into  the  vat  with  the  pulp.  The  size  of 
the  vat  corresponds  to  that  formerly  used  universally  in  our  paper 
mills,  but  is  somewhat  changed  by  the  size  of  the  form  of  the 
sheet,  which  is  decided  by  the  scoop  net  or  the  form,  called  in 
Japanese  Suno-ko.  This  is  a sieve  of  hair,  thread,  or  bamboo, 
framed  with  four  wooden  bars,  rectangular  in  shape.  Usually  the 
scoop  net  consists  of  fine  parallel  bamboo  splints  bound  together 
with  hemp  thread,  or  it  may  be  a sieve-like  silk  net  painted  over 
with  Shibu  (see  p.  183)  several  times.  Fine-meshed  brass-wire  net 
is  not  used,  and  iron  must  be  avoided  because  of  rust  spots.  In 
Japanese  paper  there  are  no  water-marks,  but  here  and  there 
bamboo-cane  forms,  woven  across  the  entire  length  and  breadth 
in  net  fashion  with  hemp  or  silk  thread,  are  used  to  produce 
figures  in  the  paper.  Such  paper  is  called  Mon-shi — Mon,  meaning 
figure,  design,  and  Shi,  paper. 

The  dipping  out  of  the  thin  film  into  which  the  pulp  is  spread 
out  is  done  in  this  way  : the  movement  of  the  form,  letting  the 
material  flow  to  the  side  turned  towards  the  papermaker,  brings 
about  the  parallel  deposition  of  the  fibres  described  above.  If  the 
net  is  filled  a second  time,  and  now  raised  and  lowered  from  left 
to  right,  the  result  will  be  a thicker  and  much  stronger  paper,  as 
the  new  layer  of  fibres  will  cross  the  first  at  right  angles.  If  the 
four  corners  of  the  scoop  frame  are  movable,  so  that  by  a proper 
pressure  on  two  opposite  corners  the  several  forms  of  a rhomb  may 
be  made  from  its  quadrangular  figure,  and  if  this  movability  be 


PAPER  INDUSTRY. 


401 


used  in  the  scooping  of  the  sheet  in  the  proper  way,  a ribbed  paper 
is  produced  like  the  Tai-heishi  or  Gan-seki,  which  serves  for  the 
movable  partitions  between  different  rooms. 

The  wet  sheets  are  piled  up  in  layers  on  a mat — alternately 
with  old  forms  or  mere  bamboo  splints.  When  dry  enough  they 
are  spread  out  on  broad,  smooth-planed  boards  with  a soft,  wide 
brush,  and  these  are  placed  slantwise  in  the  sun  against  the  houses. 
As  soon  as  entirely  dry  the  sheets  separate  of  themselves  from 
the  board  and  show  one  smooth  and  one  rough  side,  Omote  and 
Ura. 

The  finished  paper  is  brought  to  market  either  in  its  natural 
condition,  or  cut  and  patterned.  It  is  sold  in  Jo  (books,  quires), 
and  there  are  usually  50  or  48  sheets  in  a J6,  according  to  the 
kind.  There  are  varieties,  however,  which  have  only  40  sheets  to  the 
Jo,  and  in  large  sizes  and  thick  paper  often  only  20  sheets.1  One 
thousand  sheets,  or  20  Jo  of  50  sheets  each,  make  a Soku  or  ream, 
also  called  Kami  is-soku. 


Prominent  Varieties  of  Japanese  Bark  Paper. 

All  the  varieties  are  characterized  by  a yellow  colour  of  several 
shades.  They  are  classed  by  their  other  properties  in  two  groups, 
as  has  been  already  said,  viz.  Ki-gami  and  Nori-gami.  In  the  first, 
the  root  mucilage  of  Hibiscus  Manihot  is  used  as  a glue,  or  the 
bast  mucilage  of  Hydrangea  paniculata ; and  in  the  other  a paste 
of  rich  starch,  to  which,  in  some  cases,  fine  chalk,  clay  or  alum  is 
added.  The  starch  papers  are  closer,  smoother,  and  heavier  than 
the  pure  bark  papers.  In  tearing  them  a fine  white  dust  may  be 
seen.  Generally  each  bark  variety  is  made  by  itself,  the  best 
known  mixtures  being  made  of  Broussonetia  and  Edgeworthia 
bark. 

The  paper  which  is  made  from  Kodzo  ( Broussonetia  papyrifera )2 
is  by  far  the  most  general,  as  well  the  strongest,  and  has  also 
the  greatest  number  of  uses.  Kodzo  papers  as  a rule  are  lustreless, 
do  not  crush  under  the  hand,  are  the  firmest  and  most  porous,  and 
are  made  in  the  softest  and  most  flexible  varieties.  The  paper  of 
the  white  mulberry  bark  stands  next  to  Broussonetia  paper,  but  is 
much  inferior  in  evenness,  fineness,  and  strength. 

Gampi  ( Wickstroemia ) paper  is  made  only  in  light,  thin  sheets. 
It  is  known  by  its  yellow  colour,  high  silk-like  lustre,  and  its  great 
uniformity.  It  crushes  also  under  the  hand.  One  hundred  sheets 

1 Strange  to  say,  the  Japanese  language  has  no  word  for  “ Bogen,”  or  sheet. 
It  is  reached  only  by  circumlocution,  e.g.,  kami  ichi  mai,  ni  mai,  etc.,  i.e.  paper 
once,  twice,  etc. 

2 The  fine,  evenly  twisted  cord,  known  universally  in  Japan  by  the  name  of 
Midzu-hiki,  and  used  for  binding  around  presents,  is  made  out  of  Kodzo-paper. 
One  side  of  it  is  coloured  red  after  twisting. 

II. 


D D 


402 


ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


of  paper  made  from  the  Gampi  represented  in  Plate  XIII.,  each 
one  24  cm.  long  by  1 6*5  cm.  broad,  making  3 96  square  meters, 
weigh  only  45  grammes.  Its  firmness,  however,  is  very  surprising 
when  its  iightness  and  transparency  are  considered.  It  can  be 
crushed,  folded,  rolled  in  balls,  and  then  straightened  out  again 
without  breaking  or  suffering  in  any  way.1 

Mitzu-mata  ( Edgewortliia ) paper  has  also  a distinctly  marked 
yellow  colour,  but  does  not  equal  Gampi  either  in  lustre,  fineness, 
or  in  strength.  Still  Gampi  and  Mitsu-mata  paper  have  much 
similarity,  as  is  well  shown  in  the  microscopic  examination  of 
the  bark  cells  which  they  contain.  Then  it  is  seen  that  the  greater 
fineness  and  the  silken  lustre  of  these  papers  is  produced  by 
the  difference  of  their  cells  from  those  of  other  varieties.  They 
are  scarcely  half  so  broad  as  the  Broussonetia  cells,  are  much  more 
uniform,  the  walls  are  thinner,  and  therefore  have  a higher  lustre. 
It  is  possible  on  this  account  to  recognise  at  once  under  the  micro- 
scope, papers  that  are  made  from  a mixture  of  Broussonetia  bark 
pulp  with  that  of  Mitsu-mata  or  Gampi.  The  bark  varieties  of  the 
other  Thymelseaceae,  eg.  the  Daphne  and  Edgeworthia,  which  are 
used  in  Himalayan  countries  for  making  paper,  are  related  like 
the  last  two.  The  greater  fineness  of  their  cells  and  the  less 
durable  quality  of  their  paper  corresponds  to  that  made  from  the 
inner  bark  of  the  paper  mulberry  and  its  kindred  varieties. 

About  40  per  cent,  of  all  Japanese  hand-made  paper  is  said  to 
be  manufactured  in  the  two  south-western  provinces,  Tosa  and  Iyo, 
in  the  island  of  Shikoku,  and  almost  exclusively  from  the  bast  of 
Kodzu  bark.  A considerable  quantity  of  the  latter,  either  raw  or 
prepared,  is  sent  to  other  parts  of  the  country,  notably  Osaka. 

The  paper  production  of  the  province  of  Tosa  for  the  year  1874 
was  given  me  as  follows 

1.  6-ban-shi  . . 532,000  Soku  of  1,000  sheets. 

2.  Ko-ban-shi  . . 2,989,000  „ „ „ „ 

3.  Sugi-hara  . . 2,900,000  „ „ ,.  „ 

4.  Han-kire  . . . 36,000  „ „ „ „ 

5.  Kasu-gami  . . 581,000  „ „ „ „ 


In  all  7,026,000  Soku. 

In  Middle  Hondo,  especially  in  the  provinces  Suruga,  Koshiu, 
Idzu,  and  Musashi,  besides  Kodzu  bark,  a good  deal  of  Midzu-mata 
is  used,  partly  alone,  and  partly  mixed  with  the  former.  In  Mino, 
besides  the  celebrated  Mino-gami  of  Broussonetia  bast,  a fair 
amount  of  Gampi-shi,  or  Gampi-paper,  is  made,  although  the 

1 In  the  elegant  work  of  L.  Gonse : “ L’ Art  japonais,”  each  of  the  coloured 
plates  is  covered  with  a sheet  of  Gampi,  having  all  the  advantages  of  silk 
paper,  but  distinguished  far  above  the  latter  by  its  great  firmness. 


PAPER  INDUSTRY. 


403 


manufacture  of  the  latter  is  by  no  means  limited  to  this  province, 
as  Idzu,  Ise,  Aki,  Echigo,  and  other  parts  of  the  country  furnish  it 
also. 


Survey 

of  the  names , origin , size , weight , and  price  of  the  best  known  and 
most  important  fapanese  papers. 


K.  = Ki-gami.  N.  = Nori-gami.1 


One  Quire,  or  16. 

Size  of  Sheets 

Name  of  Paper. 

Origin. 

Province. 

in 

O % 

Weight  I 

Cost 

Centimeters. 

6 « 

in 

in 

grammes 

sen. 

a.  Broussonetia  papers,  Kodzu-sei,  i.e.  from  Kodzu  fibre. 

I. 

Yoshino-gami  K.  . 

Nibu  .... 

Yamato 

48x25-5 

50 

35 

5 

2. 

Mogami-gami  K.  . 

Taka  matsu  . 

Uzen  . 

31x27-5 

5° 

25 

3 

3- 

Tengu-jo,  pure  K.  . 

Hirose  ? . . . 

Mino  . 

39x27 

48 

56 

12 

4- 

„ figured  K. 

„ ? . 

„ 

39x27 

48 

14-4 

5- 

Mino-gami  K.  . . 

Makidani  mura 

» 

40  X 28 

50 

137 

14 

6. 

Mon-shi  K.  . . . 

40-5  X 28 

50 

125 

18 

7- 

Han-shi  K.  . . . 

Ino  .... 

Tosa  . 

32x24-5 

40 

6 7 

8 

8. 

Ko-ban-shi  K.  . . 

Chichibu  . . 

Musashi 

26x20 

5° 

87 

7"2 

9- 

Han-kire  K.  . . . 

Ichikawa  . . 

Koshiu . 

52X39 

5° 

200 

8 

10. 

Nishi-no-uchi  K.  . 

,, 

„ 

47‘S  X3S'S 

50 

254 

20 

11. 

Shi-fu-gami  K.  . . 

— 

Iwaki  . 

53'5X4i 

5° 

256, 

25 

12. 

Atsu-gami,  okibanl 
K J 

Ichikawa  . . 

Koshiu . 

44  X 33-5 

20 

240 

20 

x3- 

Atsu-gami,  koban  K. 

42X29-5 

20 

200 

15 

14. 

Senka  K 

Oyachi  . . . 

Echigo  . 

56x39 

20 

250 

18 

x5- 

„ „ ...  . 

Umadzu  . . 

Iyo  . . 

44x32 

20 

220 

16 

16. 

Ko-sugi  N.  ... 

Ino  .... 

Tosa  . 

25  x 19-4 

48 

72 

5 

17- 

Iyo-masa  N.  . . . 

? 

Iyo  . . 

52x39 

48 

372 

21 

18. 

Hosho  N 

Goka-mura  . 

Echizen 

57X44 

48 

852 

100 

19. 

Jjdzuki  Otaka-gami 

Tokio  . . . 

Musashi 

60x42 

20 

600 

34 

20. 

6taka-gami  or\ 
Jumon-ji  . . ./ 

Kurashiyama  . 

Iwaki  . 

66x46 

20 

800 

50 

b.  Edgeworthia  papers,  Mitsu-mata-se'i,  i.e. 

from  Mitsu-mata  only. 

21. 

Suruga-ban-shi  K.  . 

Kurasawa  . . 

Suruga . 

62x48 

5° 

250 

8 

22. 

Han-kire,  K.  . . . 

Ichikawa  . . 

K6shiu . 

55Xi6 

5° 

84 

4‘5 

23- 

Nori-ire  N.  . . . 

” • • 

. ” • 

43'5X32 

5° 

237-5 

18 

1 The  size  and  weight  given  in  these  tables  I verified  myself  from  a large 
number  of  the  varieties  in  question.  They  relate  to  the  best  qualities  unless 
otherwise  specified.  The  weight  of  the  Mon-Tengu-jo,  or  figured  Tengu-jo,  is 
not  given  because  it  varies  too  much  owing  to  the  manner  of  pressing  with 
slaked  lime.  The  prices  are  such  as  I found  among  the  paper  makers  of  Nibu, 
Makidani-mura,  Ino,  Ichikawa,  Umadzu,  and  Kurasawa,  or  among  the  dealers 
in  T6kio. 


404 


ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


1 One  Quire,  or  To. 

Size  of  Sheets 

Name  of  Paper. 

Origin. 

Province. 

in 

O 2 

Weight 

Cost 

Centimeters. 

6 £ 

in 

in 

grammes 

yen. 

c.  Mixture  of  Kodzu  and  Mitsu-mata  bast  pulp. 

24.  Han-shi  K.  . . . 

Ichikawa  . . 

Koshiu . 

34x24 

50 

75 

8 

7 parts  Kodzu 

3 „ Mitsu-mata 

25.  Shoji-gami  K.  . . 

„ . . 

40-5X277 

5° 

135 

10 

8 parts  Kodzu 

2 „ Mitsu-mata 

26.  Take-naga- garni  K. 

„ . . 

67X26 

5° 

325 

30 

7 parts  Kodzu 

3 „ Mitzu-mata 

27.  Hosho  N 

„ . . 

47X345 

5° 

375 

40 

8 parts  Kodzu 

2 „ Mitsu-mata 

d.  Wickstroemia  papers,  Gampi-sei',  i.e.  only  from  Gampi-fibre. 

28.  Gampi-shi  \ 

I.  quality  ./ 

Makidani-mura 

Mino  . 

38X28 

48 

52 

9 

29.  Usego,  uncut  Gampi 

» 

„ • 

1 50X36 

1 48 1 

96 

18 

e.  Kuwa-kami,  paper  from  the  bast  of  Monts  alba , 

L. 

30.  Kuwa-kami  \ 

I.  quality  ./ 

Ichikawa  . . 

Koshiu . 

48X34-5 

20 

135 

15 

31.  Kuwa-kami  \ 

164 

II.  quality  .) 

” • • 

” • 

41X27-5 

50 

15 

f.  Suki-gae-shi  paper,  made  from  old  used  paper,  or  Ho-gu. 

32.  Chiri-gami,  grey  \ 
paper  . . . ./ 

Tokio  . . . 

Musashi 

40  x 26-5 

5° 

150 

3 

33.  Suka-gae-shi,  best\ 
quality,  grey-white  / 

” • • ■ 

” 

31-5X26-5 

5° 

| 

75 

5 

The  most  notable  kinds  of  Japanese  paper  are  given  in  the  fore- 
going table.  The  detailed  description  is  as  follows 

i.  Yoshino-gami,  named  after  the  town  Yoshino,  in  Yamato  (see 
vol.  i.  p.  471),  is  not  made  there,  however,  but  in  Nibu,  4 ri  distant. 
This  last  is  the  collective  name  of  six  little  villages  in  a tributary- 
valley  of  the  Yoshino-gawa.  In  Nibu  and  vicinity  this  fine  paper, 
celebrated  throughout  all  Japan,  and  so  much  used  in  the  lacquer  in- 
dustry, is  called  Urushi-koshi,  i.e.  lacquer  filter,  lacquer  press.  The 
BroussOnetia,  whose  bark  fibre  is  most  carefully  worked  up,  is  much 
cultivated  in  the  neighbourhood.  The  expressed  bast-mucilage  of 
Hydrangea  paniculata,  here  called  Tororo  (glue),  and  Nori-no-ki 
(paste  tree),  serves  as  the  cement.  The  mould  is  a net  made  of 
finely  wrought  bamboo  sticks  (taken  from  the  sections  between  two 
knots  of  bamboo  cane),  bound  with  silk  thread.  The  size  and 
weight  of  the  paper  are  given  in  the  table.  It  is  so  fine  that  50 
sheets  (1  Jo),  or  6'I2  square  meters,  weigh  only  35  grammes,  but 


PAPER  INDUSTRY. 


405 


so  firm  that  the  two  or  three  layers  used  to  filter  thick  lacquer  are 
not  only  not  injured  by  the  wringing  and  pressing  through  of  the 
lacquer,  but  are  afterwards  smoothed  out,  dried,  and  used  several 
times  over  for  the  same  purpose. 

2.  Mo-gami  paper  is  similar,  but  not  so  fine.  It  is  made  at 
Takamatsu,  in  the  district  of  Mogami  (Mogami-gori),  province 
of  Uzen,  and  is  used,  like  Yoshino-gami,  in  the  Northern  lacquer 
manufacturing  cities. 

3.  Tengu-jd,  a name1  which  may  be  translated  “ prize-crowned 
labour,”  designates  a class  of  papers  which  resemble  the  foregoing 
mostly.  They  excel  in  fineness  and  pliancy  the  thinnest  silk 
papers,  and  are  also  much  stronger.  They  are  manufactured 
principally  in  Mino,  are  yellowish  white,  and  are  sometimes  tinted 
with  some  colour.  They  are  oftener  printed  with  Gofun  or  chalk 
powder  in  various  figures.  These  so-called  Mon-tengu-j6  papers 
are  extremely  well  adapted  for  pasting  on  common  window  panes 
to  make  them  opaque. 

4.  Mino-gami.  By  this  term  is  understood  pure  Broussonetia 
paper,  which  is  made  in  the  province  of  Mino,  and  is  noted  for 
its  great  firmness.  It  is  preferred  on  this  account  for  covering 
wooden  wares  in  the  process  of  lacquering  (see  Kami-kise,  p.  358), 
and  for  cord.  Besides,  it  so  transparent  that  it  is  also  much  used 
as  a covering  of  the  lattice  of  sliding  doors,  or  Sho-ji. 

The  towns  Hirose  and  Sakamoto,  east  of  the  Ibuki-gama,  were 
named  to  me  as  furnishing  good  Mino-gami  ; but  Makidani-mura 
is  without  doubt  the  most  important  paper  district  of  the  province. 
This  embraces  a tributary  valley  of  the  Gujo-gawa,  whose  mouth 
is  6J  ri  from  Gifu,  the  capital,  at  the  town  of  Nagase.  In  passing 
through  the  eight  villages  which  make  up  Makidana-muria,  one 
sees  the  tokens  of  paper  industry  in  the  sheets  spread  out  and 
drying  on  the  Sugi  planks  before  the  houses.  I was  told  by  the 
burgomaster  of  Mitarai,  the  chief  place,  that  this  industry  had 
been  carried  on  here  for  more  than  five  hundred  years.  Besides 
Mino-gami  and  Mon-shi,  with  its  regularly  separated  transparent 
lines  and  figures  resembling  water-lines,  Campi-shi  is  also  manu- 
factured in  considerable  quantities.  The  glue  used  is  the  root- 
mucilage  of  Hibiscus  Manihot. 

Han-shi,  i.e.  half  paper,  in  combinations  called  also  Ban-shi,  is 
the  commonest  Japanese  paper,  used  for  writing,  printing,  handker- 
chiefs, and  other  purposes,  and  is  made  in  several  parts  of  the 
country.  Like  the  two  following  varieties,  it  is  inferior  to  Mino- 
gami  in  quality  and  price.  Sugi-hara  should  be  mentioned  here — 
also  a common  variety,  manufactured  in  many  places,  and  which, 
like  many  other  kinds,  is  carried,  instead  of  handkerchiefs,  in 
the  wide  sleeve  of  the  Kimono  or  overcoat.  The  name  Ko-ban- 
shi,  i.e.  small  Han-shi,  is  given  to  a similar  and  still  smaller  paper 
used  for  the  same  purposes. 

1 From  Tengu  = proud  ; j6= distinguished,  best. 


4o6  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


Han-kire , i.e.  “ half  cut  ” is  also  a paper  much  resembling  Han- 
shi.  The  large  scooped  sheet  is  usually  cut  to  half  its  length. 
It  is  on  this  paper  that  the  Japanese  keep  their  accounts  and  write 
their  letters. 

Nishi-no-uchi  is  the  name  of  one  of  the  best  kinds  of  Ki-gami, 
made  from  Broussonetia  bark.  It  was  first  made  in  large  sheets 
in  Nasu-gori,  in  the  province  of  Shimotsuke,  and  later  was  imi- 
tated in  many  other  towns.  One  of  these  imitations  is  called 
Magal-Nishi  (no-uchi),  i.e.  false,  imitated  Nishi.  Forty  sheets  of 
the  best  quality  from  Shimotsuke  cost  28  sen  in  Tokio. 

An  excellent,  strong,  pure  Broussonetia  paper  is  the  Ski-fu-gami, 
also  furnished  in  many  of  the  towns  of  the  province  of  Iwaki, 
and  is  used  for  the  peculiar  Shi-fu  fabric  (which  see). 

A strong  Kodzo  paper,  made  at  Ichikawa,  is  called  Atsu-gami, 
i.e.  “ thick  paper.”  The  paper  industry  of  this  town,  situated  in  the 
province  of  Koshiu,  on  the  Fuji-kawa,  is  very  remarkable,  furnishing 
a great  number  of  beautiful  sorts,  as  noted  in  the  catalogue. 

Senka  is  the  name  of  a yet  stouter  paper,  which  is  used  in 
making  leather-paper  and  oil-paper.  Of  the  starched  papers  (Nori- 
gami),  the  commonest  and  cheapest  sort  is  perhaps  Ko-sugi.  It 
is  made  not  only  at  Ino  in  Tosa,  but  also  in  the  prison  of  Kochi, 
the  capital  city,  and  elsewhere.  It  is  used  for  cleansing  purposes. 

Iyo-masa  is  a soft  paper,  of  which  there  are  several  varieties.  It 
is  well  adapted  for  wrapping  dried  plants. 

One  of  the  most  valuable  and  expensive  Japanese  papers  is 
called  Hosho.  It  is  thick,  very  strong,  of  even  texture  and  gloss, 
rich  in  starch,  and  often  contains  alum.  It  is  used  as  the  legal 
paper  for  all  important  government  acts,  as  wrapping  paper  for 
presents,  and  in  other  ways.  Paper-money  was  formerly  made 
of  it.  The  celebrated  manufacturing  district  for  H6sho  is  called 
Goka-mura,  “ the  five  villages,”  and  lies  in  the  province  of  Echizen, 
seven  ri  south-east  of  the  capital,  Fukui.  The  industry  is  prose- 
cuted here  mostly  in  winter.  Genuine  Hosho  is  made  from  Kodzd, 
and  largely  imitated  elsewhere.  A beautiful  and  interesting  imi- 
tation is  the  H6sh6  of  Ichikawa  (No.  27  of  the  table),  which 
contains  20  per  cent,  of  Mitzu-mata  bast.  It  is  made  smaller  and 
costs  much  less. 

The  Jii-mon-ji  or  Otaka-gami,  and  the  Jidzuki  Otaka-gami  are 
large  sheets  of  very  thick,  stout  paper,  used  principally  in  the 
preparation  of  leather-paper. 

After  these  come  Nos.  21,  22,  and  23  of  the  table,  which 
are  made  from  Mitsu-mata  bast.  The  best  known  kind  is  the 
Suntga-ban-shi,  a thin,  slight  writing  paper.  This  is  made  in 
great  sheets,  not  only  in  the  province  of  Suruga,  but  also  in  other 
parts.  It  is  employed  for  various  cleansing  purposes,  and  for 
writing  and  printing. 

Of  the  mixture  of  Kodzo  pulp  and  Mitzu-mata  pulp  which  are 
made  at  Ichikawa,  the  former  always  predominating,  S/toji-gamt 


PAPER  INDUSTRY. 


407 


is  most  notable,  after  the  beautiful  Hosho.  It,  too,  contains  20  per 
cent,  of  Edgeworthia  pulp,  but  is  free  from  starch,  and  serves  prin- 
cipally, as  its  name  indicates,  to  cover  the  lattices  of  Shoji,  or 
sliding-doors,  thus  taking  the  place  of  window-panes. 

Usugo  is  a thin  Gampi-shi  or  Gampi-paper  which  appears 
in  commerce  in  large  sheets.  Like  the  smaller  Gampi-paper,  it 
is  manufactured  from  Wickstroemia  bark  without  Nori,  and  is 
excellently  suited  for  pricking  patterns,  for  writing,  and  for  making 
statistical  tables.  It  is  much  used  as  copying-paper  in  foreign 
business  houses  in  Japan,  and  will  probably  find  further  use  in 
Europe  also,  on  account  of  its  pliancy,  smoothness,  strength,  fine- 
ness and  lightness. 

The  finer  pliant  Japanese  papers,  such  as  Yoshino-gami,  Tengu- 
jo,  and  Gampi,  and  Senka  (which  is  made  soft  and  delicate  as  the 
finest  chamois-skin  by  means  of  the  crimping  process),  are  ex- 
cellent substitutes  for  old  linen  and  lint  in  bandages.  Chinese 
bast-paper,  not  so  fine  and  soft,  has  long  been  used  for  surgical 
purposes  in  the  hospitals  of  Hongkong  and  Shanghai. 

In  recent  times  it  has  often  been  successfuly  attempted  to  use 
the  stronger,  smooth  Nori  papers,  such  as  Hoshd,  in  colour 
printing  and  map  making.  Taking  up  the  colours,  as  they  do, 
without  being  first  moistened,  the  lines  of  the  drawing  are  per- 
fectly retained  in  printing,  whereas  in  printing  with  colours  on  our 
papers  the  moistening  produces  an  irregular  expansion  or  distor- 
tion. 

Pasteboard  or  Ita-me-gami,  i.e.  “ Board  paper,”  is  made  in  Japan, 
by  fastening  together,  with  Shofu-nori,  or  wheat-starch  paste, 
sheets  of  common  paper,  the  process  being  therefore  similar  to 
that  employed  in  Europe  for  the  so-called  glued  pasteboard.  Thus 
very  beautiful,  stout  Ita-me-gami  is  obtained  if  10  to  20  sheets 
of  Hosokawa,  a Broussonetia-bast  paper  from  Iyo,  are  pasted  to- 
gether. A great  deal  of  pasteboard  is  made  directly,  by  this  process, 
from  the  better  sort  of  Suki-gae,  or  waste  paper,  and  even  from 
old  business  documents,  and  other  paper  already  used  (Ho-gu). 
When  covered  with  a coating  of  nice,  fresh  paper,  the  Ita-me- 
gami  looks  handsome  enough. 

Hari-nuki  is  J apanese  papier  - mache.1  The  preparation  of 
papier-mache,  however,  differs  from  the  last  mentioned  process, 
in  that  the  paper  is  pressed  in  forms  after  being  softened  in  water 
and  reduced  to  a pulp  (p&te),  while  Hari-nuki  is  made  like  paste- 
board. All  Hari-nuki  products  consist,  therefore,  of  so-called 
“ couched  boards.”  The  couching  is  done  over  wooden  forms. 
The  light  Hon-gu,  already  written  on  or  printed,  is  used,  in  case  the 
objects  are  to  be  lacquered  afterward  ; or  better,  unused  paper, 
under  other  circumstances.  Sheet  after  sheet  is  stuck  on  with 
wheat-starch  paste,  and  smoothed  out  over  the  wet  Kata,  or  form, 

1 The  word  is  derived  from  Hari,  -ru  = to  stretch  out,  to  spread;  and  Nuki, 
-ku  = to  draw  out. 


4^8  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


until  the  required  thickness  is  obtained.  Then  the  articles  are 
dried,  cut,  and  lacquered. 

In  this  way  hundreds  of  small,  light,  and  yet  durable  articles 
are  made,  which  find  ready  acceptance.  Thus,  not  only  dolls’ 
heads  and  other  toys,  but  also  pretty  little  plates  and  saucers,  tea- 
caddies,  and  pipe-cases  are  produced ; and  they  look  as  if  made 
of  lacquered  tin-plate  or  wood.  They  answer  all  purposes  of 
strength  and  durability,  are  surprisingly  light,  and  cheap  in  price, 
being  similar  in  this  respect  to  papier  mache,  but  far  exceeding  it 
in  firmness  and  elegance. 

Paper  hangings  or  Kara-kami , i.e.  China  paper,  also  are  made 
and  used  in  Japan,  not  in  long  rolls,  but  in  sheet  size,  and  not  to 
a large  extent.  Many  of  the  printed  patterns  are  not  less  beauti- 
ful than  our  finer  papers,  and  are  far  superior  to  them  in  durability. 
As  the  name  indicates,  this  industry  also  originated  in  China,  where 
paper  was  first  used  for  hangings. 


Manufacture  of  Chirimen-gami,  or  Crape  Paper. 

By  a very  simple  mechanical  process,  the  smooth  surface  of 
several  bark  papers,  and  of  picture  sheets  made  by  the  colour  press, 
are  twilled,  and  stiff  cardboard  paper  is  made  soft  and  pliant  as 
chamois  skin,  and  given  also  an  elasticity  which  surprises  us, 
especially  in  certain  kinds  of  leather-paper.  The  tools  which  are 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  Chirimen-gami,  are  the  Momi-dai,1  a 
kind  of  lever  press,  and  the  Katas,  or  moulds,  large  brown  sheets  of 
thick  paper  which  are  grooved  in  parallel  furrows,  either  all  to  one 
side,  or  in  several  directions,  and  on  being  moistened  show  con- 
siderable elasticity. 

The  press  (Momi-dai,  Fig.  14)  is  usually  made  of  Kashi,  the 
wood  of  an  evergreen  oak,  or  some  other  hard  wood.  It  stands 
on  a foundation  consisting  of  a large,  heavy  board,  through  which 
two  perforated  posts  are  fastened  as  tenon-bearers,  between  which 
lies  the  fulcrum  of  a lever  ad.  be  is  a wooden  cylinder  of  2 to  3 
centimeters  diameter,  and  length  varying  according  to  need,  i.e. 
whether  the  sheet  rolled  around  it  is  large  or  small.  This  also 
determines  the  height  to  which  the  tenon  for  the  fulcrum  of  the 
lever  is  raised.  The  cylinder  b c rests  at  c in  a pan-like  hollow  of 
the  board,  in  order  to  prevent  change  of  position,  and  goes  through 
an  elliptical  hole  in  the  arm  of  the  lever.  As  ad  the  long  arm 
of  the  power  (2J  to  3 meters  long)  is  considerably  longer  than 
that  portion  from  the  cylinder  to  the  end  of  the  lever  d,  a great 
pressure  on  the  paper  sheets  rolled  around  the  cylinder  can  be 
applied.  The  sheets  are  moistened  by  sprinkling  with  a wet 
brush,  or  by  piling  them  up  in  alternate  layers  with  wet  paste- 
boards, and  subjecting  them  in  this  way  for  an  hour,  to  a mild 
1 Momu=to  rub,  to  make  soft ; dai  = table. 


PAPER  INDUSTRY. 


409 


pressure.  Then  a large  brown  Kata  sheet  is  spread  out  on  a 
wooden  slab,  and  a sheet  of  the  moistened  paper  is  laid  over  it, 
and  then  another  Kata,  and  another  sheet  of  the  wet  paper  till 
they  lie  ten  and  more,  closing  with  a sheet  of  Kata.  In  this 
arrangement  of  layers,  the  single  sheets  must  lie  even  with 
the  separating  sheets,  and  thus  have  their  edges  parallel,  or 
inclined  to  those  of  the  larger  Katas.  When  the  pile  is  made 
up  in  this  way,  it  is  laid  on  the  cylinder  b c,  and  the  whole  is 


Fig.  14. — APPARATUS  FOR  THE  PREPARATION  OF  CRAPE  PAPER. 


rolled  tightly  around  it,  making  it  some  10  to  12  centimeters 
in  diameter.  The  cylinder  is  then  diagonally  and  fixedly  wound 
around  with  a strip  of  hemp  canvas,  about  30  cm.  wide,  and  2 or  3 
meters  long.  In  doing  this  the  workman  generally  uses  his  feet.  He 
then  places  the  cylinder  on  the  press,  fixing  one  end  on  c,  and  put- 
ting the  other  through  the  hole  of  the  lever.  He  presses  the  lever 
at  d with  all  his  might,  by  jerks,  from  six  to  ten  times  down  on  the 
roll,  which  is  by  this  means  considerably  compressed  in  the  direction 
of  its  axis.  It  is  now  taken  out  of  the  press,  the  workman  removes 
the  canvas  band  and  the  cylinder,  unrolls  it,  takes  the  strongly 


4io 


ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


pressed  Kata^sJieets  again  apart,  apij  buildsanother  pile  from 
them  and  the  paper  sheets,  only  with  the  difference  that  this  time' 
they  must-be  laid  in.another  ppsition  relative  jto  each  other.  Then 
follows  another  polling  afid  binding  in  the  damp  canvas*  and 
pressing  as  in  the  first  instance.  After  this  has  been  done  eight 
or  ten  times,  each  tifrie  with  a different  positipn  of  the  sheets 
from  that  of -the  I^itasy  the  work  is  jxtmpiflgg.f  'The  .sheets  have 
become  considerably  smaller  jp  both  idireetions.  V Then  they  are 
stretched  a little^ancL'tan  now  be  pndt<vfurther  use.  The  trans- 
formation into  this  twilled,  sc/ft  elasti£T.cond^jion  is  . a gradual  onp. 
The  sheets  having/first  the  ppsiti^i^^  ./Jj^^igiire  *14),  appear 
after  coming  from  the  press  ringed  4in  a net-like  fashion,  and 
all  strongly  in  one''<3irection.<^£fter  the  secon'd  pressing  in  the 
position  cd,  these-rings  are  crossed  .and  diminished  by  those  in 
the  secon'd  direction?  After  "they  are  pa'&e^  with  the  Katas 
the  third  time  in  the  position*?/  and  subjected  ’to  the  pressure 
of  the  Momi-dai,  they  have  instead  -ol  the  length,  ‘aod  crosswise 
rings,  a distinct  huckaback  texture.  'With  eafchfnew  operation, 
as  they  are  successively  • placed  in.  the . position^  ^r,  hi,  inn,  op, 
q r,  and  s t,  this  marking  becomes  constantly  diner  and  more 
regular,  and  the  shrinking  of  the  sheets ./nd  increasing  softness  and 
pliancy  go  hand  in  hand  with  this(/£ransformation.-  A 

The  process  'of  making  figrrred  sheets  with  colptfred  prints,  soft 
and  twilled,  is  similar  to  the  foregoing*,  save  that  in  this  two 
such  sheet’s  with  their  printed  ^sides' turned  toward  eadi^other  are 
enclosed  between  two  I^ataspand  separated  by  a sheet  of  Han- 
shi  lying  between.  After  the  seventh  arrangement  and  pressing 
of  the  piles,  the  Han-shi  sheets -are  removed,  the  two  cbntracted 
picture-sheets  are  laid  together  and  pressed  twice  more. 

The  mechanism  and  processes  ^Irea^jV  mentioned  have  been 
described  and  illustrated  by  Herr  von  Brandt  /who.  so  kindly 
aided  me  in  my  studies  in  Japan)  in  the  Fifth  Book  of  the  German 
East  Asiatic  Society,  just  as  we  observed  them  together  in  several^ 
workshops.  Figure  14  is  borrowecHjchA  his*  sketch  given  there. 
As  we  were  told  in  answer,  to  our  inquiries  concerning  the  manu- 
facture of  the  Katas  that  it  was  aftracle  secret,  Herr  von  Brandt, 
at  my  suggestion,  bought  several  used  and  worn-out  sheets,  and 
divided  them  between  myself  and  our  deceased  friend,  Drc  H. 
Ritter,  for  further  investigation.  Two  days  later  each  of  us,  in 
spite  of  the  fact  that  we  had  followed  wholly  different  paths,  could 
report  to  t»he  surprise  of  Herr  von  Brandt,  as  a result  of  our  chemi- 
cal and  microscopic  examinations,  that  these  brown  Katas  Were' 
made  up  of  pieces  of  old  used-up  Broussonetia-bast  paper  (in  my 
case  they  consisted  of  old  receipts),  pasted  on  each  other  and 
together  ; that  these  had  been  strongly  compressed  and  ringed 
in  several  directions  with  the  wrapping  sheets  and  the  press,  and 
finally  had  been  saturated  and  coloured  with  Shibu  (p.  183). 

I then  betook  myself  with  this  result  and  the  old  receipts 


Rein,  Japan.  II. 


Plate  XIV. 


Japanese  leather-paper. 


. 


PAPER  INDUSTRY. 


4i 


obtained  from  the  Katas  and  made  legible,  to  one  of  the  manu- 
facturers of  Chirimen-gami,  whose  place  we  had  visited,  and  my 
interpreter  displayed  the  results  of  our  investigation.  The  answer, 
reduced  to  one  sentence,  was,  that  it  was  useless  to  hide  anything 
any  longer  from  the  Sen-sei.1  This  had  the  desired  effect.  The 
man  led  us  into  a room  and  showed  us  his  Oya-kata  (matrix)  or 
Ki-gata  (wooden  mould).  It  was  a board  5 to  6 cm.  thick,  90  cm. 
long,  and  30  cm.  broad,  of  hard  Sakura  wood  (. Primus  pseudo- 
cerasus ),  resting  on  two  supports.  This  board  was  most  carefully 
grooved  lengthwise  with  regular  furrows  2 millimeters  deep  and 
about  the  same,  distance  a^art. 

In  using  it,  a large  sheet  of  cardboard  is  saturated  with  a paste 
solution,  and  then  laid  lengthwise  on  this  form,  and  with  a bone 
folder  pressed  into  every  furrow  of  the  foundation,  a work  which 
demands  a great  deal  of  time  and  patience.  When  dry  the  form 
is  firmly  imprinted  and  the  sheet  is  furrowed  in  parallel  lines. 
It  is  painted  with  Shibu  on  both  sides,  and  then  serves  for  com- 
mon Katas  of  the  kind  I have  mentioned.  The  moistened  sheets 
destined  for  this  purpose  are  wrapped  in  these  grooved  sheets  and 
put  once  or  twice  under  the  press,  like  sheets  which  are  to  be 
transformed  into  crape  paper.  The  coating  with  Shibu  which 
follows  makes  them  firmer  and  more  durable. 


Leather  Papers,  or  Kami-kawa. 

These  are  brought  to  market  in  different  colours,  twilled  and 
smooth,  simple  or  sometimes  printed  and  gorgeously  ornamented 
in  raised  arabesques,  flowers,  and  other  decorations.  A beautiful 
appearance,  surprising  elasticity,  and  a softness  that  reminds  one 
of  calf-leather,  especially  on  the  under  side,  are  the  prominent 
characteristics  of  this  kind  of  paper.  (See  the  sample,  Plate  XIV.) 
It  combines  with  these  considerable  firmness  which  exceeds  that 
of  our  oilcloth  in  many  cases.  Out  of  it  are  made  letter  port- 
folios, tobacco  bags,  pipe  cases,  boxes,  small  chests,  and  other 
articles.  It  is  also  used  as  a floor-covering,  like  oilcloth,  and 
instead  of  paper  hangings.  The  simple  twilled  black-lacquered 
leather-paper  serves  also  for  the  Saki-kake  or  Saki-kawa,  with 
which  the  feet  are  protected  from  rain  by  drawing  them  over  the 
Getas  or  wooden  shoes. 

Kami-kawa  is  manufactured  generally  in  sheets,  but  also  in  large 
pieces.  Such  a one,  36  feet  long  and  3 feet  wide,  with  red  lilies 
and  green  leaves,  cost  in  Tokio  5J  yen.  It  was  eminently  adapted 
for  the  hangings  of  a salon. 

A great  deal  of  leather-paper  is  made  in  Tdkio  (in  the  quarters 
Honjo  and  Fukagawa,  on  the  right  of  the  Sumida-gawa).  The 

1 The  Sinico-Japanese  word,  “ Sen-sei,”  is  the  honourable  title  of  a learned 
man. 


412  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


province  of  Ise  also  furnishes  a considerable  quantity,  as  I myself 
can  testify  of  the  towns  Matsuzaka,  Inagi,  Omada,  and  Tamura  in 
the  vicinity  of  Yamada.  The  same  may  be  said  also  of  Harima 
and  Mita.  Otaka-,  Jidzuki-  or  Jumonji-gamia,  strong  Broussonetia 
papers,  are  used  in  manufacturing  it.  In  Tokio  the  process  is 
in  essentials  as  follows  : 

1.  The  paper  is  spread  out  on  a board  so  that  the  smooth  side 
lies  upward.  It  is  coated  by  means  of  a broad  hair  brush  with  a 
thin  rice-paste  to  which  lampblack  has  been  added,  and  then  hung 
on  horizontal  poles  to  dry,  which  takes  from  one  to  two  days. 

2.  It  is  generally  twilled  by  the  process  given  on  page  408, 
dhring  which  the  sheets  shrink  considerably  in  both  directions. 

3.  Then  follows  a coating  of  Yegoma-no-abura  on  the  same 
side,  and  a thorough  drying  in  the  sun,  occupying  from  5 to  20 
days,  according  to  the  time  of  year. 

4.  Upon  this  follows  a coat  of  paste-solution  in  which  is  mixed 
the  dye  which  the  leather-paper  is  to  receive  (red  oxide  of  iron, 
orpiment,  indigo,  india-ink,  or  a mixture  of  such  colours). 

5.  After  the  paper  is  dry  again  it  is  impregnated  with  lacquer, 
using  Se-shime-urushi  for  light  colours  and  Hana-urushi  for  black. 
Two  workmen  sit  opposite  each  other,  smear  their  hands  with 
lacquer,  and  beat  them  quickly  on  the  sheet  spread  out  between 
them.  Then  drying  takes  place,  the  sheet  being  spread  out  on  a 
frame  covered  with  paper. 

6.  If  the  leather-paper  is  to  be  figured,  carved  wooden  moulds 
are  pressed  in  at  the  close  of  the  crape-process,  and  the  different 
colours  are  put  on  through  paper  stencil  plates.  A metallic  re- 
flecting surface  is  obtained  after  the  figures  are  made  by  fixing 
bronze  powder  with  lacquer,  and  polishing  when  dry. 

There  are  leather-papers  also  which  contain  no  lacquer,  but  are 
dried  in  the  smoke  of  a fire  of  rice  straw,  and  then  rubbed.  A 
quite  peculiar  leather-paper,  resembling  parchment,  is  the  semi- 
transparent Yogan-gami,  whose  method  of  manufacture  I was 
unable  to  learn.  The  Englishman  Gaine  some  years  ago  de- 
scribed a process  (the  product  was  investigated  by  Prof.  Hofmann) 
whereby  he  transformed  paper  into  a kind  of  parchment  by  dipping 
it  for  a few  seconds  in  sulphuric  acid  reduced  one-half  with  water. 
But  sulphuric  acid  can  scarcely  be  concerned  in  the  manufacture 
of  Yogan-gami,  as  it  was  not  known  in  Japan  in  former  times. 

Paper-fabric,  or  Siii-fu.1 

The  word  Shi-fu  in  Japan  is  the  name  of  a peculiar  fabric  which 
is  now  manufactured  only  in  Shiroi'shi,  a small  town  on  the  Oshiu- 
kaido,  13  ri  south  of  the  city  of  Sendai.  The  warp  consists  of  silk 

1 Shi  = Kami,  paper;  Fu  = Ori-mono,  fabric;  as  in  Basho-fu,  Manilla-hemp 
fabrics  ; Kudzu-fu,  fabrics  made  of  Pueraria  Thunbergiana. 


PAPER  INDUSTRY. 


413 


and  the  woof  of  paper  threads.  The  paper  used  in  its  manufacture, 
called  Shi-fu-gami  in  Shiroi'shi,  is  made  of  Broussonetia  fibre  in 
several  places  in  the  province  of  Iwaki.  One  J6  of  it,  or  a quire 
consisting  of  50  sheets,  the  size  of  our  common  writing  paper,  costs 
25  sen,  or  one  shilling. 

Half  a J6  of  this  paper  i<5  often  folded  lengthwise,  and  laid  to- 
gether so  that  the  two  parallel  edges  are  over  one  another  and 
project  3 or  4 centimeters  over  the  edges.  The  paper  is  laid  length- 
wise over  the  one  narrow  side  of  a thick  board  provided  with  feet 
for  firmness,  and  fastened  at  both  ends  with  iron  bent  clamps,  so 
that  the  two  projecting  edges  of  the  paper  form  a right-angle  with 
the  principal  part  of  the  sheets,  and  hang  down.  Then  the  folded 
part  of  the  paper  parallel  to  the  width  of  the  sheet  is  cut  with  a 
broad,  hatchet-like,  very  sharp  knife  into  narrow  strips  of  scarcely 
2 millimeters’  breadth,  which  hang  together  by  the  projecting  edge 
which  has  not  been  touched  by  the  knife.  Now  follows  the  rolling 
of  these  strips  of  connected  paper  ribbons  on  a smooth  stone  slab, 
with  the  flat  of  the  hand,  a work  which  is  continued,  with  frequent 
twisting,  till  every  ribbon  has  become  a slack  thread.  The  connect- 
ing edges  are  then  cut  on  both  sides  so  far  through  that  the  single 
threads  hang  together  by  a width  of  only  two  millimeters  .broad, 
and  then  the  connecting  places  are  twisted  also.  In  this  way  con- 
tinuous threads  are  obtained.  The  finished  fabric  made  from  such 
entwined  paper  threads  for  woof  and  silk  warp,  is  called  Fukusa-ji, 
i.e.  “ground  for  Fukusa.”  Fukusa  otherwise  denotes  the  silk  covers 
for  fine  presents,  such  as  lacquer- ware  and  the  like,  but  here 
quadrangular  pieces  which  are  printed  with  flowers  or  landscapes, 
and  serve  for  covering  presents. 

In  making  Shi-fu  fabric  for  clothing,  the  paper  threads  are 
twisted  beforehand,  right  and  left,  similarly  to  those  of  the  silk 
woof  for  Chirimen  or  crape-silk,  and  run  in  the  fabric  alternately 
once  in  and  out,  i.e.  two  right-twisted  woof-threads  follow  two  left- 
twisted  threads,  and  so  on.  When  the  Shi-fu  fabric  is  finished  it  is 
placed  in  boiling  lye  made  of  straw  ashes,  then  washed,  dried,  and 
stretched.  It  acquires  in  this  process  a twilled  appearance,  and  is 
considerably  shrunken.  It  is  now  given  to  the  dyer  before  being 
worked  up,  and  is  printed  in  various  patterns. 

This  peculiar  branch  of  industry  which  I have  described  was 
introduced  in  Shiroi'shi  90  or  100  years  ago,  and  was  carried  on 
by  Samurai  families.  It  is  said  to  have  been  at  its  height  50  years 
ago,  when  the  Shi-fu  material,  which  can  also  be  washed,  was  very 
popular  for  women’s  summer  clothing.  Later,  when,  in  consequence 
of  the  commercial  treaties,  the  incomparably  finer  and  more  durable 
English  cotton  fabrics  were  brought  in  such  quantity  and  at  such 
low  prices  into  the  country,  this  industry  declined  rapidly,  so  that 
twelve  years  ago  it  was  carried  on  in  six  or  eight  houses  only. 


414  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


Oil-paper  and  Water-proof  Cloaks. 

(. Japanese : Abura-gami  and  Toj/u.) 

The  oiling  of  certain  Japanese  papers  is  intended  either  to  make 
them  transparent,  eg.,  for  lanterns,  or  as  a protection  against  water, 
as  for  umbrellas  and  the  regular  oil  and  leather-paper.  The  Yego- 
mano-abura  (see  p.  155)  is  always  used  for  this  purpose,  while  the 
paper  employed  is  a stout  Broussonetia  paper;  in  Niigata,  eg.,  the 
Senka  from  Oyachi,  in  T6kio  a similar  one  from  Tosa  and  Iyo. 
In  the  first-named  place  the  sheets  are  pasted  together  by  rolling 
and  kneading  before  they  are  made  soft,  and  in  the  latter  after  this 
is  done.  In  Tokio  it  has  been  the  custorn  to  make  the  paper 
pliant  by  means  of  the  crape  process  (see  Fig.  14).  The  gluing 
together  of  the  sheets  is  done  with  a mixture  of  paste  made  from 
the  flour  of  the  common  brake  (p.  68)  and  Shibu  (p.  183).  After 
the  sheets  are  glued  together  to  form  large  pieces,  made  soft,  and 
again  smoothed  out  with  the  hands,  they  are  painted  with  a broad 
brush  on  one  side  with  a mixture  of  lampblack  (Matsu-susu)  and 
Shibu,  and  then  laid  in  the  sun  to  dr y.  This  takes  at  least  five 
days.  Then  follows  a coating  of  Yegoma-no-abura  (Perilla  oil) 
mixed  with  Shibu,  another  drying,  and  a new  coat  of  this  cold 
mixture,  the  oil  of  which  must  have  been  previously  boiled,  and  at 
last  the  final  drying.  The  entire  process  takes  at  least  15  days  in 
good  weather.  Lampblack,  of  course,  is  only  used  for  black  oiled 
paper  and  waterproof  cloaks  ; for  lighter  varieties,  gamboge  or 
some  other  light  colour  is  used. 

These  oil  papers  cannot  compete  in  Europe  with  oil-cloth  and 
india-rubber  textures,  as  they  are  far  inferior  in  appearance  and 
durability.  Their  manufacture  in  Japan  does  not  date  back  much 
before  the  opening  of  the  country.  In  earlier  times  people  wore 
common  coarse  cloaks  or  mats  of  rushes  and  grass,  eg.,  Mino 
(page  172),  as  a protection  from  rain. 

To  protect  the  head  from  rain  and  sun  the  Japanese  began  very 
early  not  only  to  wear  large  hats  made  of  willow  and  other 
materials,  but  also  to  make  clumsy  paper  umbrellas  and  parasols, 
which  were  in  general  use.  But  the  oiled  Karakasa  could  not 
be  used  in  the  sun,  nor  the  unoiled  parasol  (Hi-gasa)  in  the  rain, 
therefore  the  quick  acceptance  of  the  European  silk  umbrella 
by  the  well-to-do  classes  is  easy  to  understand,  as  these  were  not 
only  lighter  and  handier,  but  had  the  preference,  especially  in  that 
they  could  be  used  “ en  tous  cas  ” in  every  sense  of  this  expression. 
It  was  very  much  the  same  with  hats.  In  fact,  fifteen  years  ago  the 
felt  hat  and  silk  or  cotton  umbrella  were  the  foreign  articles  (now 
they  are  manufactured  in  the  country  in  sufficient  quantity  and 
quality)  which,  next  to  the  petroleum  lamp,  had  pushed  farthest 
into  the  interior  of  the  country.  Soon  there  will  be  no  more 


PAPER  INDUSTRY. 


4i5 


umbrella  makers  who  do  not  go  to  the  silk  mercer  rather  than 
the  paper  dealer  for  material  to  cover  their  frames. 

In  Eastern  Asia,  bast  paper  has  till  now  been  a substitute  for 
glass  in  windows  and  in  lanterns  also.  The  paper  lantern,  Japa- 
nese Chdchin,  plays  its  part  still  in  Japan.  No  house  is  without 
it.  The  houses  and  verandahs  are  lighted  with  them  at  night,  and 
with  their  help  one  picks  his  way  afoot  or  in  Jinrikishas  on  the 
street.  They  illuminate  the  water  on  the  evening  boat  ride.  Tea 
houses,  theatres,  and  other  pleasure  resorts  are  distinguished  by 
rows  of  variegated  paper  lanterns,  and  in  the  great  temple  feasts, 
occurring  every  year  in  honour  of  the  popular  gods,  the  Chochin 
are  a feature  in  the  parades,  which  somewhat  resemble  those  of 
the  Carnival.  Often  a whole  street,  even  an  entire  quarter,  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  temple  is  adorned  in  this  way  with  paper  lanterns. 
Like  the  green  fir-tree  of  the  modern  via  triumphalis , here  on  both 
sides  of  the  streets  are  rows  of  bamboo  canes,  hung  with  beautiful 
lanterns,  and  sometimes  canopied  with  a large  umbrella  frame, 
whose  long  beams  are  trimmed  with  alternating  white  and  red 
paper  flowers. 

The  best  known  articles  made  of  Japanese  bast  paper1  which 
have  found  great  popularity  in  Europe,  and  still  more  in  America, 
are  fans.  They  are  called  6gi,  i.e.  those  that  shut  up,  and  Uchiwa, 
the  simple  round  stiff  fans.  Both  kinds  have  been  made  for  cen- 
turies for  the  home  market,  chiefly  in  the  three  capitals  or  Fu 
(Ki6to,  Osaka,  and  Tokio),  and  likewise  for  foreign  countries  in 
later  years.  Other  cities,  such  as  Nagoya  and  Fushimi,  also  take 
more  or  less  part  in  the  manufacture.  The  export  of  fans  has 
given  a new  impulse  to  the  industry,  and  effected  moreover  a 
division  of  labour  as  in  a factory,  as  was  not  formerly  the  case  to 
such  a degree.  There  are  pattern  designers  whose  sketches  fashion 
the  work,  houses  which  furnish  only  the  bamboo  frames,  and  others 
in  which  the  handles  are  lacquered  and  ornamented.  Another 
group  of  persons  undertakes  the  painting  or  printing  of  the  paper, 
upon  which  the  foreign  customer  often  exercises  an  influence, 
though  not  always  with  good  taste. 

Frames  and  decorated  sheets  for  covering  both  sides  of  the  fan 
are  then  given  into  the  hands  of  other  workmen,  who  are  again 
divided  into  several  groups,  and  whose  first  work  consists  in  folding 
the  paper  to  correspond  with  the  bamboo  ribs.  A sheet  of  paper 
is  pasted  on  one  side  of  the  frame  and  the  corresponding  second 
painted  sheet  is  bound  on  to  the  other  side  in  the  same  way.  When 
this  is  done,  the  fan  must  be  opened  and  shut  repeatedly,  and  fixed 
here  and  there  in  imperfect  places  so  that  the  paper  will  lie  easy 
in  the  folds  and  spread  without  difficulty,  as  occasion  demands, 
and  as  only  such  a tough  and  pliant  material  as  bast  paper  will 
permit.  This  is  the  manner  of  proceeding  with  the  Ogi  or  folding 


This  is  in  many  cases  superseded  by  a light  cotton  or  silk  fabric. 


416 


ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


fans,  while  the  Uchiwa  give  far  less  work  owing  to  their  simpler 
form. 

Of  the  former,  the  finest  manufactured  in  former  times  for  home 
demands  cost  scarcely  5 yen,  while  now  they  are  made  for  foreign 
customers  with  mother  of  pearl  and  ivory  decorations  to  cost 
three  or  four  times  that  amount.  The  large  majority  of  foreign 
customers  care  principally,  however,  for  the  cheapness  of  these 
wares,  and  the  market  is  greatly  influenced  thereby.  A hundred 
of  the  common  sort  of  Uchiwa  may  be  purchased  in  Osaka  for 
from  1 to  2 yen,  and  singly,  for  from  a halfpenny  to  a penny. 

During  the  decade  1874-1884,  the  export  in  Hiogo  in  1879 
reached  its  highest,  with  a value  of  163,730  yen,  and  two  years 
later  in  Yokohama  with  176,666  yen.  The  following  table  shows 
how  it  has  wavered  in  both  places  since  then,  and  later  has  fallen 
everywhere : — 


Hiogo. 


Pieces.  Value. 

1881.  3,631,067  88,991  yen. 

1882.  2,735,120  67,513  „ 

1883.  2,647,966  66,393  » 


YOKOHAMA: 


Pieces. 

10,076,118 

5,513,791 

1,919,840 


Value. 

176,666  yen. 
112,430  „ 
40,812  „ 


Appendix:  Japanese  Writing  Materials. 

What  they  consist  of: — Brash , India  Ink , and  Ink  Dish. 

Among  the  manifold  uses  of  East-Asiatic  bast  papers,  the  most 
important  is  after  all  the  employment  of  it  in  the  fixation  and 
communication  of  thought.  Next  to  the  paper,  and  even  more 
than  pen  and  ink  with  us,  the  most  necessary  articles  of  a Chinese 
or  Japanese  escritoire  are  the  brush  and  India  ink.  Besides  these, 
there  must  be  moreover  an  ink  dish  and  water,  for  rubbing  the 
India  ink. 

The  Yatate,  or  portable  writing-case,  which  the  business  man 
always  carries  with  him,  includes  a holder  for  fluid  India  ink  and 
a brush  in  a copper  case.  For  household  use,  there  is  a handy 
shallow  box  called  Sumi-ire,  with  several  compartments — one  for 
the  brush,  a second  for  the  stick  of  India  ink,  and  the  third  for  the 
dish.  On  an  upper  tray  of  the  outfit  is  a copper  or  silver  vessel 
for  water.  In  Industrial  Art  Collections  one  may  often  see  speci- 
mens of  Japanese  writing  apparatus  in  the  shape  of  flat,  square 
boxes,  decorated  most  richly  and  beautifully  with  gold  lacquer. 
These  are  among  the  most  prominent  productions  of  Japanese 
lacquer  industry. 

The  Fude,  or  brush,  used  for  writing,  most  nearly  resembles  Fig.  10 
on  Plate  IV.,  though  the  hair  of  the  rabbit  or  deer  of  which  it 
is  usually  made  generally  forms  a thicker,  blunter  end.  After  the 


PAPER  INDUSTRY. 


417 


hair  has  been  rubbed  with  the  ashes  of  rice  straw,  rich  in  silicic 
acid,  and  purified,  it  is  brought  into  parallel  layers  with  a fine  brass 
comb  and  sorted  according  to  length.  It  is  then  glued  with 
Fu-nori  or  seaweed  paste  (see  p.  82)  to  a piece  of  linen  or 
cotton  stuff,  three  or  four  centimeters  wide,  whose  thickness  is 
governed  by  the  size  of  the  brush.  This  is  now  rolled  up  into 
a cone,  its  lower  end  enclosed  in  a paper  cover,  and  the  handle 
end  glued  into  a piece  of  bamboo  cane  of  the  length  and  thick- 
ness of  a lead  pencil.  The  brush  is  now  ready  for  use. 

The  use  of  India  ink,  Jap.  Sumi,  dates  back  further  than  that  of 
our  writing  ink  ; in  Eastern  Asia  it  is  at  least  as  old  as  the  use  of 
paper,  if  not  older,  for  it  is  believed  that  it  was  invented  in  China 
about  260-220  B.C.  The  province  of  Kiang-si,  and  especially  the 
city  of  Jaotscheu,  south-east  of  the  Lake  Poyang,  was  celebrated  for 
centuries  for  its  excellent  India  ink.  It  had  the  valuable  property 
of  becoming  harder  and  blacker  with  increasing  age.  The  industry 
spread  later  over  several  other  provinces,  chiefly  Nganhwui — where 
the  city  of  Hwuichau  has  a high  reputation  for  its  ink — and  the 
province  of  Kwang-tung.  The  English  name  “ India  ink  ” indicates 
the  way  by  which  this  fine  Chinese  preparation  first  came  into 
Europe. 

Although  Japan  manufactures  for  itself  the  largest  part  of  the 
Sumi  used  in  the  country,  the  Chinese  product  is  even  here  regarded 
as  better,  and  commands  a higher  price. 

Lamp  black  and  animal  glue  form  the  essential  constituents  of 
India  ink.  The  glue  only  serves  to  unite  the  fine  particles  of 
carbon  which  are  produced  by  imperfect  combustion,  and  to  fix  the 
ink  on  the  paper  by  the  use  of  the  brush.  Musk,  camphor,  or  some 
other  aromatic  materials,  are  used  in  small  proportions  with  the  ink, 
to  hide  the  unpleasant  odour  of  the  glue,  but  are  not  essential. 

Pine-soot  (Susu)  which  was  formerly  used,  was  superseded  by 
lampblack,  Jap.  Yu-yen,  which  can  be  obtained  by  burning  any' 
kind  of  fat  or  fatty  oil.  In  Japan,  however,  and  still  more  in  China, 
it  is  made  best  and  with  preference  from  the  Dokuye-no-abura,  or 
oil  of  the  Elceococca  cordata,  Bl.  ( Dryandra  cordata , Thunb.,  see 
p.  155),  100  Catties  of  which  (600  grammes)  will  yield  8 Catties 
of  pure  lampblack. 

The  lamps  used  for  this  purpose  are  small  crucibles  or  dishes  of 
stoneware,  about  14  centimeters  in  diameter,  with  wicks  of  rush- 
pith.  A cone-shaped  soot  catcher  of  burnt  clay  is  placed  over 
each  lamp,  and  from  hour  to  hour  a new  one  is  substituted,  and 
the  soot  is  carefully  brushed  off  and  swept  together  by  the  beard 
of  a quill,  and  is  then  sifted  through  a fine  hair-sieve.  The  glue 
(Japanese  Ni-kawa)  made  from  ox-hides  and  isinglass,  must  be 
very  bright,  and  acts  as  a cement.  To  ten  Catties  of  lampblack 
from  the  oil  of  Dryandra  cordata , Thunb.,  four  Catties  of  old  ox-hide 
glue,  and  one  half-Catty  of  old  isinglass  are  reckoned.  These 
ingredients,  after  the  glue  has  been  boiled  in  the  necessary  amount 

II.  E E 


418  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


of  water,  are  thoroughly  mixed  in  a porcelain  dish,  a wearisome 
labour,  as  the  lampblack  does  not  readily  unite  with  water.  When 
this  is  finished,  the  mass,  which  now  may  be  kneaded  and  formed 
like  bread  dough,  is  shaped  into  round  balls,  which  are  wrapped  in 
linen,  and  placed  in  a stone-ware  vase  perforated  at  the  bottom, 
and  here  subjected  to  steam  for  fifteen  minutes.  Then  the  material 
is  taken  out  from  its  coverings  and  worked  in  a mortar  with  a pestle 
for  at  least  four  hours,  till  it  is  entirely  homogeneous  and  plastic. 
It  is  now  formed  into  large  prismatic  bars,  which  are  placed  for  a 
moment  in  a jar  having  a temperature  of  about  50°,  then  stretched 
into  longer  sticks,  more  nearly  the  size  of  the  India-ink  sticks. 
These  are  then  placed  on  a kind  of  anvil,  and  beaten  with  wooden 
hammers,  and  constantly  turned  till  they  have  acquired  not  only 
the  proper  form,  but  also  the  desired  lustre.  They  are  once  more 
kneaded  on  a smooth  table,  with  an  admixture  of  musk  or  some 
other  fragrant  substance,  and  then  the  sticks  are  formed  by  hand,  and 
put  into  a wooden  press.  For  drying  of  the  sticks  rice-straw  ashes 
are  used,  which  are  first  sifted  and  thoroughly  dried  in  the  sun. 
In  the  drying  box  a layer  of  ashes,  three  centimeters  deep,  is 
followed  by  a layer  of  India-ink  sticks,  then  ashes  again,  and  a 
second  layer  of  ink  sticks,  and  then  ashes  at  the  last.  The  length 
of  the  drying  process  depends  on  the  amount  of  water  they 
contain  and  accessory  circumstances.  When  it  is  satisfactorily 
finished,  the  sticks  are  taken  from  the  ashes,  brushed  off,  laid  in  a 
small  sieve,  and  placed  for  one  or  two  days  in  a shady  place,  where 
the  process  is  completed.  They  are  then  polished  by  rubbing  with 
a brush,  and  printed  with  several  Chinese  characters.  They  should 
not  be  used  for  several  years  after  making,  as  their  hardness,  dark 
colour,  and  lustre,  in  use,  increase  with  age,  though  apart  from 
this,  the  quality  depends  largely  on  the  fineness  and  lightness  of 
the  lampblack,  the  purity  of  the  glue,  and  carefulness  in  manu- 
facture. The  best  pieces  of  Indian  ink  are  recognised  not  only  by 
the  marks  already  mentioned,  but  by  the  sound,  and  by  a tinge  of 
brown  colour. 

The  Sudzuri  or  India-ink  dishes  used  by  the  Chinese  and 
Japanese,  are  not  the  poorly  adapted  porcelain  or  stone- ware  dishes 
which  we  use,  but  are  always  better  suited  to  the  purpose,  made  of 
a fine-grained  dark  stone,  chiefly  of  old  slate,  serpentine,  or  coloured 
marble.  In  Japan  an  old,  dark  blue  slate  is  especially  prized  for 
this,  and  generally  used.  It  is  called  the  Amabata-ishi,  known 
throughout  the  country  and  named  after  a small  town,  Amabata, 
in  the  Province  of  Kiushiu,  in  whose  neighbourhood  it  is  chiefly 
found.  Many  of  these  Amabata  stones  are  worked  up  where  they 
are  found,  but  some  are  brought  to  Kofu,  where  I saw  them 
prepared.  The  outline  and  hollows  of  the  stone  are  wrought  out 
with  a chisel-like  nail,,  having  a long  wooden  handle.  A hollow 
is  made  on  one  side  for  holding  the  water,  and  for  collecting  the 
ink  afterwards.  Rubbing  and  polishing  follow  the  chiselling,  and 


WOOD,  IVORY, ; AND  BONE  CARVING,  ETC. 


419 


then  the  stone  is  given  a coating  of  India-ink  and  washed  over  with 
Ro,  or  vegetable  tallow.  When  using  India  ink,  a few  drops  of 
water  are  poured  into  the  hollow  before  mentioned,  the  stick  is 
just  dipped  in,  and  the  water  is  brought  by  it  to  the  upper  part 
of  the  dish,  the  process  being  repeated  again  and  again  till  the 
greatest  part  of  the  water  is  brought  up.  Then  comes  the  rubbing 
off  of  the  ink,  which  gradually  runs  back  again  into  the  hollowed 
place. 


6.  Wood,  Ivory,  and  Bone  Carving.  Tortoise-shell, 
Horn,  and  Mother-of-Pearl  Work.  Polishing  of 
Stones. 

Many  of  the  productions  of  Japanese  art  industry  enumerated 
here,  belong  to  the  very  wide  classification  of  petty  wares  and 
jewelry,  while  others  are  works  of  genuine  glyptic  art.  The 
skilful  hands  of  the  Japanese  artist  enable  him  to  impart  to  even 
a hard,  brittle  substance,  wonderful  life  and  action.  But  even  here 
this  art  is  seen  and  practised,  not  so  much  in  great  monumental 
creations,  as  in  little  petty  forms,  which  must  be  closely  observed 
before  their  character  and  artistic  worth  can  be  really  known  and 
appreciated.  Of  such  a character,  more  than  all  others,  are  the 
so-called  Netsukes,  generally  carvings  of  wood,  ivory,  or  bone, 
which  seldom  surpass  2 to  5 centimeters  in  height,  and  twice  this 
size  in  circumference.  The  Netsuke  are  used  as  a sort  of  button, 
especially  for  hanging  the  tobacco  pouch  to  the  girdle.  When 
used  for  this  purpose  they  have  holes  bored  through  on  the  under 
side,  through  which  a cord  usually  connecting  them  passes,  with  the 
hanging  pocket.  The  Netsuke  is  pushed  through  between  the 
clothing  and  the  girdle  which  confines  it  at  the  waist,  and  shows 
above  the  girdle,  the  pocket  hanging  from  it. 

Men  and  animals,  especially  monkeys,  rats,  and  mice,  either 
singly  or  in  groups,  and  in  various  positions,  as  well  as  other 
creatures,  and  flowers,  are  copied  in  the  Netsukes.  The  comic 
element  is  largely  represented.  It  is  brought  out  in  such  con- 
densed and  expressive  manner,  that  the  artist’s  meaning  is  grasped 
at  once,  and  its  humorous  effect  is  not  lost.  The  artistic  con- 
ception of  these  Netsukes  is  as  much  admired  as  the  ease  and 
life  of  the  expression  and  position,  the  care  and  skill  of  execution 
which  is  able  so  happily  to  overcome  technical  difficulties.  “ Who- 
ever wishes  to  study  Japanese  art,  must  not  fail  to  devote  par- 
ticular attention  to  these  Netsukes.”1 

It  is  no  wonder,  then,  that  Netsukes,  especially  those  of  ivory,  are 
the  most  sought  for  and  the  dearest  in  price  of  all  the  petty  wares 
of  the  Japanese  curiosity  dealers,  and  that  those  European  collectors 

1 Carl  Senft,  in  Official  Report  of  the  Vienna  Exhibition.  Group  10,  Petty 
Wares. 


420 


ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


who  succeeded  in  securing  a fine  collection  of  them  at  a time  when 
the  demand  was  small,  the  choice  large,  and  the  price  low,  look 
upon  the  same  with  great  pride. 

Wood  carving,  or  Ki-no-hori-mono,  was  first  practised  in 
Buddhist  Asia,  as  in  Christian  Europe,  for  the  adornment  of 
temples,  and  has  received  thereby  much  inspiration  and  encourage- 
ment. From  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century,  when  the  first 
statue  of  an  Indian  saint  came  from  Corea  to  japan,  till  now, 
the  making  of  Moku-butsu  or  wooden  idols,  has  been  the  chief 
work  of  Japanese  wood-carvers.  The  largest  and  most  effective 
products  of  their  art  are  undoubtedly  the  two  gatekeepers  usually 
stationed  at  the  two  sides  of  the  tall  outer  doors  (Sam-mon)  of  a 
Buddhist  temple ; tall,  naked  athletic  figures,  three  or  four  meters 
high,  with  grim  expression  of  face,  and  a muscular  development 
that  is  represented  often  with  wonderful  power  and  truth.  They  are 
called  Ni-6  (Niwo-sama)  “the  venerable  kings.”  The  two  Ni-o  in 
the  southern  golden  hall  (Nan-yen-do)  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
formerly  celebrated  temple  Ko-fuku-ji  at  Nara,1  are  especially 
noteworthy.  It  is  customary  also  to  represent  in  wood  various 
personages,  prominent  in  Japanese  history.  Among  the  smaller 
sculptures  of  this  sort,  a statue  of  Hitomaro  (Kaki-no-moto-no- 
Hito-maro),  a celebrated  poet  who  lived  1200  years  ago,  is  very 
frequent  and  well  executed.2  It  is  a typical,  noble,  intelligent 
figure,  always  represented  in  a sitting  posture.  On  the  bent  knee 
of  the  extended  right  foot  rests  the  right  hand  holding  the  brush 
(Fude),  on  the  left  knee  a small  tablet  which  supports  the  left  arm. 
He  wears  black  lacquered  wooden  shoes  (Kutsu)  on  his  feet,  and 
on  his  head,  the  black,  stiff  hat  (Yeboshi).  An  imperial  completes 
the  characteristic  appearance  of  this  old  Japanese  figure. 

The  figure  of  Hitomaro,  usually  carved  in  Koku-tan  or  Shi-tan 
(ebony  or  sapan-wood,  see  pages  250  and  253),  is  always  artistically 
and  carefully  treated.  This  appears  mostly  in  the  folds  of  the 
garments  and  in  the  noble  features  of  the  countenance  ; and  the 
work  differs  in  this  from  the  more  artisan-like  making  of  many  of 
the  idols. 

Nikko  exhibits  in  wood  carving  as  in  many  other  branches  of 
industrial  Art,  superior  productions,  among  which  the  Nemuri-no- 
Neko,  or  “ sleeping  cat,”  over  a door  near  to  the  tomb  of  Iyeyasu, 
is  most  prominent.  Beautiful  wood  sculptures,  which  are  not  much 
its  inferior  in  artistic  value,  are  still  to  be  found,  some  as  reliefs 
on  columns,  doors  and  roofs,  some  in  the  open  work  above  the 
inner  walls  of  several  temples  and  buildings  belonging  to  them. 
Most  of  them  represent  the  animals  of  the  zodiac,  or  pasonies,  and 

1 “Among  a crowd  of  miscellaneous  images  are  an  excellent  pair  of  Ni-o, 
the  anatomy  of  which  is  perfect.  They  are  the  best  examples  of  sculpture  in 
wood  to  be  seen  in  Japan.” — See  Satow  and  Hawes,  “A  Handbook  for  Travellers 
in  Japan.”  Second  edition,  p.  389.  London,  1884. 

2 See  “ Handbook,”  etc.,  page  401. 


WOOD,  IVORY, , AND  BONE  CARVING , ETC. 


421 


other  favourite  flowers.  The  wood  ornaments  on  the  portal  of  the 
Higashi  Hon-gwan-ji,  the  metropolis  of  the  eastern  branch  of  the 
Monto  sect  at  Asakusa  in  Tokio,  are  admirably  beautiful  and  care- 
fully executed,  consisting  of  the  leaves  of  flowers  of  the  paeony 
and  chrysanthemum.  Besides  these,  the  Japanese  armorial  ani- 
mals are  often  carved  in  wood  with  great  skill  and  artistic  force. 
Europeans  in  modern  times  have  done  much  to  promote  this 
branch  of  industry  by  ordering  hunting,  and  other  animal  pieces, 
to  hang  in  dining  rooms. 

ZOGE-NO-HORI-MONO,  OR  IVORY  CARVING.1 

The  ivory  work  of  Canton,  eg.  the  ornamental  balls  of  open 
work  one  within  the  other,  and  many  landscapes,  stand  unrivalled 
as  evidences  of  surprising  skill  combined  with  astonishing  patience 
and  perseverance.  But  many  Japanese  works  of  this  description, 
especially  their  Netsukes  (Zoge-no-netsuke)  show  a much  more 
developed  artistic  talent.  Kioto,  which  in  former  times  was  the 
chief  seat  of  ivory  carving,  has  been  long  surpassed  by  Tokio,  which 
furnishes  besides  Netsukes,  jewel  cabinets  for  ladies,  chests  and 
boxes,  card  cases,  chessmen,  buttons,  brooches,  and  many  other 
articles,  partly  for  the  domestic  market  but  mostly  for  foreign 
countries.  The  articles  are  in  general  made  with  extraordinary 
care,  and  ornamented,  not  only  by  engraving  and  carving,  but  often 
by  well  designed  lacquer-work  besides.  On  the  other  hand,  ivory, 
like  mother  of  pearl,  is  inlaid  in  fine  lacquered  articles. 

Connected  closely  with  this  work  is  that  of  Hone,  or  bone  carving, 
for  which  the  thigh  bone  only  of  the  larger  domestic  animals  is 
used.  But  owing  to  the  limitations  of  the  material,  in  view  of  its 
smaller  size  and  more  difficult  working,  and  its  much  inferior  ap- 
pearance to  that  of  ivory,  it  plays  but  a modest  part  in  Japanese 
industry  and  is  very  little  used  for  Netsukes.  Those  many  small 
articles  which  with  us  are  turned  by  the  lathe  out  of  bone,  are 
either  not  used,  or  some  other  material  is  employed  in  making 
them.  Agriculture  and  the  branches  of  chemical  industry  have  up 
to  this  time  made  even  less  use  of  bones. 

Bekko-zaiku,  tortoise-shell  work  and  its  horn  ornamentations, 
are  executed  mainly  in  Nagasaki  and  Osaka.  The  two  substances 
here  regarded  are  closely  related  in  quality  and  in  the  purposes 
which  they  serve.  Both  are  made  soft  by  warm  water  and  also  by 
dry  heat,  and  are  then  easily  stretched  and  bent,  pressed  and 
formed,  split  apart  and  welded  together,  properties  on  which  the 
art  of  working  them  up  is  founded. 

Bekko,  tortoise-shell,  comes  principally  from  Chelonia  imbricata , 
L.,  the  genuine  loggerhead  turtle,  which  is  found  in  all  tropical 
seas,  but  especially  in  the  Malay  Archipelago  and  Indian  Ocean. 
Singapore  in  Asia,  and  London  in  Europe,  are  the  principal  mar- 

1 Zoge  = ivory;  hori  = to  dig,  to  carve;  mono=work. 


432 


ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


kets  for  its  thirteen  yellow  and  brown  glowing  plates.  From  the 
former,  Chinese  junks  carry  the  material  to  the  dealers  in  China 
and  Japan,  but  the  best  comes  to  the  ports  of  Japan  from  London. 
When  it  has  a light  gold-yellow  colour  and  is  very  transparent,  it  is 
used  in  Japan  especially  for  Kanzashi,  or  fork-shaped  hair-pins  for 
young  ladies,  highly  appreciated  and  dear  in  price,  some  of  them  16 
centimeters  long.  Besides  these,  girls  of  the  wealthier  classes  wear 
a straight  four-cornered  little  wand  of  the  same  material,  and  from 
21  to  26  centimeters  long,  horizontally  through  the  carefully  twisted 
hair  on  the  top  of  the  head,  so  that  the  ends  project  on  both  sides. 

The  Japanese  manufacture  also  for  the  foreign  market,  in  Naga- 
saki particularly,  all  sorts  of  articles,  as.  round  table-tops,  baskets, 
dishes  and  plates,  bracelets  and  napkin  rings,  cigar  cases,  and 
various  others  from  the  real  and  factitious  tortoise-shell,  and 
adorn  them  besides  with  gold  lacquer  painting,  in  which  of  course 
the  long  ground-work  process  of  common  lacquering  is  omitted. 
Inlaid  work  of  tortoise-shell,  the  so-called  Boule-  (Buhl-  or  Bool-) 
work,  which  for  last  two  centuries  had  been  so  conspicuous  in  the 
finer  furniture  of  Europe,  is  little. known  in  Japan,  and  it  is  some- 
what striking  that  neither  here  nor  in  China  have  horn  or  tortoise- 
shell been  used  for  combs. 

In  working  up  the  tortoise  shell  in  Nagasaki,  the  file,  small  saw 
and  chisel  are  used,  and  especially  iron  pincers  with  smooth  broad 
jaws.  Each  workman  sits  before  his  little  charcoal  furnace  in 
which  he  heats  the  tongs.  He  cools  them  somewhat  in  water  be- 
fore using,  and  welds  the  two  plates  of  tortoise-shell,  which  are 
sharpened  at  the  edges,  heated  and  laid  one  over  the  other,  fast 
together.  Rings,  plates  and  other  articles  are  pressed  in  wooden 
moulds  after  the  material  has  been  heated.  Steam  seems  not  to 
be  used  in  the  process. 

Factitious  tortoise-shell  is  much  used.  It  is  made  of  bright- 
coloured  horn  or  Tsuno  from  China.  The  tortoisc-shell-like  etch- 
ing of  horn  seems  to  have  been  known  and  practised  here  much 
earlier  than  in  Europe. 

Ao-gai-zaiku,  Mother-of-Pearl  Work. 

Pearls  and  mother-of-pearl  consist  of  thin  laminae  of  lime  with 
little  organic  substance.  But  while  they  are  found  in  concentric 
layers  in  the  pearls,  in  the  latter  they  follow  the  horizontal  direction 
or  trend  of  the  shell,  yet  in  such  a way  that  even  in  flat  mussel  and 
snail  shells  they  lie  somewhat  inclined  to  the  surface.  The  lustre 
proceeds  from  the  reflection  of  light,  the  iridescence  or  play  of  colour 
from  the  interference  of  the  rays  which  are  reflected  from  the  pro- 
jecting edges  of  the  laminae  or  blades  and  the  somewhat  deeper 
parts.  The  colour-change  or  iridescence  of  mother-of-pearl  con- 
sequently is  a phenomenon  of  interference  which  inheres  in  the 
structure. 


WOOD,  IVORY,  AND  BONE  CARVING,  ETC. 


423 


Furniture  inlaid  with  mother-of-pearl  is  very  popular  in  Turkey, 
and  throughout  the  entire  Orient,  but  particularly  in  Further  India 
and  China.  In  Japan  it  is  used  mostly  for  decorating  lacquer 
wares.  It  is  a product  of  the  country,  called  Ao-gai  (Awo-gai),  is 
used  in  thin  sheets,  is  distinguished  by  its  magnificent  iridescence 
in  all  the  colours  of  the  rainbow,  and  is  obtained  mainly  from  the 
smooth  inside  of  the  larger  varieties  of  Ear-shell  ( Haliotis  japonica. 
Reeve,  H.  gigantea , Chemn.),  called  Awabi.  A still  more  valuable 
sort  goes  by  the  name  of  Ao-gai-Magai,  i.e.  imitation  Ao-gai.  It  is 
formed  of  laminae  scarcely  three  centimeters  broad,  and  is  said  to 
come  from  the  Riu-kiu  islands,  from  a kind  of  Nautilus.  The  shell 
of  the  Sazaye  (Turbo  cornutus,  Chemn.)  also  yields  mother-of-pearl. 

The  polishing  of  the  mother-of-pearl,  as  I observed  it  in  Nagasaki, 
is  not  scientifically  conducted,  since  there  is  no  facilitation  of  the 
work  such  as  is  afforded  by  the  heavy  grindstone,  revolving  ver- 
tically round  its  axis.  The  thick,  curved  outer  edge  of  the  Hali- 
otis shell  is  first  removed  up  to  the  row  of  holes  by  means  of 
pincers,  hammer  and  chisel ; then  the  remaining  part  is  ground  on 
a fine  grained  sandstone,  sprinkled  with  water,  till  only  a thin 
transparent  lamina  remains.  It  is  a very  wearisome  work,  and  one 
man  can  polish  only  eighteen  pieces  in  a day.  Each  sheet  costs 
from  2 to  6 sen,  according  to  the  size  and  fineness.  These  thin 
sheets  or  plates,  as  well  as  the  mother-of-pearl  dust  of  various  de- 
grees of  fineness  obtained  from  the  waste,  are  now  used  by  the 
Ao-gai-shi  or  mother-of-pearl  workman,  for  decorating  lacquer 
wares,  as  has  been  partly  described  on  pp.  364,  365,  the  trans- 
parent laminae  are  laid  on  the  pattern,  and  the  design  or  a part  of 
it,  is  traced  through  with  the  India-ink  brush.  In  painting  flowers, 
leaves  and  other  coloured  parts,  the  rubbed  colours  are  laid  on  the 
sheets  with  hot  glue-water.  When  dry,  it  is  coated  with  a weak 
solution  of  glue,  and  then  covered  with  silver-foil.  After  again 
drying,  the  figures  (flowers,  leaves,  or  whatever  may  be  the  design) 
are  cut  out  with  a hollow  chisel.  They  are  then  glued  on  the 
coloured  side  to  the  lacquered  articles,  such  as  cabinets,  little 
chests,  plates,  vases,  etc.  The  rather  rough  ground  was  previously 
treated  with  ochre  and  lampblack. 

When  the  whole  design  is  completed  by  gluing  on  of  the  many- 
coloured  mother-of-pearl  leaves,  the  interstices  are  filled  up  with 
black  lacquer,  and  in  conclusion  the  whole  is  varnished  with  a trans- 
parent lacquer,  and  polished,  as  has  been  described  in  treating  of 
other  lacquer  wares,  and  the  Ao-gai-zaiku  or  mother-of-pearl  work, 
demanding  so  much  time  and  patience,  is  finished.  The  under 
layer  of  silver-foil  seems  to  bring  out  the  figures,  for  which  purpose 
tin-foil  cannot  be  substituted. 

Besides  this  Ra-den  or  Mosaic  work  with  thin  sheets  of  mother- 
of-pearl,  thicker  pieces  are  ground  and  engraved  as  a flower,  an  egg 
or  some  other  design,  and  made  to  serve,  like  ivory,  as  an  inlay  in 
raised  gold  lacquer  work.  The  making  of  brooches  out  of  this 


424 


ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


material,  however,  and  of  turning  buttons  and  other  articles  of 
jewelry  on  the  lathe,  is  scarcely  known. 

The  Japanese  designated  Kin  (gold),  Gin  (silver),  Ruri  (lapis 
lazuli),1  Sangoju  (coral),  Meno  (agate),  Sui-sho  (rock  crystal),  and 
Shin-ju  (pearl),  after  the  precedent  of  Buddhism  in  China  and  Corea, 
by  the  Sinico-Japanese  expression  Shippo  (Jap.  Nanatsu-no-ta- 
kara),  i.e.,  “ the  seven  costly  things.”  Of  these  seven,  lapis  lazuli, 
fine  coral  and  pearls  are  as  little  found  in  Japan  as  most  of  the 
prominent  precious  stones.  They  are  also  very  little  imported,  for 
Japanese  taste  is  distinguished  from  that  of  the  Aryan  orientals 
and  the  Turks  essentially  in  this,  that  it  places  little  stress  on 
precious  stones  generally,  and  quite  as  little  on  finger  rings, 
bracelets,  brooches,  and  other  ornaments  in  which  these  precious 
stones  are  used.  Jewelry  was  neither  made  nor  worn  in  Japan. 

The  principal  ornamentation  of  the  Japanese  girl,  apart  from  the 
dress  and  broad  girdle,  is  concentrated  on  the  head.  It  shows 
itself  besides,  in  the  paint  on  the  lips,  throat  and  cheeks,  especially 
in  the  careful  dressing  and  ornamentation  of  the  lustrous  black 
hair  with  pins  (Kanzashi  and  Kogai)  and  Kanoko-chirimen. 

The  most  valuable  stone  which  Japan  furnishes  has  always  been 
the  rock  crystal  or  Sui-sh6  (Seki-ye),  i.e.  “crystallized  water.” 
The  appearance  of  the  Sui-sho-tama  or  Sui-sh6rin,  i.e.  balls  of 
rock  crystal,  which  are  cut  out  of  colourless  crystals  reflecting 
beautifully  the  forms  of  objects  around,  is  an  especial  delight. 
Their  price  increases  with  the  purity  and  size  of  the  stone,  so  that 
those  having  an  average  diameter  of  from  6 to  io  centimeters,  cost 
from  300  to  600  yen.  The  European  imitations  of  these  costly 
rock-crystal  balls  in  glass  (Biidoro),  are  easy  to  distinguish  by 
their  more  or  less  strong  bluish  coruscation,  their  small  conduct- 
ibility  of  heat — in  consequence  of  this,  they  feel  less  cold — and  by 
their  greater  softness.  Nevertheless  they  have  much  influenced 
the  esteem  and  lowered  the  price  of  the  genuine,  and  on  this 
account  have  set  back  very  much  the  importance  of  the  whole 
industry.  Therefore,  it  has  happened  as  in  Europe,  since  the  de- 
velopment of  the  glass  industry  and  evidently  through  it,  that 
the  polishing  of  costly  vessels  of  rock  crystal,  such  as  are  found 
frequently  in  old  collections,  and  which  in  the  Middle  Ages 
formed  an  important  branch  of  art  industry,  has  been  almost  en- 
tirely given  up. 

The  Japanese  appear  to  have  employed  hollow-grinding  only  in 
the  softer  marbles,  but  not  in  rock  crystals.  They  still  principally 
make  balls  out  of  these  (also  for  the  valuable  Buddhist  rosaries  or 
Jfi-dzu),  lenses  and  dice,  as  well  as  beautiful  watch  charms  of  various 
forms,  buttons  and  other  little  articles,  which  can  be  bought,  not  only 
in  the  factories,  but  also  in  Yokohama,  Kioto  and  other  cities. 

1 Ruri  is  sometimes  translated  emerald.  It  signifies,  however,  “ultramarine 
blue,”  and  points  decidedly  to  the  amorphous  lapis  lazuli. 


WOOD , IVORY,  AND  BONE  CARVING,  ETC. 


425 


Beautiful  little  tufts  of  hair-like  amianth  are  often  found  in  Japan- 
ese rock  crystals.  These  are  then  called  Kusa-iri-sui-sho,  i.e. 
grass-holding  crystals,  and  the  tuft  of  earth-flax  itself  is  called 
Kusa,  grass,  designations  occasioned  by  the  form  and  colour  of  the 
enclosure ; for  these  resemble  strongly  tufts  of  grass  which  have 
been  enclosed  by  clear  ice. 

Murasaki-sui-sh6,  i.e.  violet  rock  crystal,  or  amethyst,  is  seldom 
found  in  Japan  of  so  great  beauty  as  to  warrant  its  use  as 
an  inferior  precious  stone.  Cha-sui-sho,  i.e.  tea-coloured  rock 
crystal  (smoked  topaz),  appears  very  often.  The  Japanese  rock 
crystal  excels  the  Chinese  in  clearness  and  transparency.  It  is 
found  in  many  provinces,  but  Koshiu  with  the  Kimpuzan,  Mii-take, 
Komaga-take  and  other  mountains  have  an  old  reputation  as  the 
chief  depositories.  Sui-sho,  and  Amabata-ishi  belong,  like  grapes, 
to  the  Mei-butsu  or  celebrated  products  of  Koshiu. 

Garnet-sand  (Almandin)  is  used  for  polishing  Japanese  precious 
stones  (rock  crystal  and  agate),  also  spectacles.  It  is  found 
in  several  places  in  Japan,  but  especially  in  a long  extended 
mountain  ridge,  the  Kongo-san  in  the  province  of  Kawachi  near 
the  boundary  of  Yamato.1  This  reddish  brown  garnet  bears  the 
name  Kongo-sha,  i.e.  “ very  hard  sand,”  or  “ diamond  sand,”  and 
comes  in  the  form  of  little  round  grains,  which  under  the  micro- 
scope show  more  or  less  distinctly  the  garnet  structure.  It  is 
brought  to  market  by  way  of  Osaka. 

In  Kofu,  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Kdshiu  or  Kai,  I found  in 
the  autumn  of  1874,  two  establishments  for  polishing  rock  crystals. 
Most  of  these,  however,  are  said 2 3 (according  to  A.  Schenck)  to 
be  at  the  foot  of  the  Mii-take  at  Kurobara,  a day’s  journey  farther 
north.  The  apparatus  for  polishing  in  K6fu  was  of  a primitive, 
simple  kind.  Bent  and  hardened  iron  rods  in  the  shape  of  longi- 
tudinal sections  of  hollow  cylinders,  together  with  garnet-sand  and 
water,  served  for  polishing  the  balls.  The  garnet-sand  and  water 
were  spread  over  the  iron  spout,  and  the  piece  of  rock  crystal 
was  rubbed  backwards  and  forwards  in  it.  The  garnet-sand  was 
separated  into  seven  kinds  according  to  the  fineness,  by  sieves.  The 
polishing  began  naturally  with  the  employment  of  the  coarsest,  and 
finished  with  the  finest  sand. 

Meno  or  Meno-seki,  the  agate,  is  the  best  known  of  the  other 
precious  stones  of  the  quartz  family,  and  is  polished  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  rock  crystal.  I have  not  seen  these  in  the  places 
where  they  are  found  and  polished.  Lyman,  on  the  other  hand, 
mentioned  such  at  Oniu  in  Echiu,  Tamatsukuri  and  Yumachi 
in  Idzumo.  He  found  in  both  the  last-named  places,  agate, 

1 The  Orographical  and  Hydrographical  map  in  the  first  volume  of  this  work 

gives  the  situation  of  the  Kongo-san  westward  from  the  Yoshino-gawa. 

3 “ Reise  von  Kofu  nach  den  Quarz-  und  Bergkrystallgruben  bei  Kurobara.” 
“ Mittheilungen  der  deutschen  gesellschaft  Ostasiens,”  8 Heft.  Yokohama,  1875. 


426 


ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


chalcedony,  cornelian,  green  jasper,  and  smoked  topaz,  which  were 
worked  up  into  pretty  little  ornaments.1 

Soapstone,  Jap.  Roseki  (wax-stone),  and  In-seki  (seal-stone),  is 
found  principally  in  Bizen,  in  simple  greyish  white  and  also 
coloured  varieties.  It  is  much  worked  up  into  seals  (Ingi6  or  In) 
but  for  this  purpose  the  Chinese  Agalmatolite  (To- Roseki) 2 is 
preferred. 


7.  Metal  Industry.3 

Prefatory  Remarks. — The  Working  up  of  Iron  into  Swords,  Armour 
and  Objects  of  Art. — Embossing  of  Cast  Iron.— The  use  of 
Copper. — The  most  important  Alloys  of  Copper. — Japanese 
Bronze. — Patina. — The  use  of  Bronze  in  the  Household,  and 
the  Buddhist  Religion.— M agic  Mirrors.— Gold  and  Silver  in 
Japanese  Industrial  Art. — Bronze  Analysis. 

Numerous  indications  and  historic  statements  which  cannot  be 
doubted,  tell  us  that  the  Japanese  people  were  acquainted  with  the 
most  important  metals  in  very  early  times,  and  have  made  great 
progress,  especially  with  their  preparation,  since  the  6th  century  of 
our  era.  The  finding  of  pre-historic  bronze  weapons,  like  arrow- 
heads and  swords,  copper  rattles  and  bells,  and  iron  articles  of 
various  kinds,  we  must  leave  to  the  further  study  of  the  anti- 
quarian. Japanese  art  industry  in  all  its  branches,  including  that 
of  metal  industry,  was  not  really  developed  until  Buddhism  pushed 
hither  from  the  continent,  with  its  new  ideas. 

In  the  first  half  of  the  8th  century,  at  the  time  of  Shomu- 
Tenno,  the  ability  to  work  skilfully  in  metals  generally,  and 
especially  in  bronze,  had  already  reached  a high  stage.  This  is 
seen  in  the  idols,  vases,  censers,  and  other  articles  which  the  old 
celebrated  temples  at  Nara,  Kioto  and  other  places  have  preserved 
from  that  time.  The  influence  of  China  and  Corea,  and  the  ad- 
vancement of  industry  by  Buddhism,  are  here  also  unmistakable. 

This  stimulus  on  the  part  of  religion  to  metal  industry  de- 
creased with  the  imperial  power  and  the  development  of  military 
despotism  and  feudalism.  (See  vol.  i.  p.  226).  In  the  civil  wTars 
which  the  parties  of  the  Taira  and  Minamoto  carried  on  in  the 
1 2th  century,  as  well  as  others  which  followed  later,  the  forging  of 
iron  weapons  and  armour,  became  of  greater  importance  than  the 
casting  of  idols  and  vessels  of  bronze.  Whoever  could  make  good 

1 Lyman  : “Geological  Survey  of  Japan.  Reports  of  Progress  for  1878  and 
1879.”  Pp.  35  and  58. 

2 Their  external  similarity  to  variegated  soapstone,  in  colour  and  veining,  is 
evidently  the  reason  why  the  Japanese  apply  the  name  Ro-seki  to  serpentine, 
and  also  to  coloured  marble  (p.  313). 

3 Kane  = the  metal;  Kane-mono  = the  metal- ware  : Kane-dzaiku  = the  metal- 
work. 


METAL  INDUSTRY. 


427 


swords  stood  at  once  higher  in  the  general  estimation  than  any  other 
tradesman ; his  industry  flourished  when  all  others  were  laid  low. 

When  the  dynasty  of  the  Tokugawa-Shoguns  was  firmly  founded 
by  Iyeyasu  and  his  next  successors,  and  the  land  was  assured  of 
peace,  the  other  branches  of  metal  industry,  as  well  as  of  industrial 
art  in  general,  became  once  more  important.  The  disturbance 
which  it  suffered  twenty  years  ago,- through  the  setting  aside  of 
feudalism  and  the  restoration  of  the  Mikado  government,  has  had 
no  lasting  effect  except  upon  the  forging  of  weapons.  On  the  other 
hand,  metal  industry  has  made  new  openings  for  itself  in  many  of 
its  artistic  branches,  and  shows  in  these  remarkable  progress,  as  will 
appear  hereafter  more  especially  in  the  instances  mentioned. 

There  is  scarcely  any  kind  of  metal  ornamentation  or  decoration, 
with  the  exception  of  galvanizing,  which  the  Japanese  had  not 
known  and  practised  before  the  opening  of  the  country.  In  their 
more  eminent  accomplishments  they  had  already  won  the  admi- 
ration of  European  connoisseurs.  Precious  metals,  copper,  bronze, 
and  cast-iron,  however  different  their  properties  may  be,  all  yield 
to  the  skilful  hand  of  the  Japanese,  and  to  his  manifold  little  art- 
conceptions,  which  effectively  supplement  the  simplicity  of  the 
tools.  His  decorations  of  iron  and  bronze  belong  notably  to 
the  most  costly  that  can  be  accomplished  in  this  direction.  The 
wonderful  skill  with  which  apparently  insurmountable  difficulties 
in  damascening,  chasing  and  other  work  are  overcome,  surprises  us 
no  less  than  the  great  ability  to  work  effective  colour  combinations, 
and  the  means  of  their  representation. 

Before  I proceed  now  to  the  description  of  the  chief  accomplish- 
ments in  the  several  divisions  of  Japanese  metal  industry,  I will 
explain  them  briefly  in  the  interest  of  such  readers  chiefly  who 
may  not  understand  the  customary  art  expressions.  The  most 
common  working  utensils  which  are  used  by  the  Japanese  in  the 
various  kinds  of  metal  decoration  are  the  following  : 1st,  the  anvil, 
Kana-shiki  or  Kana-toko ; 2nd,  the  tongs,  namely:  a.  Yattoko,  the 
pincers  ; b.  Kana-hibashi,  the  fire  tongs  for  holding  hot  metals  ; 
c.  Kugi-nuki,  the  nail  tongs  ; 3rd,  the  iron  hammer,  Kana-dzuchi 
(Sai-dzuchi  is  the  wooden  hammer  which  is  used  in  the  chiselling 
of  wood,  and  other  softer  substances)  ; 4th,  the  file  or  Yasuri  ; 5 th, 
the  chisel  or  Nomi,  in  many  forms  and  sizes ; 6th,  the  burin,  bent 
graver  or  Tagane,  a little  piece  of  iron  from  a finger’s  to  a hand’s 
length,  generally  in  the  shape  of  a nail ; the  upper  end  a little 
enlarged  like  a head,  the  lower  either  pointed  or  sharpened  like 
a chisel,  and  always  edged  with  steel.  The  burin  is  used  in  en- 
graving, chasing  and  inlaying,  and  is  one  of  the  simplest  but  most 
important  of  the  tools  of  this  industry.  The  punch  is  a kind  of 
burin  whose  steel  end  has  other  forms  and  is  often  provided  with 
figures.  It  is  used  in  the  chasing  of  metals  ; 7th,  Ko-gatana,  a 
small  knife. 

The  various  forms  of  decoration  which  the  Japanese  employ  with 


428  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


metals  are  called  casting,  embossing,  beating,  turning,  chasing, 
engraving,  inlaying,  damascening,  encrusting,  plating,  enamelling, 
and  colouring. 

Casting,  Jap.  Iru.  (I-mono,  the  casting).  Plate  XV.  shows  in  b 
the  lower  cross-section  of  the  common,  small,  smelting  furnace  ; in 
a that  of  the  box  bellows.  The  air  of  the  latter  is  forced  in  six 
places  into  the  fire-box  in  which  charcoal  is  brought  to  a glowing 
heat.  These  places  surround  the  smelting  furnace,  which  is  made 
of  fire  clay.  Figure  e shows  the  cross-section  of  the  clay  mould  of 
vase  with  its  interior,  which  has  been  beforehand  turned  on  the 
patterns  c and  d.  Such  moulds  are,  of  course,  duly  prepared 
before  each  casting.  The  results  in  iron,  and  especially  in  bronze 
casting  are  astonishing  when  orie  considers  these  simple  arrange- 
ments. At  the  Vienna  Exhibition  was  seen  for  instance,  a group 
of  flying  birds,  which  appeared  separate  from  each  other,  and  still 
were  formed  at  one  casting. 

Embossing,  Jap.  Uchi-dashi  or  Uchi-age.  The  decoration  of 
bronze  in  relief  is  accomplished  either  in  the  casting  of  the  subject, 
or  by  turning  and  chiselling,  or  finally  by  embossing,  French 
Repousse-work.  The  last  consists  in  forcing  the  metal  from  the 
inside  outward,  generally  with  the  aid  of  the  punch.  Embossed 
work  can,  of  course,  be  executed  only  in  sheet  metal.  In  Japan  it 
is  made  principally  in  Hiroshima  and  the  three  capital  cities,  but 
is  far  less  important  than  other  modes  of  decoration. 

Beating,  Jap.  Tataku  or  Utsu  is  the  name  given  to  the  hammer- 
ing of  cold  metal  into  sheet  form  on  the  anvil.  The  skilfulness  is 
shown  in  the  finished  products  (for  example,  a silver  or  copper 
vessel),  chiefly  in  the  even  distribution  and  conformity  of  the  marks 
of  the  hammer  or  Tsutchi-me  (hammer  eyes).  The  well-known 
silversmith,  Tiffany  of  New  York,  furnishes  beautiful  beaten  work 
of  this  kind  which  excels  even  the  finest  of  Kidto. 

Turned  work  or  the  Rokuro-saiku  is  generally  done  on  the 
turning  lathe  in  cast  bronze.  It  has  become  more  and  more  the 
custom  in  modern  times  to  produce  the  decorations  in  relief,  not  in 
the  casting,  but  by  sculpture  (Horu).  The  article,  a vase  for  in- 
stance, is  cast  smooth  but  with  very  thick  walls.  The  bronze 
sculptor,  or  Hori-mono-shi,  draws  the  ornamentations  which  are 
to  protrude  above  the  ground,  and  next  cuts  away  to  the  required 
depth  the  superfluous  metal  around  the  outlines  by  means  of 
chiselling  and  turning.  He  then  applies  himself  to  the  projecting 
parts,  and  forms  them  just  as  the  sculptor  or  the  wood-carver  forms 
his  rough  block.  What  he  loses  by  this  in  time  he  spares  himself 
in  the  preparation  and  simplifying  of  the  casting. 

Chasing,  Jap.  Horu  and  Hori-age,  is  the  name  given  to  the 
afterwork  with  the  chisel,  burin,  and  file  applied  to  the  relief  ob- 
tained by  casting,  embossing  or  sculpturing.  By  chasing,  the  seams 
of  the  casting  and  other  accidental  unevennesses  are  removed. 
Folds,  furrows  and  angles  are  developed,  or  better  brought  out 


Rein,  Japan  X. 


Platt  XV. 


Vcrl.vMili.Engdmtuu!,Lap?ig  Uth.ArisLrWirncrkWmiu;FrivikruTl 


APPARATUS  FOR  CASTING  METAL. 

a.  Box- bellows,  b. Cross- section  of  a smelting-furnace, 
c.  d.  Model,  e.Mould. 


METAL  INDUSTRY. 


429 


and  in  general,  the  imperfections  of  the  first,  coarse  work  are  over- 
come. 

Engraving,  to  carve  in,  to  incise,  is  called  in  Japan  also  Horu, 
but  likewise  Kiri-tsuke,  and  is  nearly  related  to  chasing.  It  is 
done  with  the  knife  (O-gatane)  and  the  bent  graver  (Tagane),  and 
usually  serves  for  the  decoration  of  flat  surfaces,  not  of  raised  work. 
Hori-mono  is  the  name  given  to  every  kind  of  graven  or  chased 
work,  and  the  article  thus  decorated  is  called  Hori-mono-zaiku. 

Damascening,  Japanese  Zogan  (German  Tauschirung,  French 
Damasquinure),  is  the  name  given  to  the  inlaying  of  wires  and 
fine  strips  of  gold'  and  silver  in  the  furrows  of  baser  metals.  Iron, 
steel,  bronze  and  copper  especially  are  damascened.  The  orna- 
mentation stretched  out  beforehand  must  be  engraved  according 
to  the  pattern  with  the  burin,  or  hollowed  with  the  chisel.  The 
furrows  which  are  produced  with  the  fdrmer,  have  in  the  cross 
section  the  form  of  a swallow’s  tail,  or  are  made  “ under  cut  ” as 
the  bent  graver  is  held  in  receiving  the  blows  of  the  hammer,  first 
vertically,  then  inclined,  once  to  the  right  and  once  to  the  left. 

In  this  way  both  the  outer  edges  of  the  furrow,  which  grows 
larger  towards  the  inside,  are  beaten  back,  welt  fashion.  They  are 
then  filed  off  smooth,  and  the  prepared  piece  of  precious  metal 
(wire  or  plate)  is  laid  in  the  furrow  and  driven  in  with  a hammer. 
The  Japanese  distinguish  three  kinds  of  work  according  to  the 
manner  in  which  this  is  done,  as  they  do  in  gold  lacquer  work,  as 
follows  : 

a.  Taka-zogan,  i.e.  raised  damascene  work  in  which  the  gold  and 
silver,  like  the  a jour  precious  stone  in  its  setting,  for  the  most  part 
projects  over  the  furrow. 

b.  Hira-zogan,  flat  damascening  in  which  the  inlaid  precious 
metal  does  not  project  over  the  surface  of  that  metal  decorated 
with  it. 

c.  Nuno-me-zogan,  i.e.  damascening  in  meshes.  That  variety  of 
Hira-zogan  which  is  used  chiefly  as  a universal  surface  decoration, 
such  as  plate  XVII.  shows  on  both  sides  of  the  vine  border,  as  well 
as  the  clouds  in  fig.  17,  receives  this  designation.  The  cobweb 
on  the  bronze  vase,  plate  XVIII.,  and  the  handle  ornament  on 
fig.  15,  are  specimens  of  simple  Hira-zogan,  while  raised  damas- 
cening is  what  we  see  in  the  girls’  figures,  and  other  forms  in  plate 
XVII.,  as  well  as  in  several  of  the  following  illustrations. 

The  expression  damascening  is  now  used  generally  as  a synonym 
for  inlaying.  In  its  secondary  significance,  the  etched  mirror-like 
decorations  of  silky  lustre  on  steel  and  iron  are  understood.1 

1 In  Europe,  the  beginning'  of  the  art  of  inlaying  is  traced  back  by  anti- 
quarians generally  to  the  Celts.  I do  not  share  this  opinion,  and  think  the 
artistic  sense  and  ability  of  this  people  was  too  little  developed,  and  that  the 
discovered  works  attributed  to  them  do  not  originate  with  them,  but  with 
the  Romans.  These  latter  certainly  understood  and  practised  the  inlaying  of 
iron  weapons  and  armour  when  they  came  into  contact  with  the  Celts.  Proofs 


430  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


Incrusting,  or  incrustation,  is  the  name  given  in  art  industry  to 
the  decoration  inlaid  in  the  surface  or  crust  of  an  article.  Thus, 
intarsia  work,  enamelling  and  damascening  are  all  varieties  of  in- 
crustation. 

Plating,  Jap.  Kin-kise  and  Gin-kise.  The  covering  of  a common 
metal  with  gold  or  silver  in  sheet  form,  where  the  precious  metal 
is  made  fast  to  the  foundation  by  hammering,  pressing  or  rolling, 
is  called  by  this  name.  The  inside  of  the  copper-box  (fig.  16) 
was  silvered  by  plating. 

The  last  chapter  of  this  section  will  give  all  necessary  details 
concerning  the  metal  decorations  of  the  Japanese  by  means  of 
enamel  (Shippd),  i.e.  opaque  coloured  glassy  flux,  while  the  equally 
important  subject  of  patina-work  or  of  colouring  (Iro-tsuke)  will  be 
explained  in  the  section  concerning  bronze  work. 


Iron,  Tetsu  or  Kurogane. 

The  consumption  of  iron  of  all  kinds  has  grown  so  enormously 
since  the  opening  of  Japan,  that  the  home  production  has  not  been 
able  to  keep  pace  with  it,  and  the  average  yearly  importation,  since 
1868,  mounts  up  to  nearly  two  millions  of  yen.  But  even  in  earlier 
times,  during  the  long  rule  of  the  Tokugawa,  the  iron  produced  in 
the  country  itself  did  not  suffice  for  the  demand,  so  that  China  and 
Holland  were  obliged  to  contribute  to  its  supply. 

The  Japanese  smithing  has  been  developed  chiefly  in  making 
weapons  and  armour,  also  in  casting  and  decorating  cast-iron  water 
kettles,  whereas  its  accomplishments  (apart  from  the  hardening  of 
steel)  in  the  manufacture  of  all  those  little  tools  and  utensils  used 
in  daily  life  and  handicraft,  cannot  be  very  highly  valued. 

Among  the  nations  of  Eastern  Asia  the  Japanese  were  known 
as  skilful  workers  of  iron,  which  their  celebrated  Katana-kaji,  or 
armourers,  transformed  into  famous  weapons  of  excellent  steel. 
They  produced  swords  by  which  one  could  cut  through  iron  nails 
without  nicking  the  blades  in  the  slightest.  These  swords  were  as 
celebrated  in  Eastern  Asia  during  the  Middle  Ages  as  those  of 
Indian  steel,  o-tSepo?  TVSt/eo?  (Arrian),  and  the  polished  weapons 
made  out  of  this  material  in  the  Persian  Empire  of  former  times.1 
Magnetic  iron,  in  the  form  of  ferruginous  sand,  was  the  raw 
material  in  both  cases.  Its  reduction  is  carried  on  even  now  in 
Japan,  in  small  smelting  furnaces  with  charcoal,  occupying  three 

of  this  exist  in  many  collections  of  Roman  antiquities.  I remember,  for  in- 
stance, one — a Roman  sword,  inlaid  with  silver,  at  the  Museum  at  Mayence, 
that  was  found  in  the  Rhine. 

1 On  the  plateau  of  the  Deccan,  especially  in  Hyderabad  near  Dundurti  and 
eastward  from  Nimal,  magnetic  iron  was  obtained,  from  which  the  Indian  steel 
was  made  which  furnished  the  celebrated  Indian  and  Persian  cut  and  thrust 
weapons,  as  well  as  the  Damascus  blades. 


METAL  INDUSTRY. 


43i 


days  in  the  process,  as  for  example,  at  Anegawa  in  Idzumo.  Steel 
and  iron  are  obtained  in  this  way  at  the  same  time. 1 

The  sword,  the  most  beautiful,  most  valuable,  and  the  most 
dreaded  weapon  of  Japan  during  the  feudal  times,  was,  according 
to  the  expression  of  the  Iyeyasu,  “ the  living  soul  of  the  Samurai.” 
To  wear  the  sword  was  his  greatest  privilege.  He  was  trusted 
with  it  even  when  a boy,  and  carried  it  with  him  on  his  way 
to  school  (see  vol.  i.  p.  32 7).  The  oldest  Japanese  sword,  Tsu- 
rugi,  or  Ken,  was  carried  crosswise  over  the  back,  and  brandished 
with  both  hands.  It  was  a straight,  heavy  weapon,  with  sharp 
edges  on  both  sides,  nearly  a meter  long,  and  from  six  to  seven 
centimeters  broad.  As  these  were  later  made  half  the  length  and 
somewhat  shortened,  another  weapon,  the  Katana  or  common 
sword  of  the  Japanese,  was  devised,  with  an  edge  which  is  slightly 
curved  toward  the  end.  The  Samurai  carried  this  either  alone 
or  with  a second  smaller,  dagger-like  sword,  on  the  left  side  of 
his  girdle.  These  smaller  weapons  were  known  by  the  names 
Wakizashi,  and  were  in  later  times  shortened  to  29  centimeters 
(nine  and  a half  inches)  and  used  in  the  Harakiri,  or  disembowelling. 

The  forging  and  polishing  of  swords  was  a wearisome  work, 
demanding  much  skill  and  practice.  Hiitterott  especially  gives 
particular  details  concerning  the  various  methods  of  combining 
the  hard  steel  with  the  soft,  elastic  iron.  The  tempering  (Yakiba, 
from  Yaki,  to  burn,  and  Ha,  edge)  of  the  edge  is  carefully  done 
in  the  charcoal  furnace,  the  softer  backs  (Mune)  and  the  sides 
being  surrounded  up  to  a certain  point  with  fire  clay,  so  that  only 
the  edge  remains  outside.  The  cooling  takes  place  in  cold  water. 
It  is  in  this  way  that  the  steeled  edge  may  be  distinguished  clearly 
from  the  back,  by  its  colour  and  lustre.  The  backs  of  knives,  axes 
and  other  weapons  are  united  to  the  steel  edge  either  by  welding 
on  one  side,  or  by  fitting  the  edge  into  a fluted  groove  of  the  back 
blade,  and  welding  on  both  sides. 

Toward  the  end  of  the  15th  century  the  occupation  of  the  artist 
was  united  to  that  of  the  smith.  Then  they  commenced  to  pay 
great  attention  to  the  mounting  of  the  blade.  In  this  work  Tsuka, 
the  hilt,  Tsuba,  the  guard  on  the  hilt,  and  Saya,  the  sheath,  are 
brought  especially  into  consideration. 

The  wooden  hilt  of  a Japanese  sword  is  about  15  centimeters 
long,  in  the  cross  section  a long  oval,  covered  with  grained  shark- 
skin or  other  decorations,  and  furnished  further  with  the  Me-nuki, 
two  little  metal  ornaments,  each  one  of  which  is  fastened  nearly  in 
the  middle  of  one  side.  At  one  end  of  the  handle  toward  the  blade 
is  an  oval  copper  or  bronze  plate,  the  Habaki  or  throat ; on  the 
other  end  is  the  Kashira,  the  head,  or  Tsuka-gashira,  a metal  cap. 
Lengthwise  in  the  handle  are  two  slots  through  which  a strong 
silk  cord,  almost  a centimeter  broad,  is  threaded.  This  is  wound 
around  the  whole  handle  in  such  a way  that  its  two  halves  connect 
1 See  Lyman  : “Geological  Survey  of  Japan,  1878  and  1879,”  p.  63. 


432 


ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


closely  on  the  two  sharply  arched  sides,  but  cross  each  other  over 
the  broad  sides  so  that  rhomboid  meshes  are  formed,  through 
which  the  decorations  of  the  handle,  including  the  Me-nuke, 
appear. 

The  sword-shell,  or  guard,  Tsuba,  is  as  old  as  the  sword.  It 
is  an  oval  metal  plate  from  one  to  two  millimeters  thick  and  about 
six  centimeters  in  diameter,  with  an  opening  in  the  middle  to 
admit  the  blade  of  the  sword.  A second  opening  at  the  side 
serves  for  the  fitting  in  of  a straight  knife,  the  Ko-dzuka,  whose 
blade  has  been  made  to  lie  in  an  outside  furrow  of  the  sheath, 
with  a groove  for  the  point.  There  is  often  a third  perforation  in 
the  opposite  side  of  the  guard,  through  which  the  Ko-gai,  or  “ hair- 
pin ” was  put. 

Saya,  the  sword  sheath,  was  usually  made  out  of  the  wood  of  the 
Ho-no-ki  (. Magnolia  hypoleuca ) protected  and  decorated  by  coats 
of  lacquer  varnish.  The  greatest  luxury  in  the  metal  decoration 
of  sword  guards,  hilts,  and  ends  of  the  Ko-dzuka,  was  developed 
in  the  15th  century,  the  time  of  the  Ashikaga  Shdguns.  This 
branch  of  art-industry  “has  given  to  Japan  its  thousands  of  skilled 
workmen  and  its  scores  of  famous  masters.”  1 

As  has  been  said  on  p.  426  the  iron’  industry,  in  so  far  as  the 
equipment  of  warriors  was  concerned,  received  its  great  impulse 
during  the  struggles  of  the  Taira  and  Minamoto  (see  vol.  i. 
p.  228).  Skilful  sword-cutlers  gained  for  themselves  high  social 
position,  and  won  immortal  glory  and  fame  with  their  swords. 
Kioto,  Osaka  and  Kamakura  were  their  chief  seats ; in  later 
centuries  also  Okayama  in  Bizen,  Sakai  in  Idzumi,  Seki  in  Mino, 
and  Tokio. 

Masamune,  who  lived  in  Kamakura,  about  the  year  1290,  was 
especially  highly  esteemed.2  His  name  became  an  appellative  in 
the  sense  of  most  perfect  workmanship,  and  was  later  bestowed  on 
the  celebrated  sculptor  J6ch6,  at  Nara  in  Yamato,  a distinction 
enjoyed  by  his  descendants  for  six  generations. 3 

Many  smiths  acquired  great  skill  also  in  making  the  Gusoku 
or  armour,  especially  the  Kabuto  (helmets),  Kusari-katabira  (chain 
coats  or  mail)  and  the  Oke-gawa  or  breast  armour,  which  super- 
seded them  later.  Among  these  Yoroi-shi  or  armour-smiths,  the 
family  Miydchin  has  especially  distinguished  itself  for  many 

1 See  W.  Anderson,  in  Murray’s  “ Hand-book  of  Japan,”  2nd  ed.,  p.  115. 

2 Whoever  wishes  to  learn  more  of  the  history  of  Japanese  swords  is  referred 
to  the  following  treatises. 

1.  “The  Sword  of  Japan,”  by  Thomas  McClatchie,  in  Transactions  of  the  As. 
Soc.  of  Japan.  Vol.  ii.  1874,  p.  63  ff. 

2.  “ Die  Japanischen  Schwerter,”  von  G.  Miiller-Beeck,  Zeitschrift  J Hr  Ethno- 
logic, 1 5.  Bd.  1 882,  p.  30  ff. 

3.  “Das  Japanische  Schwert,”  von  G.  Hiitterott.  “Mittheil.  der  deutscli. 
Gesellschaft  Ostasiens,”  33  Heft,  1885. 

3 See  W.  Anderson,  in  Satow  and  Hawes  : “A  Hand-book  for  Travellers  in 
Japan.”  2nd  ed.  London,  1884,  p.  103. 


EAGLE  IN  WROUGHT  IRON.  FROM  MIYOCHIN  MUNEHARU.  ORIGINAL  IN  SOUTH  KENSINGTON  MUSEUM 


METAL  INDUSTRY. 


433 


generations,  from  the  15  th  to  the  18th  century.  The  eagle  in  the 
Kensington  Museum,  which  is  said  to  have  been  forged  by  Miyo- 
chin  Muneharu  in  the  16th  century,  and  of  which  a woodcut  after 
a photograph  appears  on  plate  XVI.,  belongs  to  the  most  admirable 
products  of  their  art. 

A large  label  attached  to  the  work  contains  the  following 
statement.  “ Model  of  an  eagle.  The  bird  stands  with  outspread 
wings  upon  a rock,  and  is  made  of  numerous  bits  of  iron,  some 
cast,  others  carved  or  hammered  and  chased.  It  is  the  work  of 
Miyochin  Muneharu,  a celebrated  Japanese  metal-worker  of  the 


Fig.  IS-— CAST-IRON  KETTLE,  WITH  INLAID  WORK. 
(' Original  in  Royal  Industrial  Art  Museum,  Berlin.) 


1 6th  century.  The  width  of  the  wings  measures  four  feet  four  and 
a half  inches  (133  centimeters).  Bought  from  Mitford’s  collection 
for  ;£  1,000.”  1 

The  Tetsu-bin  or  cast-iron  kettle,  which  is  to  be  found  in  every 
Japanese  house  for  boiling  the  water  for  tea,  is  the  only  one 

_ 1 In  the  year  1881,  in  company  with  a learned  Japanese,  I visited  the  Ken- 
sington Museum  in  London,  and  with  the  permission  of  the  directors  undertook 
II.  F F 


434 


ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


among  all  the  iron  house  utensils  which  is  often  artistically  orna- 
mented. The  cover  is  usually  made  of  bronze,  rich  in  copper,  and 
sometimes  the  handle  also.  Most  of  the  Tetsu-bin  are  cast  in  the 
three  capitals,  and  are  sometimes  ornamented  with  inlaid  work  or 
with  enamel.  Among  the  older,  richly  decorated  kettles,  those  of 
Kin-ju-do  in  Kioto  and  of  Riobundo  in  Osaka  are  most  generally 
found  in  collections. 

Fig.  15,  p.  433,  represents  such  an  iron  kettle.  It  shows  above  the 
out-jutting  rim  for  holding  it  on  the  tripod,  a rough  surface,  which 
looks  as  if  hewn  out  of  a rock.  Tablets  of  copper  plate  sur- 
rounded by  thick  silver  wire  are  inlaid  in  this  surface.  These 
copper  tablets  were  previously  inlaid  with  gold  and  silver.  The 
forged  iron  handle  is  decorated  also  with  inlaid  work,  likewise  the 
dark  copper  cover.  On  the  copper  plate  in  front,  resembling  an 
out-spread  fan,  is  the  blooming  Sakura  with  the  Uguisu,  i.e.  the 
Japanese  wild  cherry-tree  with  the  Japanese  nightingale,  in  silver 
and  gold.  A narrow  gold  plate  encircles  the  spout  in  the  form  of 
a ring. 


Z6gan,  or  Inlaid  Work  on  Iron. 

Although  inlaying  in  iron  was  known  even  at  the  time  of  the 
Kuwammu  Tenn6  (782  to  807  A.D.),  still  it  was  not  generally 
employed  till  the  16th  century,  when,  under  Ota  Nobunaga  (1542 
to  1582),  the  iron  breast  armour,  Jap.  Oke-gawa  (literally,  tub- 
bark),  the  armour  shirt  or  Kusari-katabira,  of  woven  wire,  had 
become  a part  of  the  warrior’s  armour.  It  then  grew  to  be  more 
and  more  the  custom  to  decorate  these  pieces  of  breast  armour  and 
the  helmet  also  with  silver  and  gold  inlay;  just  as  in  Europe 
and  especially  in  Spain,  during  the  Middle  Ages,  armour  and 
weapons  were  often  made  very  costly  by  this  inlaid  work. 
The  finest  Japanese  armour  was  made  in  the  time  of  Taiko-sama, 
that  is,  during  the  second  half  of  the  16th  century. 

More  surprising  than  the  inlaid  work  on  the  forged  iron  armour 
and  weapons,  is  its  direct  employment  on  cast  iron  Tetsu-bin, 
vases  and  other  articles.  As  is  well  known,  the  cast  iron  cannot, 
on  account  of  its  hardness  and  brittleness,  be  worked  with  the 
hammer,  chisel  and  burin.  The  way  in  which  these  properties  are 
lessened  by  the  reduction  of  the  carboniferous  contents  has  been 

an  examination  of  the  origin  and  age  of  the  Japanese  metal  articles.  The 
glass  case  which  covered  this  masterpiece,  the  eagle,  was  opened,  the  bird  taken 
down  from  its  pedestal,  a rock  of  strong  sheet  iron,  and  thoroughly  examined 
in  all  its  parts  ; but  we  found  no  inscription,  name,  or  sign,  which  would  in- 
dicate its  origin.  We  have  also  not  been  able  to  trace  the  history  of  this 
remarkable  piece  of  art-industry,  which  Mitford,  the  former  English  Secretary  of 
Legation  in  Japan,  had  brought  with  him.  We  then  turned  to  the  bronzes. 
Scarcely  the  third  part  of  these  bore  name  and  date.  But  from  them  it  was 
apparent  that  almost  all  these  vases  and  other  articles  designated  as  “ old 
Japanese  bronze”  were  made  in  this  century. 


METAL  INDUSTRY. 


435 


observed  by  Lehmann  and  Wagener  in  Kioto. 1 It  is  a peculiar 
decarburising  process,  by  which  the  surface  of  the  kettle  or  pot 
receives  a structure  like  to  that  of  soft  iron  or  steel,  and  can  then 
be  treated  in  the  same  way  as  in  the  Zogan-work  on  forged  iron. 

The  process  of  decarburisation  of  the  surface  is  called  Yakeru  (to 
burn),  and  is  performed  with  primitive  apparatus.  Old  damaged 
rice  kettles  out  of  which  the  bottom  has  been  knocked  serve  as 
ovens.  These  are  plastered  over  on  the  inside  with  a fire  clay 
(Oka-saki-tsuchi  and  sand  mixed  in  equal  parts),  so  that  a cylin- 
drical space  of  the  size  of  the  hole  in  the  bottom,  remains  open. 
The  Kama  or  kettle  thus  prepared,  is  turned  over  upon  a thick 
plate  or  slab,  three  or  four  centimeters  thick,  made  out  of  the  same 
fire-proof  material,  which  serves  as  a grate,  and  is  perforated  like 
a sieve  for  this  purpose.  In  order  to  give  this  plate  greater  firm- 
ness, it  is  bound  around  with  an  iron  band.  The  holes  have  a 
width  of  about  i’5  centimeters.  In  order  to  give  the  air  free  play, 
several  stones  are  laid  under  the  edge  of  the  slab.  Then  the 
Tetsu-bin  to  be  burned,  whose  outside  has  been  carefully  cleaned 
beforehand  from  dust  and  sand,  is  placed  in  the  Kama,  directly 
on  the  grate. 

The  difference  in  size  between  the  Kama  and  Tetsu-bin  must 
be  such  that  a space  of  at  least  five  centimeters  remains  open 
around  the  latter.  This  open  space  is  then  filled  with  the  best 
charcoal  in  pieces  the  size  of  a nut,  till  the  Kama  is  filled  to  the 
rim,  when  the  coal  is  kindled. 

In  order  to  increase  the  draught,  two  or  three  Kamas  filled  in 
the  same  way  are  set  one  over  the  other,  forming  a kind  of 
chimney.  When  the  coals  have  ceased  glowing,  others  are  put 
in,  and  when  the  second  instalment  is  burned  out,  the  Tetsu-bin 
are  taken  out  and  turned  upside  down  (with  the  opening  under- 
neath), set  again  in  the  Kama  and  burned  twice  in  this  position. 
Under  favourable  circumstances,  the  surface  is  now  sufficiently 
soft  and  tough,  as  is  ascertained  with  a file.  It  is  often  the  case 
that  the  furnace  must  be  heated  ten  times.  After  the  cooling  the 
decorations  are  then  carved  as  in  forged  iron,  without  danger  of 
breaking  the  edges,  or  recoil  of  the  burin. 

Until  some  twenty  years  ago,  the  decoration  with  such  inlaid  work 
was  limited  to  places  on  iron  kettles.  At  that  time  several  skilful 
workmen,  formerly  armourers  of  Kioto,  especially  Komai  and 
Iyenori,  turned  their  attention  to  the  work,  and  have  developed 
since  then  this  branch  of  art  industry  in  an  astonishing  manner, 
decorating  large  vases,  smoking  utensils,  plates,  dishes,  and  other 
articles  of  cast-iron  with  remarkable  artistic  skill,  hithertb  unknown 
The  heliotype  of  plate  XVII.  represents  a cast-iron  vase  of  Komai 
in  Kidto,  adorned  with  such  Zogan  work. 

In  the  summer  of  1875  I obtained  from  a dealer  in  Kioto  the 

1 I am  indebted  to  the  kind  communications  of  these  gentlemen  (Engineer 
Lehmann  and  Dr.  Wagener,  both  now  in  Tokio)  for  the  items  given  here. 


436  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


first  pair  of  such  vases — a work  which  at  that  time,  in  Tokio,  at- 
tracted great  attention  among  Japanese  and  foreign  connoisseurs. 
They  are  now  in  the  Royal  Industrial  Art  Museum  in  Berlin. 
Later  on  a second  pair  with  similar  work  was  sent  to  Germany, 
acquired  by  Dr.  von  Briining,  of  Frankfort  on  the  Main,  and  pre- 
sented to  the  Industrial  Art  Museum  at  that  place.  These  vases 
are  designated  by  the  authors  as  “the  united  work  of  Komai 
Yoshitaka  and  Komai  Yoshihiro,  inhabitants  of  Kioto,  province  of 
Yamashiro.”  They  are  among  the  most  beautiful  works  of  this 
description,  although  they  are  the  first  of  the  above-named  masters. 
The  four  fields,  two  on  each  vase,  represent  silk  culture.  The 
picture  before  us  shows  the  end  of  the  process.  One  girl  is  busy 
with  the  hurdles  upon  which  the  worms  have  been  grown  ; a second 
collects  the  finished  cocoons  ; a third  brings  them  away  ; a fourth 
sits  at  the  old  simple  reeling  apparatus,  a little  stove  with  a coal 
fire,  on  which  the  water  is  being  heated  in  the  iron  pan  placed 
above  it.  She  has  thrown  in  a handful  of  cocoons  and  is  about 
to  reel  off  the  silk  threads.  A fifth  girl  is  busy  hanging  up  the 
strands  of  reeled  silk  to  dry.  The  fineness  of  the  embossing  goes 
so  far  as  to  give  the  pattern  of  the  clothing,  which  is  recognis- 
able even  in  the  small  scale  of  the  picture.  Many  of  these  newer 
Zogan-works  on  cast  iron  are  rendered  more  prominent  through 
the  steel  blue  or  dead-black  groundwork,  a peculiar  kind  of 
“ Niello,”  which  is  made  of  lacquer  putty,  or  Shakudo,  and  pro- 
duces an  effect  .like  the  works  of  Zuloaga  of  Madrid,  whose  name 
is  known  to  every  friend  of  art  industry  and  visitor  at  the  great 
exhibitions,  by  its  magnificent  inlaying  of  iron. 

Copper  (Aka-gane,  Do),  the  most  widely  distributed,  and  next 
to  iron  the  most  important  metal  of  Japan,  is  said  to  have  been 
found  here  first  in  708  A.D.  But  without  doubt  it  was  known  to 
the  inhabitants  much  earlier,  as  is  indicated  by  prehistoric  dis- 
coveries. Among  these  and  side  by  side  with  stone  weapons  and 
coarse  earthen  vessels,  are  also  copper  swords  and  small  round 
bells  (Suzu)  of  copper  plate,  and  other  bells  (Tsuri-gane)  of  con- 
siderable size.1  Copper  probably  came  first  with  Buddhism  from 
China  and  Corea  to  Japan.  It  is  certain  that  it  has  served  for  the 
ornamentation  and  outfitting  of  Buddhist  temples  and  pagodas,  as 
in  India  and  China,  in  manifold  forms,  from  the  first  introduction 
of  Buddhist  teaching  till  the  present  time. 

If  it  does  not  play  in  Japanese  religion  and  in  the  household  so 
prominent  a part  as  in  India,  where  copper  and  brass  vessels  have 
served  for  ages  the  manifold  purposes  for  which  we,  generally, 
use  wooden,  clay  and  glass  ware,  it  is  nevertheless  in  Japan  often 
substituted  for  the  earthen  vessel  as  well  as  for  iron,  zinc  and  tin. 
Among  other  useful  copper  utensils,  I mention  only  the  Yatate  or 
portable  writing-case,  in  which  the  Japanese  business  man  carries 

1 See  Kanda  Takahira  ; “On  some  Copper  Bells.”  “Transact.  As.  Soc.  of 
Japan,”  vol.  iv.  p.  29  to  33. 


INLAID  VASE  OF  CAST-IRON. 

Original  in  the  Royal  Kunstgewerbe  Museum  Berlin. 


METAL  INDUSTRY. 


437 


with  him  his  brush  and  fluid  India  ink,  the  Kana-darai,  the  wash- 
dish  of  brass  or  copper,  and  the  Yuwakashi  or  copper  kettle  for 
boiling  water. 

Copper  cannot  be  cast  like  iron  and  bronze,  because  it  makes 
bubbles  and  forms  holes  in  stiffening.  It  is  therefore  worked  up 
into  wire  and  sheet  form.  It  is  very  much  used  in  this  form  for 
mounting  fine  boxes  and  cabinets,  with  holds  and  cramps,  which 
are  most  tastefully  decorated  by  engraving  of  arabesques,  flowers, 
birds,  and  other  things.1 

I will  give  here  another  method  of  treating  copper,  which  has 
not  yet  been  mentioned  anywhere  else.  I first  became  acquainted 
with  it  through  the  celebrated  bronze  manufacturer,  Kanaya  Goro- 
saburo,  in  Kidto.  Besides  many  sorts  of  bronze  ware,  he  makes 
also  small  copper  water-kettles,  holding  from  a half  to  a whole 
liter,  in  which  only  the  revolving  knob  of  the  cover  and  the  two 
soldered  handle-ears,  are  made  of  a brass-like  bronze.  The  forms 
of  these  kettles  are  extraordinarily  pleasing,  including  the  handle, 
whose  upper  part  is  finished  with  a beautiful  plaiting  of  rattan. 
The  ornamentation  of  the  simplest  kettles  consists  of  a lustrous 
dark  coffee-brown  patina,  after  whose  preparation  vine  decorations 
and  other  light  and  pleasing  designs  are  engraved  upon  it.  The 
reddish  brown  copper  colour  which  appears  in  the  engraved  leaves 
and  flowers  and  also  in  the  lustrous  dark  brown  ground  colour  is 
very  effective.  The  richer  ornamentation  consists  of  inlaying  and 
encrusting  with  silver  and  gold.  The  inside  of  the  kettle  also 
generally  receives  a silver  plating,  as  a protection  against  acids. 
The  dark  coffee-brown  colour  of  copper  and  bronze,  as  I saw  it  on 
a copper  Yuwakashi,  is  obtained  in  the  following  manner.  Equal 
weights  of  green  vitriol  (Roha),  copper  vitriol  (Tampan),  and  sul- 
phur (Iwo),  are  respectively  mixed  with  water.  The  copper  article 
is  then  dipped  in  this  bath,  which  must  be  often  stirred  on  account 
of  the  finely  distributed  sulphur,  and  then  rinsed  in  a second  bath 
prepared  in  the  same  way,  but  very  much  thinner.  This  process  is 
repeated  till  the  necessary  corrosion  is  attained,  which  is  recog- 
nised by  long  practice.  The  vessel  is  then  brought  to  the  Hibachi 
or  fire-pan,  and  heated  here  on  an  iron  grate,  whose  bars  are  from 
eight  to  twelve  centimeters  distant  from  each  other,  and  with  fre- 
quent turning.  In  order  not  to  endanger  the  soldering,  these  bars 
are  sprinkled  from  time  to  time  with  water  in  which  Kariyasu 
( Calamagrostis,  Hakonensis,  Franch.  and  Sav.)  has  been  boiled. 
The  vessel  is  now  rubbed  with  a cloth,  then  painted  lightly  with 
,'Ki-  (or  Seshime-)  urushi,  rubbed  again  with  the  cloth,  painted  once 
more  and  now  heated  until  the  sprinkled  Kari-yasu  water  rolling 

1 I have  never  observed  in  Japan  the  Indian  and  Persian  method  of  decorat- 
ing copper  vessels,  by  giving  them  a coating  of  tin  in  which  the  ornamentation 
is  engraved  or  carved  down  to  the  copper  ground.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
enameling  borrowed  from  the  Chinese  is  well  known  and  practised.  Fuller 
details  in  regard  to  this  will  be  found  in  the  last  chapter  of  this  section. 


438  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


away  in  balls,  indicates  the  amount  of  heat.  The  copper  article 
is  then  taken  from  the  grate  with  a pair  of  tongs  and  coated  with  a 
mixture  of  raw  lac  (Ki-urushi)  or  Seshime  and  lamp-black  (Yuyen- 
sumi).  It  is  then  heated  again  up  to  the  point  where  the  water 
rolls  away  in  balls,  brushed  over  and  painted  anew  with  the  lac 
mixture,  and  so  on,  till  colour  and  lustre  have  the  desired  shade, 
whereupon  the  work  is  finished  and  the  article  is  set  aside  for  a 
second  cooling. 

Kanaya  Gorosaburo  told  me  that  he  obtained  the  same  patina 
with  bronze  by  a quite  similar  process.  He  maintained  further 
that  many  workmen  used  vegetable  wax  instead  of  lac,  but  that 
such  an  Iro-tsuke  (process  of  colouring)  could  not  be  recommended. 
It  is  striking,  however,  that  the  lac  or  its  substitute  is  not  car- 
bonized by  the  heat. 

Fig.  1 6 is  a woodcut  showing  a copper  box  ; and  fig.  17  (p.  439-) 
shows  its  cover.  The  box  is  plated  on  the  inside  with  thick  silver 


Fig.  16.— COPPER  BOX  WITH  INLAID  WORK. 

( Property  of  the  Royal  Industrial  Art  Mtiseum,  Berlin.) 


plate,  and  the  outside  coloured  a dull  greyish  brown.  Its  inlaying 
of  the  clouds  on  the  sides  is  done  in  gold. 

The  most  beautiful  part  is  the  ornamentation  of  the  cover  in 
surface-relief,  showing  a hill  with  a rivulet  winding  around  it. 
The  prominent  figure  well  placed,  chased  and  represented  for 
raised  inlaid  work  (in  which  both  the  gold  and  silver  alloys,  Shaku- 
do  and  Shibuichi  are  used)  is  the  cock ; his  comb  and  the  short 
tail-feathers  which  are  seen  on  the  wings  and  back  are  of  natural 
copper  colour ; the  copper  tail  is  bronzed  in  blackish  brown. 
Wings,  cheek  and  throat  are  of  several  shades  of  gold-yellow,  also 
the  legs  ; the  feathers  of  the  .back  arranged  like  a row  of  tiles,  are 
coloured  silver-grey  by  means  of  Shibuichi,  likewise  the  little 
chicken  hurrying  to  the  water,  all  except  the  gold-coloured  legs. 
The  artist,  in  order  to  represent  the  sun  shining  upon  its  head  and 
throat,  has  used  pure  glistening  silver.  The  Wistaria,  which  gives 
the  picture  a beautiful  finish,  has  its  stems  and  under  leaves 


METAL  INDUSTRY. 


439 


covered  with  light  yellow  gold  ; the  rest  of  the  leaves  and  tendrils 
with  dark  yellow,  the  blossoms  with  silver,  Shibu-ichi  and  copper. 
On  one  side  of  the  rivulet  may  be  seen  a blooming  dandelion 
whose  leaves  are  inlaid  with  light  gold  and  the  blossoms  of  dark 
gold.  The  whole  has  a wonderful  effect,  full  of  life  and  force. 

The  following  are  the  most  prominent  of  the  numerous  copper 
alloys  (Maze-gane),  which  have  to  be  considered  in  Japanese  Art 
Industry. 

1.  Shin-chiu,  brass.  This  contains  usually  thirty  per  cent,  of 
zinc  to  seventy  per  cent,  of  copper. 

2.  Kara-kane  (literally  China-metal),  bronze.  Bronze  is  under- 


Fig.  17. — COVER  OF  THE  BOX,  WITH  INLAID  WORK  AND  CHASING. 

stood  now-a-days  to  indicate  the  many  different  alloys  of  copper 
with  tin,  with  tin  and  zinc,  with  tin,  zinc,  and  lead,  to  which  anti- 
mony may  sometimes  be  added,  but  in  all  of  which  copper  is 
predominant.  These  bronzes  serve  many  different  purposes,  and 
are  employed  both  in  art  and  for  practical  objects. 

3.  Shibu-ichi,  an  alloy  of  copper  and  silver,  in  which  the  latter 
varies  from  6 to  32  per  cent. 

4.  Shaku-do,  copper,  in  which  from  2 to  5 per  cent,  of  gold  is 
mixed. 

Besides  the  common  brass  that  is  used  for  wash-dishes,  fire-pans, 
hoops  around  large  rice  bowls,  bindings  of  chests  and  several  other 
purposes,  an  alloy  is  prepared,  by  the  name  of  Ko-do,  of  both 


44° 


ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


metals,  with  35  per  cent,  of  zinc,  and  is  worked  up  in  a similar 
manner.  The  Japanese  do  not  share  the  predilection  of  the 
Indian  people  for  brass  utensils,  but  they  nevertheless  employ 
great  skill  and  care  in  ornamenting  the  few  they  do  use.  Alloys 
which  are  made  up  in  the  manner  of  the  Indian  Bidri  wares,  in 
which  zinc  amounts  to  90  or  95  per  cent,  and  copper  forms  but  a 
small  constitutent,  are  not  known  in  Japan.  Here,  for  ages  past, 
the  most  various  metallurgic  skill  and  ornamentation  is  concen- 
trated upon — 


Kara-kane.  Bronze. 

This  alloy  has  an  old  history.  Besides  serving  manifold  technical 
purposes,  it  has  been  for  ages  the  favourite  of  artists,  the  material 
in  which  art  made  her  first  attempts  and  obtained  her  highest 
triumphs.  Weapons  and  working  utensils  of  bronze,  made  very 
hard  by  repeated  hammering,  were  preferred  by  many  nations  to 
those  of  iron.  So  also  in  Japan.  The  oldest  prehistoric  metal  dis- 
coveries in  this  country  are  bronze  bells  and  arrow  heads,  concern- 
ing whose  origin  and  age  we  can  only  speculate. 

Bronze  shares  with  iron  and  brass  the  great  advantage  of  being 
much  more  fluid  in  a molten  state  than  copper,  and  in  casting  to 
perfectly  fill  out  the  mould,  and  therefore  to  reproduce  it  exactly, 
besides  presenting  on  cooling  a close  homogeneous  texture.  Most 
of  the  bronze  alloys  shrink  much  less  than  cast  iron  ; the  decrease  of 
volume,  however,  which  accompanies  gradual  cooling  has  no  such 
great  influence  upon  the  clear  outline  of  the  casting,  as  that 
shrinking  which  takes  place  in  the  sudden  solidifying  of  many 
metals. 

A further  advantage  of  bronze  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  is  so  easy 
to  be  worked  upon  with  hammer,  chisel  and  burin.  Its  hardness 
is  similar  to  that  of  antimony  and  lies  in  most  cases,  as  also  in 
brass,  and  especially  in  the  old  copper  bronzes  of  Japan,  between 
3 and  3 -5.  The  hardness  is  therefore  greater  than  that  of  the 
single  constituents  of  the  alloy,  including  copper.  The  colour, 
ductility,  texture  and  hardness  are  all  dependent  on  the  compo- 
sition of  the  bronze.  Among  all  the  Japanese  bronzes  (the  old 
copper  bronzes  not  excepted)  which  I have  been  able  to  examine 
I found  none  whose  hardness  equalled  that  of  fluor  spar,  while 
(according  to  E.  Reyer 1 ) the  hard  bronzes  of  the  ancient  nations, 
which  were  free  from  zinc  and  lead,  had  a hardness  of  between  5 
and  6.  The  cause  of  the  greater  density  and  hardness  of  these 
old  bronze  pieces,  as  axes,  chisels,  arrow  heads,  swords  and  other 
weapons,  is  doubtless  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  they  were  made 
with  the  hammer,  as  castings  of  a similar  composition  do  not  show 

1 E.  Reyer:  “Hartbronze  der  alten  Volker.”  Journal  f.prakt.  Chernie.  Bd. 
25,  1882,  p.  258. 


METAL  INDUSTRY. 


441 


these  qualities.1  Nevertheless,  the  closeness,  hardness,  toughness 
and  other  internal  properties  of  the  Japanese  bronze  are  not  the 
ones  by  which  they  are  especially  distinguished  and  excel  those 
of  the  Chinese,  but  rather  their  colour  and  ornamentation.  The 
colours  range  through  all  the  shades  of  brown  and  grey  from  light 
yellow  to  the  finest  and  most  effective  dead  black,  and  are  dis- 
tinguished by  great  uniformity,  such  as  is  possible  only  when  this 
proceeds  from  a natural  chemical  re-action,  which  is  dependent  on 
the  composition  and  not  on  painting. 

When  one  considers  the  small  technical  aids  which  the  Japanese 
can  rely  upon  in  his  bronze  work,  his  remarkable  accomplishments 
in  patina-work  are  the  more  surprising.2  The  dead-black  bronze 
articles  which  have  come  in  ever  increasing  numbers  within  the 
last  few  years  to  Europe,  have  especially  attracted  the  attention  of 
interested  circles,  because  of  their  novelty  and  striking  beauty,  and 
have  led  also  to  thorough  analyses  and  experiments.  This  has 
been  done  principally  in  Paris,  the  city  which  for  three  centuries 
has  rejoiced  in  the  well-founded  reputation  of  being  able  to  execute 
in  bronze  industry  the  best  that  Europe  could  offer.  The  re- 
searches of  H.  Morin,3  Christofle  and  Bouilhet,4  and  E.  J.  Maumene 5 
were  particularly  notable. 

In  Germany,  the  unsatisfactory  state  of  many  public  bronze 
monuments  led  to  thorough  investigations  of  the  formation  of 
patina,  among  which  those  of  R.  Weber 6 are  especiall)''  noteworthy. 
The  collective  result  of  all  these  studies  may  be  summed  up  as 
follows  : — 

By  the  terms  patina,  antique  patina  or  “ noble  rust  ” ( JEnigo 
nobilis),  formerly  only  the  malachite  green  or  blue-green  efflores- 
cence of  carbonate  of  copper  was  understood,  as  it  is  often  found 
on  old  bronze  and  copper  works.  This  patina  is  always  smooth, 
but  does  not  cover  the  article  evenly,  as  the  metal  always  gleams 
through  it.  It  is  also  found  in  modern  bronze  monuments,  for 
instance  in  the  statue  of  the  Great  Elector  at  Berlin,  in  the 
equestrian  statue  of  Elector  Johann  Wilhelm  in  the  market  place 
at  Diisseldorf,  and  in  the  monuments  of  Louis  XIV.  and  Louis 
XV.  in  Paris. 

1 This  proves  at  least  their  greater  density,  while  another  molecular  arrange- 
ment must  account  for  the  greater  hardness,  though  I do  not  know  that  this 
can  be  effected  by  simple  hammering. 

2 G.  Bousquet  remarked  upon  this  in  his  very  interesting  article,  “ L’Art 
Japonais,”  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes , 1877,  tome  xxi.  p.  325,  as  follows  : “On 
ne  saurait  s’imaginer  dans  quelles  miserables  echoppes  et  par  quels  moyens 
primitifs  ils  obtiennent  ces  resultats.” 

3 “ Sur  quelques  bronzes  de  la  Chine  et  du  Japon  h patine  fonce.”  Comfit. 
Rendus,  t.  73,  1874,  p.  81 1. 

4 “ N otes  sur  des  reactifs  permettant  d’obtenir  des  patines  de  divers  couleurs 
h la  surface  des  bronzes.”  Co7tifit.  Rend.,  t.  72,  1874,  p.  1019. 

5 “ Notes  sur  les  Bronzes  du  Japon.”  Comfit.  Rend.,  1875,  t.  80,  p.  1009. 

6 “ Ueber  Patinabildung,”  von  Prof.  R.  Weber,  Dingl.  Polyt.  Journ.,  Bd.  245, 
1882,  p.  86. 


442 


ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


This  *patina  formation  is  due  partly  to  the  composition  of  the 
bronze  and  partly  to  the  atmosphere.  Precious  copper  bronze 
consisting  of  copper  and  tin  only,  is  marked  by  it  more  than  other 
kinds.  A large  amount  of  dampness  in  the  atmosphere,  and  salt, 
together  with  rain  and  frequent  washing,  favour  its  production, 
while  coal-dust,  sulphide  of  hydrogen  and  sewer  gases  hinder  it. 

The  black  coating  of  many  bronze  monuments,  which  so  often 
takes  the  place  of  the  beautiful  colour  of  the  fresh  casting,  is  not 
due  usually  to  sulphide  of  copper,  but  to  particles  of  coal  and  dust, 
with  a small  mixture  of  oxides.  A watery  solution  of  carbonate 
of  ammonia  put  on  with  a brush,  is  excellent  for  removing  this,1 
while  the  artistic  production  of  the  patina  is  best  done  by  means 
of  acetic  ammonia  of  copper-potassium.  Zinc  alloys,  especially 
brass,  blacken  easier  than  those  without  zinc.  Copper  containing 
arsenic  also  shows  greater  inclination  to  blacken. 

Now-a-days  patina  is  understood  to  include  every  accidental  or 
intentional  colouring  of  a metal  or  an  alloy  which  differs  from 
the  original.  Chemical  analysis  has  shown  that  the  beautiful  dead- 
black  colouring  of  many  of  the  Japanese  bronzes,  which  sets  off  so 
finely  its  decoration  of  inlaid  work,  incrustation  and  other  orna- 
mentation, is  due  to  the  lead  in  the  alloy,  which  usually  amounts  to 
something  over  10  per  cent,  and  in  single  instances  sometimes  to 
20  per  cent,  as  shown  in  table  B at  the  end  of  this  chapter.  Of 
the  old  bronzes  only  the  small  Egyptian  idols,  of  which  table  A 5 
gives  an  analysis,  exhibit  as  high  and  still  higher  percentage 
of  lead.  When  the  alloy  contains  so  large  a mixture  of  lead 
it  becomes  very  brittle,  while  the  Japanese  bronzes  with  9 to  14 
per  cent,  of  lead,  7 to  2 per  cent,  of  tin,  and  a corresponding 
amount  of  zinc,  satisfy  all  claims,  as  they  are  easily  cast,  form  a 
homogeneous  mass,  and  by  this  means,  as  well  as  by  their  even 
hardness,  are  easy  to  work,  which  is  not  possible  when  the  zinc 
is  left  out.  The  fine  dead-black  patina  is  produced  by  simple 
heating  in  a close  furnace,  and  is  caused  in  part  by  the  formation 
of  a sub-oxide  of  lead.  Christofle  and  Bouilhet  have  shown,  how- 
ever, by  their  investigations,  that  a fine  black  patina  may  be 
obtained  without  lead.  Their  process  amounted  to  the  same  thing 
as  forming  a sulphide  of  copper  on  the  surface  of  the  bronze. 
Brown,  red  and  orange-yellow  tints  were  also  produced,  which 
answered  every  purpose. 

The  Japanese  have  an  expedient  for  shading  according  to  taste 
the  colour  obtained  in  the  tempering  of  the  bronze,  which  has  not 
been  known  nor  tried  elsewhere.  This  is  by  a kind  of  grass,  called 
Kari-yasu  {Calamagrostis  Hakonensis,  Fr.  and  Sav.),  a corrosive  sub- 
stance of  astonishing  effectiveness.  By  boiling  its  roots  and  apply- 
ing the  liquid  to  the  bronze,  they  obtain  the  said  effect.  An  exact 
chemical  analysis  of  this  substance  has  not  yet  been  made,  but  very 
possibly  it  may  have  some  importance  for  our  bronze  industry. 

1 According  to  Briihl  in  Dingl.  Polyt.  Journ.  1882,  p.  256. 


METAL  INDUSTRY. 


443 


We  recognise  in  the  artistic  treatment  of  Japanese  bronze  vases 
at  least  three  periods,  which  naturally  are  less  sharply  distin- 
guished in  time  than  in  fashions,  following  close  upon  each 
other. 

The  alloys  of  the  old  bronze  vases  and  bronze  castings  generally 
are  almost  always  rich  in  copper,  while  lead  and  antimony  appear 
as  only  accidental  constituents.  Among  their  manifold  forms 
the  broad  long-necked  flasks  with  cone-shaped  bodies  seem  to 
rule,  also  the  shape  of  a mortar,  among  the  forms  of  handles  the 
imitation  of  elephant’s  trunk.  Generally  the  very  tasteful  decora- 
tion is  simple,  and  executed  mostly  in  surface  relief  by  chasing 
and  engraving.  Arabesques  and  the  elements  of  the  Meander 
in  manifold  combinations  are  the  ruling  designs ; clouds  and 
waves  and  small  landscapes  also  appear.  The  principal  effect  is 
wrought  by  well  designed  alternation  and  symmetrical  arrange- 
ment. Inlaying  and  enamel  are  entirely  wanting.1  A second 
tendency  of  taste,  which  likewise  originated  in  China,  ruled  in 
Japan  during  the  last  century,  and  is  still  powerful  there.  It  is 
distinguishable  from  the  first,  not  so  much  in  the  composition  and 
figure  of  the  vases  as  in  their  ornamentation.  A high  relief  ob- 
tained by  casting  and  chasing,  with  which  the  vases  are  often  over- 
grown and  overloaded  in  wild  confusion,  something  like  the  flowers 
of  our  porcelain  vases,  which  singly  often  show  great  artistic  skill, 
and  which  are  often  beautifully  raised  up  on  the  well  designed 
dark  background,  but  which  confuse  by  their  own  fulness  of  deco- 
ration and  entirely  conceal  the  character  and  form  of  the  vase. 

The  latest  period,  whose  beginning  does  not  date  very  far  back 
of  the  time  when  the  country  was  opened  by  Commodore  Perry, 
indicates  unmistakably  great  progress  in  Japanese  bronze  industry. 
This  is  especially  found  in  the  tasteful  arrangement  of  colours  and 
in  a better  sense  of  the  right  amount  of  ornamentation.  The  high 
reliefs  do  not  play  such  a prominent  part,  while  inlaying  and  in- 
crustation are  combined  very  effectively  with  chasing  and  engrav- 
ing. Such  decorations  on  dark  bronze  containing  lead  have  been 
brought  from  the  towns  Kanazawa  and  Takaoka  in  Kaga  and 
Echiu,  but  are  now  also  made  considerably  in  Tokio.  Kioto,  the 
old  seat  of  Japanese  industry,  has  not  stopped  behind  ; here  too, 
the  effort  to  accomplish  a shading  of  the  colours  and  choice 

1 These  characteristics  of  the  old  Japanese  bronze  vases  agree  entirely  with 
those  of  the  Chinese,  in  the  Middle  Ages.  I have  such  a one  in  my  posses- 
sion made  in  the  15th  century.  It  is  only  i8‘5  centimeters  high,  has  in  general 
a four-sided  prismatic  figure  with  a rectangle  as  cross  section ; it  increases  in 
width  from  the  middle  toward  the  top  and  still  more  toward  the  bottom,  where 
it  is  provided  with  rounded  corners  and  ends  with  a small  foot.  Elephant 
trunks  as  handles  cover  two-thirds  of  the  narrow  side  from  top  to  bottom. 
The  decoration  consists  of  two  sorts  of  Meander  figures  (HJ1J1J1),  which 
are  separated  by  a smooth  band  at  the  narrowest  place.  The  inscription  runs 
in  Sinico-Japanese  : “ Dai- Min  Sen-Tok-Nen-Sei,”  i e.  manufactured  in  the 
Sen-tok  period  (1426-1435  a.d.)  of  the  great  Ming  dynasty. 


444  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


arrangement  has  found  new  ways  and  means.  This  is  shown  by 
the  vase  on  Plate  XVIII.1  The  flowers  (Camellia  Sasanqua)  and 
leaves  are  raised  from  the  dark  brown  ground  in  lighter  colours  ; 
the  bird  and  the  spider-web  inlaid  with  silver  wire  are  well  re- 
presented. The  work  is  new  and  wrought  entirely  in  the  Kioto 
style.  Here  bronze  containing  lead  is  less  used,  but  there  is  much 
relief-inlaying  and  incrustation. 

Among  the  useful  bronze  articles  seen  in  the  homes  of  well- 
to-do  Japanese,  are  the  flower  vases  (Hana-ike),  the  censers 
(Ko-r6),  braziers  (Hibachi)  and  mirrors  (Kaga-mi),  while  common 
people  must  content  themselves  with  the  much  cheaper  earthen  and 
other  substitutes.  Artistic  bronze  work  finds  its  most  important 
and  many-sided  employment  in  the  manifold  decorations  of  Buddhist 
temples.  Here  various  Buddhas  and  other  idols  astonish  and  im- 
press the  beholder  chiefly  by  their  colossal  and  exceedingly  fine 
casting,  which  is  even  more  notable  in  a number  of  gigantic  bells. 
The  monuments  of  the  Shoguns  at  Nikko  and  at  Shiba  in  Tokio, 
lanterns  and  a number  of  smaller  articles  of  bronze,  as  vases,  can- 
dlesticks, censers  and  several  others,  also  attract  the  attention 
and  furnish  proof  that  bronze  industry  has  reached  its  highest 
development,  principally  in  the  service  of  the  Buddhist  religion, 
and  that  a considerable  amount  of  copper  has  been  used  in  its 
alloys. 

Many  of  these  prominent  monuments  were  ordered  to  be  cast  by 
princes  who  wished  thereby  to  make  themselves  acceptable  to  gods 
and  men  ; others  are  presents  of  private  persons,  or  the  results  of 
public  collections,  which  the  priest  stimulated  as  much  through 
ambition  as  pious  feeling.  So  long  as  these  last  were  common 
among  the  higher  classes  of  society,  the  gifts  for  the  maintenance 
and  adorning  of  the  temple  and  cloisters  flowed  in  abundantly, 
while  since  the  political  revolution,  the  greatest  indifference  to  all 
these  things  has  been  manifest. 

Among  the  Dai-Butsu  or  “large  Buddhas”  of  bronze,  those  of 
Nara  in  Yamato  and  of  Kamakura  in  Sagami  are  most  prominent 
of  all  because  of  their  enormous  dimensions.  The  Nara-no-Dai- 
Butsu  is  in  a spacious  temple  hall,  884.  meters  long,  51 '8  meters 
broad,  and  48 '2  meters  high,  whose  roof  is  supported  by  176  pillars. 
It  represents  Rochana  (Vairochana),  sitting  with  legs  crossed  under 
him,  upon  an  open  lotus  flower.  The  left  hand  of  the  idol  rests 
upon  the  corresponding  knee,  the  right  is  raised  with  its  back 
turned  towards  the  upper  arm,  in  such  a way,  that  the  points 
of  the  three  out-stretched  fingers  reach  almost  to  the  height  of  the 
shoulders,  while  the  thumb  and  index  finger  are  bent  toward  each 
other.  Buddha  is  represented  in  this  manner  as  a teacher.  The 
idol  was  cast  between  741  and  749  A.D.,  by  the  order  of  Shomu 

1 This  was  most  kindly  lent  me  for  the  illustration  by  Herr  Paechter  (R. 
Wagner,  Kunst-  und  Verlags-handlung,  Berlin,  Dessauerstrasse  2),  from  his 
rich  and  choice  collection. 


Rein,  Japan.  II. 


Plate  XVIII. 


Bronze  Yase  from  Kioto. 


Wilhelm  Engelmann,  Leipzig. 


METAL  INDUSTRY. 


445 


Tenno.  In  1180  a fire  destroyed  the  head.  The  present  ugly  one 
was  cast  in  1570,  at  a time  when  art  industry  was  in  a very  low 
state.  The  oldest  part  of  the  body  and  the  lotus  flower  consist  of 
plates  from  18  to  30  centimeters  thick,  having  a surface  of  30  to  36 
centimeters,  which  are  soldered  together  at  the  edges  with  Handaro 
(tin-solder).  The  entire  height  of  this  Buddha  is  1605  meters 
(53*5'),  the  length  of  the  face  4'8o  meters  (16'),  the  width.  2-35 
meters  (9’S').  the  width  of  the  shoulders  8'6i  meters  (287'),  the 
length  of  the  middle  finger  1*5  meters  (5'),  that  of  one  ear  275 
meters  (8-5')l  The  halo  which  surrounds  the  head  has  a diameter 
of  234.  meters  (78')  and  each  of  the  16  figures  which  appear  in  it, 
a length  of  24.  meters  (8'). 

The  total  weight  of  this  Buddha  is  estimated  at  450  tons.  In 
its  casting,  which  did  not  succeed  until  after  several  vain  attempts, 
copper,  tin,  quicksilver  and  gold  are  said  to  have  been  used.1  If 
the  quantity  of  these  metals  be  reckoned  as  they  are  given,  in 
kilogrammes  and  per  centage,  the  alloy  will  be  found  as  follows  : 


Copper 

447,273  kg. 

= 98-o6  per  centage 

Tin 

7,633  ,, 

= 1-68 

Quicksilver 

977  ,, 

= 0‘2 1 „ 

Gold 

227  „ 

— °‘°5  „ 

456,110 

— IOO'OO 

and  therefore  456  tons  as  the  weight  of  the  metal  used. 

The  great  Buddha  of  Kamakura  which  is  so  often  copied  (see 
vol.  i.  p.  460)  is  not  so  large  as  that  of  Nara,  but  far  excels  it  in 
artistic  execution.  This  bronze  figure  represents  Amida  sitting  on 
a lotus  flower,  but  without  the  aureole.  The  nobly  formed  head 
is  most  symmetrically  built  and  well  proportioned  in  all  its  parts. 
The  artist  has  succeeded  in  lending  to  the  expression  of  counten- 
ance, and  to  the  whole  bearing,  the  blessed  peacefulness  of  Nirvana. 
The  hands  lying  in  the  lap  with  the  fingertips  touching  each  other, 
heighten  the  indications  of  restfulness,  which  are  unmistakable. 

This  Buddha  also,  which  was  cast  in  1252  A.D.  by  Ono  Goroye- 
mon,  does  not  consist  of  one  piece  only  but  was  put  together  from 
many  plates  of  about  three  centimeters  thickness,  with  such  care 
and  skill,  that  those  seams  only  can  be  recognised  which  have  been 
exposed  by  the  weather  during  the  course  of  time.  Many  of  the 
foundation  stones  of  the  great  building  which  formerly  enclosed 
this  monument  are  still  preserved,  and  on  these  stood  the  sixty- 
three  massive  columns  of  Keaki  wood,  which  supported  the  roof. 
This  Buddha  also  consists  mainly  of  copper.  Its  height  is  15-11 
meters,  the  circumference  at  the  base  29-6  meters,  and  the  distance 

1 I do  not  know  the  chemical  analysis.  As  Japan  furnishes  no  quicksilver 
and  does  not  use  it  in  other  bronzes,  its  employment  in  this  case  is  doubly 
striking. 


446  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


from  ear  to  ear  54.  meters.  It  is  said  that  the  eyes  are  of  pure 
gold,  and  that  the  knob  on  the  forehead  contains  thirty  pounds  of 
silver. 

The  statue  which  is  found  in  the  temple  Yaku-shi-ji  at  Nara  is 
much  smaller  than  the  preceding,  but  is  nevertheless  one  of  the 
finest  and  most  interesting  bronze  statues  of  Japan.  It  represents 
Yaku-shi  (Bhaishagyaguru)  and  originated  at  the  close  of  the 
7th  century.  In  design  and  execution  it  belongs  to  the  most 
notable  productions  of  bronze  casting  in  Japan.  To  these  also 
belong  the  great  Tsuri-gane  or  hanging  temple  bells,  of  which 
several  of  the  finest  (as  for  example,  that  of  the  Zozo-ji  at  Shiva 
in  Tdkio),  have  perished  in  the  flames  within  the  last  twenty  years 
with  the  temples  and  many  other  art  treasures. 

The  largest  of  the  still  existing  bells  (Kane)  is  to  be  found  in 
the  temple  San-jiu-san-gen-do  in  Kioto.  This  is  4^27  meters  high, 
and  274  meters  wide,  with  walls  274.  centimeters  thick.  Its  weight 
is  estimated  at  63  tons.1  Several  other  old  bells  are  about  3 meters 
high  and  correspondingly  wide.  The  most  beautiful  and  interesting 
of  these  belongs  to  the  finely  situated  old  monastery  of  the  Tendai 
sect,  in  the  wood  not  far  from  Mii-dera  at  Otsu  on  Lake  Biwa. 
This  great  bell  is  said  to  have  been  made  by  Hidesato,  a celebrated 
hero  of  the  10th  century,  arid  is  the  subject  of  many  stories  and 
legends  of  the  vicinity.  Its  beautiful  tones  belong  to  the  eight 
wonders  (attractions)  of  the  Biwa  Lake.  When  heard  on  a summer 
evening,  sounding  far  over  the  lake  through  the  peaceful  country, 
they  make  a never-to-be-forgotten  impression  upon  the  mind  of  a 
stranger. 

These  colossal  temple  bells,  and  a number  of  smaller  ones,  are 
usually  decorated  on  the  outside  with  Chinese  proverbs,  and  with 
Ten-nin  (angels  in  Nirvana),  in  rows  of  regular  knobs,  and  in 
many  other  ways.  Usually  several  dragon  heads  form  the  ears  on 
which  they  are  hung  very  low,  under  a scaffold  and  roof  in  the 
temple  court.  They  have  no  clappers  but  are  struck  from  the  out- 
side by  a beam  hanging  and  swinging  from  two  ropes,  in  a place 
which  was  raised  up  in  the  casting  for  this  purpose. 

While  some  of  these  very  old  Tsuri-gane  astonish  the  beholder 
by  their  remarkable  casting  and  size,  there  are  16  smaller  bells 
(Kane)  in  a neighbouring  building  of  the  temple  at  Nikko  which 
no  less  awaken  our  surprise.  These  are  just  alike  externally  in 
form  and  size,  but  when  rung  yield  distinctly  and  with  finest  effect 
all  the  tones  of  two  octaves. 

Mirrors,  Japanese  Kagami,  have  been  from  olden  times  cast  from 
bronze  in  the  countries  of  Chinese  civilization,  owing  to  the  lack 
of  proper  glass.  On  the  back  they  are  decorated  with  reliefs 

1 This  bell  has  almost  the  same  dimensions  as  the  big  one  in  Peking,  which 
the  emperor  Yungloh  ordered  to  be  cast  in  1406.  This  is  said  to  weigh  60  tons, 
to  be  4*27  meters  high  and  io‘30  meters  in  circumference  at  the  rim.  Its  sur- 
face is  covered  with  Chinese  characters. 


METAL  INDUSTRY. 


447 


representing  mythological  persons,  birds,  flowers,  weapons  and 
pithy  expressions.  This  is  done  after  the  front  of  the  casting  has 
been  polished  off  till  from  o-5  to  2-5  millimeters  thick,  and  finally 
coated  with  an  amalgam  which  is  composed  of  from  one  to  two 
parts  tin,  and  one  part  of  quicksilver.  These  metal  mirrors  are 
generally  circular  in  form  with  a diameter  of  15 '5  to  16  centimeters. 
There  is  at  one  side  a staff-shaped  handle,  with  which  they  are 
held. 

It  was  known  to  the  Chinese  many  centuries  ago,  that  some  of 
these  mirrors  when  they  reflected  the  sunlight  on  the  wall,  mirrored 
at  the  same  time  the  raised  figures  on  their  backs,  more  or  less 
distinctly. 

These  mirrors  are  found  also  in  Japan.  The  property  mentioned 
was  long  ago  discovered  accidentally  by  Japanese  ladies,  as 
Muraoka1  has  pointed  out.  Atkinson,2  however,  was  the  first  to 
call  general  attention  to  this  phenomenon,  while  Brewster 3 pub- 
lished a work  on  the  magic  mirrors  of  China  in  1883.  In  modern 
times  these  mirrors  have  been  investigated  by  several  physicists. 
We  are  indebted  especially  to  the  larger  works  of  Ayrton  and 
Perry,4 5  Govi,6  and  Bertin,6  all  of  whom  agree  in  the  explanation  of 
the  phenomena. 

It  was  thought  formerly  that  the  pictures  and  decorations  at  the 
back  of  the  mirror  plate  were  inlaid  with  some  other  metal,  or  that 
by  beating  the  mirror  with  a hammer  at  these  figured  places  a 
greater  density  was  produced,  or  the  peculiar  property  was  at- 
tributed to  the  composition  of  the  alloy  itself.  All  these  explana- 
tions have  proved  false  on  closer  investigation.  The  analyses  show 
that  the  mirror  bronzes  have  often  a very  different  composition,  as 
is  seen  in  table  C. 

The  Italian  Govi  has  pointed  out  convincingly  that  the  peculiar 
property  of  the  magic  mirror  proceeds  from  the  polishing,  and  is 
accidental,  but  can  be  easily  produced.  It  is  due  to  the  uneven- 
ness in  the  convex  arching  which  the  reflecting  surface  receives  in 
polishing,  in  consequence  of  the  uneven  pressure  from  the  back, 
and  is  entirely  independent  of  the  chemical  composition.  Later 
on  Muraoka  and  others  proved  experimentally  that  mirrors  can 
be  made  not  only  of  bronze  and  brass,  but  also  of  simple  metals 
which  will  exhibit  these  magic  properties  in  like  manner.  They 
are  shown  even  more  beautifully  than  in  the  sunlight,  when  a 

1 “ Erklarung  der  magischen  Eigenschaften  des  japanischen  Bronzespiegels 
und  seiner  Herstellung.”  “ Mittheil.  der  deutsch.  Gesellsch.  Ostasiens,”  Heft 
31,  1884. 

2 Nature , vol.  xvi.  1877,  p.  62. 

3 Philosophical  Magazine,  vol.  1. 

4 “ On  the  Magic  Mirrors  of  Japan.”  “ Proc.  Roy.  Soc.”  xxviii.  pp.  127-142. 

5 “ Les  Miroil-s  magiques  des  Chinois.”  “Ann.  de  Chim.  et  de  Phys.”  5 Serie. 
T.  xx.  1880,  pp.  99-110. 

6 “ Etude  sur  les  Miroirs  magiques.”  “ Ann.  de  Chim.  et  de  Phys.”  5 Serie. 
T.  xxii.  1881, ,pp.  472-513. 


448  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


number  of  divergent  rays  fall  on  the  mirror  and  are  projected  upon 
a white  wall.  In  this  way  the  forms  of  the  figures  and  designs 
are  seen  sharply  outlined  in  a bright  light,  while  they  are  not  to 
be  found  on  the  surface  of  the  mirror. 

Shiro-kane-dzaiku,1  i.e.  white  metal  work,  is  the  collective  name 
for  the  many  small  metallic  ornaments  which  were  used  formerly 
for  the  decoration  of  swords,  Netsukes,  and  many  other  purposes  ; 
but  in  modern  times  are  exported  and  highly  prized  in  Europe  as 
brooches,  medallions,  cuff-buttons,  ear-rings,  bracelets,  etc. ; for 
they  belong  at  least  in  part  to  the  finest  works  of  Japanese  art. 
The  care  and  skill  with  which  these  articles  are  chased  and  en- 
graved, incrusted  and  inlaid,  is  astonishing  and  pleasing,  and  no 
less  the  extremely  tasteful  and  effective  combination  and  shading 
of  colours,  which  our  jewellers  have  not  been  able  to  obtain  till 
quite  recently. 


SHIRO-KANE  MEDALLION. 

In  these  Japanese  works,  the  before-mentioned  alloys,  Shaku-dd 
and  Shibu-ichi,  are  employed  chiefly.  The  dark  blue  to  dead 
black  of  the  first,  is  very  uniform  and  is  especially  effective  as 
ground  work,  likewise  the  silver-grey  of  the  Shibu-ichi.  The 
shading  in  this  work,  as  in  bronze,  is  best  done  by  a decoction  of 
Kari-yasu.  Besides  the  two  mentioned  gold  and  silver  alloys, 
precious  metals  also  in  their  pure  state  are  used  in  this  work. 
Got6  Yu-j6,  who  died  in  1513  at  the  age  of  seventy-eight,  is  re- 
garded as  the  founder  of  this  school.  For  a long  time  the  art 
was  employed  principally  on  Menuki  and  Tsuba  for  the  decoration 
of  sword  handles.  Shiuraku  and  Temmin  are  regarded  as  the 

1 We  sometimes  confuse  this  word  with  Oki-mono.  The  Japanese  give  this 
name,  however,  to  knicknacks  of  all  kinds,  such  as  little  carved  figures,  larger 
than  Netsukes  and  not  bored  through  ; also  to  the  lacquered  In-ro,  or  medicine 
boxes,  and  many  other  things. 


METAL  INDUSTRY. 


449 


great  masters  in  this  art,  as  well  as  in  making  of  fine  metal 
Netsukes. 

Pure  silver  or  gold  wares,  or  a combination  of  the  two,  were 
formerly  seldom  manufactured.  This  has  changed,  however,  since 
the  Japanese  have  visited  the  great  International  Industrial  Ex- 
hibitions. Lately  the  exhibitions  in  Nuremberg  and  other  places 
have  shown  in  an  astonishing  manner  how  skilful  the  gold  and 
silversmiths  of  Kioto  and  Tokio  are  in  treating  these  easily  worked 
and  most  responding  of  all  metals,  and  in  the  effect  which  they 
are  able  to  lend  to  their  artistic  workmanship. 


As  an  Appendix  to  this  Section,  the  following  analyses  of 
Japanese  and  Chinese  bronzes  are  given,  together  with  those  of  other 
bronze  castings,  for  the  sake  of  comparison.  I call  attention  to 
the  following  explanation  of  the  tables  : — 

Table  A.  Nos.  1,2, 3, 4,  are  analyses  of  old  bronzes  from  the  Japan- 
ese temples,  by  Maumene  in  “ Notes  sur  les  bronzes  du  Japon,”  par 
M.  E.  J.  Maumene.  Compies  Rendus , t.  80,  1875,  pp.  1009  and  1010. 

No.  5 is  the  analysis  of  a small  Egyptian  figure  of  Isis,  by 
W.  Flight  in  the  Journ.  Chem.  Soc.,  41,  p.  134. 

Nos.  6,  7,  8.  These  analyses  were  published  by  E.  Reyer  in  the 
Journal  fiir  praktische  Chemie , Bd.  25,  1882,  p.  258,  under  the 
title,  “ Hartbronze  der  Alten  Volker.” 

No.  6 refers  to  bronze  of  Cyprus  in  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great. 

No.  7 is  the  analysis  of  an  axe  found  at  Limburg,  a reddish, 
gold-yellow  alloy,  that  was  coated  firmly  and  toughly  with  thick, 
green  patina.  It  could  be  scarcely  scratched  with  fluor  spar. 

No.  8 is  the  composition  of  a chisel  of  Peschiera,  a mixture  of 
deep  yellow  colour,  and  having  a hardness  like  the  preceding. 

All  the  bronzes  mentioned  here,  show  a very  complicated  com- 
position. It  would  be  a great  error  to  assume  that  they  originated 
purposely  from  the  weighing  and  smelting  together  of  the  con- 
stituent parts.  The  opinion  of  Maumene,  that  they  have  been 
obtained  by  mixtures  of  the  ores  of  copper  pyrites,  galena  contain- 
ing antimony,  and  blend  found  in  them,  seems  to  me  equally 
erroneous.  The  metallurgic  process  of  the  ancient  nations, 
Japanese  included,  was  not  adapted  to  furnishing  chemically  pure 
metals ; and  thus  we  have  the  small  proportions  of  iron,  nickel, 
cobalt,  antimony,  sulphur,  etc.,  simply  as  impurities  of  copper,  tin, 
zinc,  and  lead.  The  same  is  true  of  the  exceptions  in  which 
bronze  analyses  show  traces  of  precious  metals. 

Table  B.  Nos.  1-7,  are  analyses  of  Japanese  bronzes  with  dark 
patina,  published  by  H.  MoHn.  Comptes  Rend.,  tome  78,  1874, 
p.  81 1.  “Sur  quelques  bronzes  de  la  Chine  et  du  Japon  a 
patine  fonce.”  The  large  proportion  of  lead  which  distinguishes 
nearly  all  these  beautiful  alloys,  approaches  in  No.  5 to  the  little 
old  Egyptian  bronze  figure,  as  given  in  Table  A,  No.  5.  It  is  not 
surprising  also  that  Morin  found  traces  of  arsenic  and  sulphur  in 

II.  G G 


4So 


ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


most  of  the  before-mentioned  analyses,  and  in  two  of  them,  gold 
and  nickel  also. 

Table  C give  the  relative  amounts  of  the  metals  which  are  used 
in  bronze  mirrors.  No.  I is  the  analysis  of  such  an  alloy,  accord- 
ing to  Champion  and  Pettet,  Nos.  2 and  3 the  composition  of  the 
mirror-bronzes  of  Kioto,  and  No.  4 an  analysis  by  Atkinson.  The 
rest  are  taken  from  the  “ Annales  de  Chimie  et  Physique,”  t.  xx., 
1880,  p.  136.  Iyo-shirome  and  Tori-shirome  = Antimony  from 
lyo  and  from  Tori. 

Table  D needs  no  explanation. 

Concerning  Table  E,  I note  that  most  of  the  analyses  taken 
from  Dingier s Polyt.  Journal  are  chiefly  the  work  of  Prof.  R. 
Weber.  No.  I is  a natural  bronze  by  Elster  ; 2,  the  composi- 
tion of  the  “Grosser  Kurfurst”;  3,  Friedrich  Wilhelm;  4,  the 
Horse  Tamer ; 5,  the  Statue  of  Brandenburg  in  Berlin  ; 6,  gives 
the  analysis  of  the  equestrian  statue  of  the  Kurfurst  Johann  Wil- 
helm in  the  market  place  at  Diisseldorf ; while  7 and  8 show 
the  composition  of  two  bronze  statues  in  Paris,  of  Louis  XIV.  and 
Louis  XV. 

A.  Analyses  of  Old  Bronzes. 


I 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

1 7 

8 

Copper  . . . 

86-38 

80-91 

88-70 

92-07 

6842 

8176 

83-65 

88-o6 

Tin  ...  . 

1 '94 

7'55 

2-58 

1-04 

0.94 

10-90 

15-99 

1176 

Zinc  .... 

3'36 

3'o8 

37i 

2-65 

— ■ 

— 

• — 

— 

Lead .... 

5-68 

5 '33 

3'54 

22-76 

5'25 

— 

— 

Antimony  . . 

i-6i 

0-44 

O'lO 

— 

o-6  7 

— 

— 

Iron  .... 

0-67 

1 '34 

1-07 

3 '64 

4-69 

0-15 

traces 

traces 

Nickel  . . . 

— 

— 

— 

078 

traces 

063 

traces 

Cobalt  . . . 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

I '22 

— 

— 

Sulphur . . . 

— 

0-31 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Arsenic  . . . 

— 

— 

- — 

— 

1.48 

— 

— 

. — 

Phosphorus  . 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

0-05 

0-03 

Silicic  Acid  . 

O'lO 

o-i6 

0-09 

0-04 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Loss  .... 

0-26 

079 

0*21 

0-56 

0-26 

072 

— 

015 

100-00 

lOO'OO 

lOO'OO 

lOO’OO 

lOO’OO 

J 00*00 

1 100-32 

10000 

B.  Analyses  of  Chinese  and  Japanese  Bronzes,  with 
Blackish  Patina. 


I 

2 

3 

4 

I 5 

6 

7 

Copper  

82-72 

82-90 

8170 

S3'Q9 

72-09 

72  72 

7146 

Tin 

4'36 

2-64 

3'  27 

3'2 3 | 

572 

7-27 

602 

Zinc 

r86 

274 

3-27 

0-50 

o-6  7 

6"oo 

5 '94 

Lead 

9'9° 

1046 

11-05 

11-50 

20-31 

1479 

1674 

Iron 

055 

0-64 

0-67 

0*22 

173 

0-28 

0-25 

99'39 

9978 

99-56 

9874 

100-32 

100-46 

IOO’OI 

METAL  INDUSTRY. 


45i 


C.  Mixtures  for  Chinese  and  Japanese  Bronze  Mirrors. 


> 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

Copper  . . 

So'8 

80 

80 

76-3 

75 -2 

Si'3 

870 

8i'3 

7i'S 

Tin  . . . 

16-5 

IS 

— 

23'6 

22'6 

16-3 

87 

— 

Zinc  . . . 

3°'S 

Lead  . . . 

2 "2 

S 

10 

I3'1 

— 

' 

— 

— 

— 

Iyo-shirome 

— 

10 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Tori-shirome 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

i6'3 

28-s 

IOO'O 

IOO'O 

IOO'O 

1130 

97'8 

9 7 '6 

957 

97'6 

IOO'O 

D.  Metal  Mixtures  of  Kanaya  Gorosaburo  in  Kioto. 


Japanse  Names  of  Bronzes. 

K6-d6. 

T6-d6. 

Sei-dd. 

Kio-do. 

Ko-to- 

do. 

Kin-shi- 

d6. 

Kuro-do. 

Sento- 

ku-do- 

mo. 

Kara- 

kane. 

Sento- 

ku. 

Copper  . . . 

65 

80 

20 

60 

80 

48 

60 

35 

Tin  ...  . 

— 

70 

15 

6 

IO 

30 

1 7 

Zinc  .... 

35 

— 

IO 

25 

— 

32 

— 

48 

Lead .... 

— 

20 

— 

— 

14 

— 

— 

— 

Antimony  . . 

— 

— 

— 

— 

IO 

IO 

— 

100 

100 

IOO 

IOO 

IOO 

IOO 

IOO 

IOO 

E.  Mixtures  of  German  and  French  Bronze  for 
Statues. 


I 

2 

3 

4 

S 

6 

7 

8 

Copper  . . . 

Tin  .... 
Zinc  .... 
Lead .... 

86'6 

6'6 

3'3 

3'3 

8779 

8'20 

177 

2'20 

87-44 

3 '20 
8-89 
o'65 

84'55 

o'i4 

I5'63 

o'i6 

89-15 

176 

8'59 

0-32 

7174 

2-37 

25-58 

0-91 

9i'4o 

1-70 

575 

i'37 

8245 

4-10 

10-30 

3-i5 

99-8 

99'96 

ioo-i8 

10048 

99-82 

ioo"6o 

99-82 

IOO'OO 

4S2 


ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


8. — Ceramics. 

Prefatory  Remarks.  — Classification  of  Clay-wares  with  special 
regard  to  the  Japanese. — Historical  Survey. — Beginnings  and 
Accomplishments  of  the  Industry  of  Japan  till  the  Introduction 
of  the  Potter  s Wheel. — Progress. — Influence  of  Cha-no-yu. — The 
Invention  and  Manufacture  of  Porcelain  in  China. — Introduction 
of  the  Manufacture  in  Japan. — Its  centres,  also  of  the  Stone- 
ware Industry.  — A rita,  Nayeshirogawa,  Kagoshima,  Kioto, 
Seto,  Ota,  Hongo,  Kaga.  — Stone-ware.  — Banko-yaki  and 
Imbe-yaki. 


Literature. 

1.  A.  Brogniart : “Traite  des  arts  ceramiques  et  des  poteries.”  Paris,  1844. 

2.  B.  Kerl : “ Handbuch  der  gesammten  Thonwaaren-Industrie.”  2 Aufl. 
Braunschweig,  1879. 

3.  Leger,  Hoffmann  u.  Biedermann  : “ Thonindustrie-Zeitung.” 

4.  Dingler’s  “ Polyt.  Journal.”  Bd.  198  and  227,  with  Analyses  of  Bischof 

and  von  Giimbel.  Bd.  246.  “ Ueber  Glas,  Glasuren,  Porzellane,  Steinzeuge, 

und  feuerfeste  Thone,”  von  G.  Wagener. 

5.  “ Zeitschrift  der  deutschen  geologischen  Gesellschaft.”  32  Band,  i860, 
with  W.  Pabst : “ Untersuchungen  von  chinesischen  und  japanischen  Gesteinen 
zur  Porzellanfabrication.” 

6.  “Transactions  of  the  Asiat.  Soc.  of  Japan,”  1878.  E.  Satow  : “The 
Corean  Potters  in  Satzuma,”  1880.  B.  W.  Atkinson  : “ Notes  on  the  Porcelain 
Industry  of  Japan.” 

7.  A.  W.  Franks  : “Japanese  Pottery.”  London,  1880. 

8.  A.  W.  Franks:  “Catalogue  of  a Collection  of  Oriental  Porcelain  and 
Pottery.”  London,  1876. 

9.  “ Katalog  der  Oriental,  keram.  Ausstellung  im  orientalischen  Museum  zu 
Wien.”  1884. 

10.  Ninagawa  Noritane  : “ Kwan-ko-dzu-setsu,  or  History  and  Description 
of  Ceramic  Art.”  Tokio,  1876-77. 

11.  Capt.  Brinkley:  A History  of  Japanese  Ceramics.  The  Chrysanthemum 
and  the  Phoenix.”  Vol.  iii.  No.  1-6.  Yokohama,  1886. 

12.  La  Ceramique,  par  M.  J.  Bing,  in  the  magnificent  work  of  L.  Gonse  : 
“ L’Art  Japonais.”  Paris,  1883. 

13.  G.  Audsley  and  James  Bowes  : “Ceramic  Art  of  Japan.”  London,  1881. 

Pottery  industry  derives  its  name,  Ceramics,  from  a Greek 
word — a designation  which  is  used  on  account  of  its  brevity,  as  it 
embraces  everything  that  is  formed  out  of  clay  by  the  hands  of 
men  and  baked,  from  the  common  bricks  to  the  finest  porcelain. 
The  old  Greeks  and  Romans  knew  of  clay  (/cepa/zo?1)  that  when 
it  was  wet  it  would  stick  to  the  feet,  and  when  dry  to  the  tongue ; 
also  that  it  had  a peculiar  smell  when  breathed  upon,  which  cannot 
be  described  and  yet  cannot  be  mistaken.  They  knew  also  its 
plastic  character,  and  its  resistance  to  the  influence  of  water  and 

1 k e'pupor  signified  originally  a drinking-horn,  and  then  also  the  earthen 
vessel  and  the  clay  from  which  it  was  made. 


CERAMICS. 


4S3 


fire,  and  utilized  these  exceedingly  valuable  qualities  in  the  manu- 
facture of  their  very  durable  brick  and  of  many  sorts  of  vessels, 
as  do  we  also.  The  nature  of  potter’s  clay,  its  origin,  and  the 
manner  of  its  transformation  when  burned,  so  far  as  they  could 
not  be  apprehended  at  a glance,  also  the  geological  and  chemical 
properties,  were  as  hidden  from  them  as  from  the  Chinese  and 
Japanese,  although  these  nations  brought  ceramic  industry  to  its 
highest  perfection,  and  for  a long  time  excelled  all  others  in  the 
variety  of  raw  materials  employed,  of  the  products,  and  of  their 
modes  of  ornamentation. 

No  other  branch  of  industry  is  of  older  origin,  and  no  other  is 
better  adapted  in  its  gradual  development,  and  in  the  manner  of 
treating  the  raw  material,  to  a people  of  intelligence,  artistic  sense, 
and  progress,  than  Ceramics.  Its  products  enable  us  to  judge  of 
the  limited  civilization  of  the  Trojans,  and  to  recognise  and 
admire  the  developed  artistic  sense  and  love  of  beauty  of  the 
Greeks  and  Etruscans.  Buried  for  thousands  of  years  in  ruins 
and  dust,  they  still  preserve  their  form  and  decoration,  and  have 
become,  as  they  have  been  excavated  in  modern  times,  not  only  a 
rich  field  of  antiquarian  investigation,  but  also  often  the  patterns 
most  worthy  to  be  imitated  in  our  modern  industry. 

In  face  of  the  fact  that  the  clay-ware  industry  of  many 
countries  and  peoples  reaches  back  into  pre-historic  times,  that  its 
productions  were  almost  indispensable  to  human  beings,  we  can 
scarcely  imagine  in  our  own  minds  the  civilization  in  the  time  of 
our  ancestors  without  them.  And  yet  there  was  a time  in  Ger- 
many when  the  people  lived  in  caves,  and  supported  life  by 
hunting  reindeer,  bears,  and  other  quadrupeds ; when,  like  the 
South  Sea  islanders  at  their  first  contact  with  Europeans,  they 
were  unacquainted  with  metals  and  clay-wares,  and  prepared  their 
food  on  heated  slate  and  sandstones,  instead  of  in  pots  and  pans. 

But  to  return  to  the  Ceramic  Art  of  Japan.  For  its  better 
comprehension  I give  in  advance  a survey  of  the  products  con- 
cerned. Following  the  precedent  of  Brogniart,  the  various  kinds 
of  pottery  are  usually  divided  into  two  large  groups,  and  dis- 
tinguished as  soft  and  hard,  corresponding  to  the  Japanese 
designations,  Tsuchi-yaki  and  Ishi-yaki,  i.e.  “ Burned  Earth  ” and 
“ Burned  Stone.”  The  soft  clay-wares  are  burned  generally  with  a 
smaller  degree  of  heat,  as  in  the  fire  of  a porcelain  furnace  they 
would  fuse  together  or  smelt.  The  material  is  opaque,  shows  an 
earthen  fracture,  is  easily  scratched  with  a knife,  is  porous,  and 
generally  permits  the  filtering  through  of  liquids.  The  glazing 
which  is  used  to  prevent  this,  and  at  the  same  time  as  a foundation 
for  further  decoration,  is  either  alkali-  or  lead-glaze.  In  both  cases 
it  unites  with  a part  of  the  silicic  acid  of  the  ware,  producing  a thin 
transparent  glaze,  or  it  is  a tin-glaze  which  lies  pretty  thick  upon 
the  surface  and  forms  an  opaque  milk-white  enamel. 

All  earthenwares,  from  brick  to  the  finest  Faience,  belong  to 


454  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


this  large  division.  In  most  of  the  subdivisions,  clays  (Tsuchi)  are 
used.  In  consequence  of  mineral  impurities,  these  burn  to  a grey, 
yellow,  red,  brown,  or  black,  so  that  the  colour  of  the  fracture 
contrasts  sharply  with  that  of  the  glazing.  The  less  careful  pre- 
paration of  the  clay  mass,  by  means  of  selection  and  pulverizing, 
corresponds  to  the  smaller  value  of  such  wares.  This  group  em- 
braces : 

(a)  Unglazed  earthenware,  Japanese  Kawarake,  brick  or  Renga- 
seki,  and  tiles,  Kawara.  The  simplest  and  cheapest  clay-wares  of 
Japan  are  made  of  brick-red  burned  Kawarake;  they  consist 
of  dishes  for  baking  beans,  of  small  flat  plates  on  which  rice  and 
other  food  is  offered  to  the  Shintd  gods,  and  of  vessels  for  pre- 
paring certain  medicines.  Most  of  the  tiles,  at  least  those  burned 
in  a suburb  of  Tokio,  have  a blackish  grey  colour. 

- (b)  Terra-cotta  and  other  antique  dishes,  having  a thin  glazing 
which  is  produced  by  incipient  smelting  on  the  surface.  These 
products  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  are  distinguished  from  those 
of  other  nations  by  the  careful  pulverizing  and  preparation  of  the 
raw  material,  and  by  their  fine  forms  and  decorations.  The  largest 
earthen  vessels  of  Mediterranean  countries  must  be  reckoned  under 
this  head  ; for  example,  the  urn-shaped  Tinajas  of  the  Spaniards, 
which  are  used  for  keeping  olive  oil,  and  often  hold  one  hundred 
Arobas  of  25  liters  each.  In  the  Crimea  and  in  Asia  Minor, 
similar  urns  are  used  for  wine,  and  in  Japan  the  Tsubo  formed  in 
the  same  way  are  used  as  receptacles  for  closets.  According  to 
Thunberg,  Swota  on  the  bay  of  Shimabara  furnishes  very  large 
urns,  that  are  used  instead  of  casks  for  the  reception  of  faecal 
matter. 

(t)  Common  pottery  with  lead  or  salt  glazing.  A large  part  of 
the  earthen  dishes  of  Japan  belong,  like  our  own,  to  this  class. 
The  so-called  Toyosuke-yaki  of  Nagoya  also,  which  is  beautifully 
ornamented  with  lacquer  painting,  is  made  of  this  kind  of  earthen- 
ware. 

(( d ) Common  enamelled  Faience  and  Majolica.  This  has  a 
porous  earthy  fracture,  of  different  colours  from  that  of  the  opaque 
glazing  or  the  thick  coating  of  tin  enamel,  which  forms  a sharply 
defined  white  crust.  Many  of  the  common  table  dishes,  having 
the  appearance  of  porcelain,  but  opaque,  the  Delft  ware  with  it.} 
blue  cobalt  decorations,  so  celebrated  in  the  17th  century,  and  the 
enamelled  Faience  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  Majolica  belong  to  this 
class.  Japan  can  point  to  but  few  wares  which  may  be  catalogued 
here.  The  grey,  brown,  and  green  plates  and  vases,  with  raised 
enamel  decorations,  manufactured  in  the  province  of  Ise,  and 
often  designated  with  stone-ware  as  Banko-yaki,  must  be  classed 
as  Majolica  wares. 

(e)  Delft-ware,  half  porcelain  or  fine  Faience,  was  for  a long  time 
called  Henry  II.  It  ranks  between  hard  burned  porcelain  and 
porous,  soft  earthenware.  Delft-ware  is  made  of  pure,  carefully 


CERAMICS. 


455 


prepared  paste,  very  much  like  porcelain,  and,  like  it,  receives  a 
transparent  glazing.  The  fragment  is  white  or  yellow,  close,  hard, 
opaque,  and  of  earthy  fracture.  Faience1  in  Japan,  as  with  us, 
plays  a large  part  in  art  pottery.  The  celebrated  Satsuma  wares, 
Awata-yaki,  Awaji,  Ota  crockery,  and  other  kinds  belong  to  this 
group  of  pottery.  As  they  are  not  exposed  to  so  great  a heat 
as  porcelain,  they  offer  a wide  field  for  artistic  polychrome 
decoration. 

The  second  large  division  of  ceramic  productions  embraces  the 
hard,  compact  clay-wares.  In  burning  they  are  subjected  to  such 
great  heat  that  the  clay  mass  is  thereby  fused  or  verfrittet 3 with- 
out being  smelted.  In  cooling  it  becomes  so  hard  that  it  cannot 
be  scratched  with  a knife,  and  has  a clear  sound.  The  fragments 
show  a smooth,  conchoidal  fracture.  The  confused  mass  of  small 
crystalline  needles,  which  may  be  seen  with  a microscope  on  the 
glazed  crack,  or  the  embedding  of  such  needles  in  the  amorphous, 
glassy  mass  is  so  close,  that  the  article,  even  without  glazing, 
would  be  impervious  to  water.  Porcelain,  stone-ware,  and  jasper 
or  Wedgewood-ware,  belong  to  the  dense,  hard  clay-ware. 

Stone-ware  (see  note)  is  made  of  ordinary  material,  and  with  less 
care  than  porcelain.  It  is  greyish  white,  often  yellow,  red,  and 
brown,  even  to  black  in  colour,  dense,  highly  vitrified,  hard  and 
resonant  and  transparent  only  at  the  edges.  The  glaze  is  a 
genuine  glass,  and  is  usually  produced  in  the  furnace  by  allow- 
ing the  steam  of  the  salt  to  operate  upon  the  hot  earthenware, 
whereby  the  muriatic  acid  thus  engendered  escapes.  Germany 
was  especially  distinguished  among  European  countries  in  the  16th 
century  for  its  stone-ware  or  flint-ware  industry.  The  towns  of 
Hohr  and  Grenzhausen  in  the  “ Kannenbackerland,”  near  Monta- 
baur,  still  carry  on  the  industry  extensively.  Mineral-water  jugs 
and  drainage  pipes  also  belong  to  flint-ware.  In  England  it  in- 
cludes the  celebrated  Wedgewood-ware,  especially  jasper  and 
Egyptian  black  or  basalt-ware,  likewise  the  larger  part  of  the  so- 
called  jasper  or  red  porcelain  which  Bottger  manufactured  at 
Meissen  in  1 707-1 71 2,  after  Chinese  patterns.  In  Japan,  the 
Banko-yaki  in  Ise  and  the  Imbe-yaki  of  Bizen  are  the  chief  pro- 

1 In  many  German  collections  and  books  we  find  a remarkable  confusion  of 
naming  in  regard  to  Faience,  stone-ware,  and  flint- ware,  though  the  chief 
Faience  manufacturers  in  Germany,  such  as  Boch  in  Metlach,  Guillaume  in 
Bonn,  and  Wessel  in  Poppelsdorf,  are  clear  enough  in  their  distinctions.  They 
call  their  goods  “ Steingut,”  knowing  that  there  is  no  difference  between  it 
and  fine  Faience,  while  the  word  “ Steinzeug,”  or  stone- ware,  should  be  con- 
fined to  the  productions  of  the  “Kannenbackerland”  (the  pottery  district  of 
Hohr  and  Grenzhausen,  near  Coblenz),  and  similar  hard-burnt  crockery,  which 
strike  fire  with  steel.  Steingut,  or  Delft-ware,  has  not  been  known  in  Japan 
longer  than  porcelain.  But  the  origin  of  stone- ware  is  almost  as  ancient  as 
that  of  ceramics  in  general. 

2 Verfritten  is  derived  from  the  Italian  fritta  (roasted).  Fritle  means  the 
mixture,  e.g.,  of  the  components  of  the  glass  in  the  preliminary  smelting. 
Fritta  colours.  Fritta  porcelain. 


456  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


ductions  of  this  class.  Chinese  jasper-ware  and  open-work  flint- 
ware  are  said  to  come  from  the  province  of  Shantung.  The 
Moritz  House  in  The  Hague,  and  Leyden,  have  particularly  fine 
specimens  of  it. 

Porcelain  stands  at  the  head,  as  the  noblest  member  of  the 
numerous  family  of  ceramics.  To  it  belong  all  the  dense,  hard,  trans- 
parent and  resonant  white  clay -wares  with  or  without  glaze.  Wher- 
ever glazing  is  employed,  it  is  always  transparent  and  very  closely 
united  with  the  porcelain,  from  which  it  differs  only  in  its  easier 
fusibility.  The  porcelain  itself  is  usually  made  of  the  purest 
material  and  baked,  after  careful  preparation,  with  a high  degree 
of  heat.  In  spite  of  the  properties  already  mentioned,  the  defini- 
tion of  porcelain  is  much  more  difficult  than  might  at  first  sight 
appear.  For  the  differences  in  the  elements  and  the  composition 
by  which  it  is  conditioned,  are  so  great,  that  on  the  one  side,  it 
approaches  milk  glass,  on  the  other  the  stone-ware  designated  as 
mock-China,  and  the  white  flint-ware  also  so  named.  Unglazed 
porcelain  is  called  biscuit  or  statue  porcelain.  The  glazed  porce- 
lain is  distinguished  as  hard  and  soft.  The  hard  genuine  stone 
porcelain  cannot  be  scratched  with  a knife,  has  a clear  sound,  and 
sometimes  shows  sparks  when  struck  with  steel.  Felspar  or  fel- 
spathic  rock,  together  with  kaolin  is  always  used  in  its  paste, 
which  is  burned  in  a very  great  heat  (from  3000°  to  4500°  C.). 
Hard  porcelain  excels  all  other  clay-wares  in  value  for  household 
use  and  that  of  the  chemical  laboratory,  but  it  is  not  so  good  for 
decorative  purposes  as  the  soft  porcelain  and  Delft-ware,  offering 
many  difficulties  to  polychromatic  ornamentation. 

The  soft  or  fritted  porcelain  has  a lead  glazing,  which  may  be 
scratched  with  the  knife,  produced  by  lead  oxide  with  the  addition 
of  the  .flux.  The  paste  which  is  prepared  from  Tertiary  clay  and 
Kaolin1  flint  receives  an  addition  of  plaster  of  Paris,  or  bone  ashes 
for  a flux.  Soft  porcelain,  whether  it  resembles  Delft-ware  like 
the  English,  or,  like  French  porcelain,  more  nearly  approaches 
glass  in  its  constituents  and  properties,  melts  at  the  temperature 
required  for  baking  the  common  hard  variety.  The  latter  is  there- 
fore chiefly  manufactured  and  used,  and  is  always  meant  when 
porcelain  is  spoken  of  without  distinction.  We  shall  learn,  how- 
ever, that  it  has  many  grades,  and  that  the  Japanese  particularly 
exhibits  many  peculiarities,  as  will  be  seen  from  a description  of 
its  manufacture.  For  a better  understanding  of  the  subject  some 
historical  facts  will  now  be  given. 

The  Japanese,  like  other  nations,  began  in  pre-historic  times  to 
form  earthenware  with  but  inferior  tools  and  material,  and  only 
gradually  reached  a higher  degree  of  artistic  ability.  When  and 
where  common  earth  was  formed  by  the  hand  into  coarse  pots 
and  other  vessels,  and  burned  like  bricks  by  inappropriate  method 

1 For  the  beautiful  Seger-porcelain  of  modern  times,  no  Kaolin  is  used, 
but  Mikroklin  from  Ytterby,  and  fat,  brown-coal  clay. 


CERAMICS. 


457 


of  firing,  can  scarcely  be  ascertained,  and  is  indifferent  to  our 
purposes.  The  chief  sources  of  information  are  the  discoveries 
in  old  tombs  and  other  excavations.  They  show  that  the  pottery 
of  Japan,  during  the  third  century,  and  before  the  Corean  immigra- 
tion,1 was  still  in  swaddling  clothes,  and  centuries  later  had  not 
distinguished  itself  above  the  accomplishments  of  many  other 
nations,  until  the  introduction  of  the  potter’s  wheel.  The  coarse, 
round  forms  with  rough  surface  and  without  decoration,  corre- 
sponded to  the  common  material  and  its  careless  preparation. 
They  were  brick  red,  brown  and  black,  unglazed  terra-cottas,  whose 
colour  was  often  different  on  one  side  from  that  of  the  other,  owing 
to  an  unequal  degree  of  heat  to  which  they  had  been  exposed. 

Brick  roof  tiles  were  burnt  as  early  as  660  A.D.  Flint-ware 
seems  also  to  have  been  early  discovered  by  accident.  Pieces  of 
this  with  a salt  glazing  are  sometimes  found.2  But  all  of  these 
probably  originated  after  the  introduction  of  the  Rokuro  or  potter’s 
wheel.  This  happened  in  724  A.D.,  and  is  attributed  to  the  cele- 
brated Buddhist  priest  Giogi  (670-749  A.D.),  with  whose  name 
several  of  the  oldest  monuments  of  art  in  the  temples  and  cloisters 
at  Nara  are  connected.  That  he  must  have  exercised  a great 
influence  on  the  clay-ware  industry  of  his  country  may  be  seen  in 
the  fact  that  its  older  products  have  the  collective  name,  Giogi- 
yaki. 

Among  the  treasures  of  the  pagoda  Todaiji  at  Nara,  there 
is  a collection  of  black,  (hard,  earthen  articles,  principally  pots 
and  vases,  which  apparently  were  made  in  the  time  of  Giogi,  and 
show  distinct  traces  of  the  potter’s  wheel.  One  of  the  most 
interesting  antique  pieces,  indicating  even  at  this  time  great  skill 
in  using  this  important  apparatus,  is  a vase,  which  was  found  in 
a tomb  at  Hano,  in  Kotsuke,  together  with  valuable  stones,  bronze 
and  iron.  Plate  XXXIII.  at  the  beginning  of  the  before-men- 
tioned works  of  Ninegawa,  gives  a beautiful  illustration  of  it.  It 
is  hard  burned,  of  a blackish  blue  colour  on  the  outside,  and 
reddish  in  the  fracture.  Its  form  resembles  that  of  the  glass 
chalices  known  as  “ Roman,”  if  we  conceive  of  a cover  above  its 
vault,  completing  its  spherical  shape.  This  cover  is  formed  to- 
ward the  top  into  a rather  wide  cylindrical  throat.  The  pro- 
portions are  well  chosen  and  the  disposition  of  the  simple  curved 
and  line  ornamentation  shows  a fine  taste. 

The  introduction  of  a glassy  transparent  glaze  contributed  in 
the  8th  century  to  the  progress  already  obtained  through  the 
potter’s  wheel.  The  salt  glazing  on  stone-ware  was  evidently  the 
oldest  employed,  as  it  has  been  also  in  our  German  pottery,  and 

1 This  began  with  the  conquest  of  a part  of  Corea  by  Jingu  Kogo,  in  202 
A.D.  (See  vol.  i.  p.  217). 

2 The  Ethnographical  Museum  at  Berlin  possesses  a piece  said  to  come 
from  Awa,  the  gift  of  Dr.  Hilgendorf.  It  is  a cylinder  standing  on  broad  feet 
with  three  window-like  openings  in  its  walls. 


458  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


especially  in  baking  stone-ware  for  household  purposes,  has  been 
used  for  many  centuries.  Coloured  opaque  glazing  was  introduced 
gradually,  but  the  white  tin  enamel  has  never  become  really  do- 
mesticated, not  even  in  Cloisonne  ware.  In  the  centuries  following, 
the  introduction  and  general  adoption  of  tea  and  the  so-called  Cha- 
no-yu,  or  ceremonial  tea  parties  (in  which  ladies,  however,  took  no 
part),  proved  a peculiar  stimulus  to  the  manufacture  of  pottery. 
Tea-pots,  tea-cups,  and  urn-like  covered  vases  for  preserving  tea, 
were  much  in  demand.  But  the  taste  of  the  time  had  a peculiar 
tendency,  as  the  coarse  hand-made  vessels  were  preferred  if  they 
could  only  show  the  black  glazing,  which  was  especially  valued  for 
the  preservation  of  the  tea.  These  properties  were  found  notably 
in  the  kind  of  pottery  known  by  the  name  of  Raku-yaki.  This 
was  brought  to  Kioto  about  1570,  by  a Corean  named  Amenya, 
and  called  at  first  Juraku-yaki,  after  a quarter  of  the  city  in  which 
the  furnace  was  located.  But  after  it  had  met  with  the  approval 
of  the  mighty  Taiko-sama  (Hideyoshi),  who  distinguished  its  maker 
by  bestowing  on  him  a golden  seal,  bearing  the  inscription  Raku, 
“ delight,”  this  word  became  universal  as  the  designation  of  these 
wares. 

The  fancy  for  Raku-yaki  and  similar  vessels  for  the  preservation 
and  preparation  of  tea,  as  well  as  the  high  price  which  was  paid 
for  such  black  jars  in  the  second  half  of  the  16th  century,  is 
mentioned  by  several  authors  of  that  time,  Jan  Huygen  van  Lin- 
schoten  1 and  Antonio  de  Morga,2  among  others.  Page  287  of 
the  English  edition  of  Morga  has  this  paragraph  : — 

“ In  this  island  of  Luzon  . . . there  are  to  be  found  amongst 

the  natives  some  large  jars  of  very  ancient  earthenware,  of  a dark 
colour,  and  not  very  sightly.  . . . The  Japanese  seek  for  them 

and  value  them  because  they  have  found  out  that  the  root  of  a 
herb  which  they  call  Cha  (tea),  which  is  drunk  hot,  as  a great 
dainty  and  a medicine  among  the  kings  and  lords  of  Japan,  does 
not  keep  or  last  except  in  these  jars.” 

It  may  indeed  be  doubted  whether  the  peculiar  tendency  of 
taste  which  originated  with  the  Cha-no-yu,  was  not  more  of  a 
hindrance  than  a means  of  advancement,  in  ceramics.  Toward 
the  end  of  the  16th  century,  this  art  succeeded  in  gaining  a new 
foundation,  upon  which  it  soon  attained  a freer  and  more  powerful 
position.  This  -was  the  introduction  of  porcelain  industry  from 
China,  to  which  the  expedition  of  the  Hideyoshi  to  Corea,  was 
the  stimulating  impulse  (see  vol.  i.  p.  266).  Before  we  take  up 
minutely  the  introduction  and  development  of  higher  ceramic  art 
in  Japan,  let  us  glance  first  at  its  products  generally,  and  their 
origin  in  China. 

1 “The  voyage  of  J.  H.  Van  Linschoten  to  the  East  Indies.”  From  the  old 
English  translation  of  1598,  by  A.  Burnell.  London,  Hakluyt  Society,  1875. 

2 “The  Philippine  Islands,  Moluccas,  Siam,  Cambodia,  Japan  and  China,  at 
the  close  of  the  16th  century,  by  A.  de  Morga.”  London,  Hakluyt  Society,  186S 


CERAMICS. 


459 


A white-burning  paste  which  is  usually  prepared  from  two  kinds 
of  substances  finely  mixed  and  pulverized,  namely,  kaolin1  (porce- 
lain or  pipeclay),  and  some  other  mineral  rich  in  silicic  acid,  the 
so-called  flux — usually  felspar  or  pegmatite,  porcelain  stone,2  or 
some  other  white-burning  form  of  quartz,  is  used  in  the  finer  cer- 
amics. Kaolin  is  distinguished  by  its  plastic  character  and  fire- 
proof quality  ; the  other  constituent  of  the  paste  is  called  flux 
because  it  is  fusible,  and  melts  in  the  heat  of  the  porcelain  furnace 
to  a glassy  mass. 

The  relative  proportions  of  the  two  ingredients  of  the  paste, 
and  the  degree  of  heat  to  which  the  articles  must  be  subjected 
in  burning,  depends  on  whether  they  are  to  have  an  earthy  or 
glassy  fracture,  and  whether  they  are  to  be  opaque  or  trans- 
parent, and  consequently  whether  they  will  be  called  porcelain  or 
Faience. 

Kaolin  is  formed  by  the  decomposition  of  felspar  and  kindred 
minerals.  It  is  found  as  a product  of  the  disintegration  of  felspar 
rock,  especially  of  granite,  porphyry  and  gneiss,  always  in  situ , and 
frequently  so  mingled  with  the  solid  quartz  of  these  rocks,  that 
one  can  follow  all  the  steps  of  the  disintegration.  Common 
potter’s  clay,  however,  for  example  the  fatty,  brown-coal  clay  (and 
also  the  loam  of  our  fields)  is  a sediment  formation,  which  is  pro- 
duced by  water  carrying  off  the  original  products  of  the  decom- 
position of  the  rocks  rich  in  alumina,  and  finally  depositing  them  in 
layers,  so  that  their  origin  is  no  longer  recognisable. 

Porcelain,  like  glass,  is  really  a bi-silicate  of  alumina  with  alkali. 
But  while  in  glass  the  proportion  of  silicic  acid  is  at  least  95  per 
cent.,  it  varies  in  porcelain  between  58  and  82  per  cent.  The  pro- 
portion of  alumina  varies  between  9 and  38  per  cent.  The  amount 
of  the  alkali,  in  which  potash  usually  predominates  largely,  amounts 
only  exceptionally  to  5 or  6 per  cent.  The  lime  present  is  seldom 
more  than  a fraction  of  one  per  cent.  A higher  per  centage  of 
silicic  acid  in  the  porcelain  paste  diminishes  its  plastic  character 
(makes  it  dry),  but  renders  the  baking  process  easier,  and  furnishes 
a fine  translucent  porcelain  more  like  glass,  though  not  so  hard. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  quantity  of  alumina  increases  the  plasticity, 
hardness  and  infusible  quality.  The  paste,  which  is  rich  in 
alumina,  however,  requires  more  heat  in  baking,  and  furnishes  a 
porcelain  less  transparent  and  more  difficult  to  be  treated  by  the 
decorator. 

1 The  name  comes  from  Kao-ling,  i.e.  “ high  back.”  This  is  the  name  of 
a hill,  east  of  the  Chinese  porcelain  city,  King-te-chin,  which  hill,  however, 
does  not  yield  the  product  of  decomposition  which  we  in  Europe  call  kaolin,  but 
a phyllite,  whose  chemical  composition  resembles  that  of  the  Swedish  Halle- 
flinta  {?).  It  approaches  that  of  the  Japanese  porcelain  stone  and  of  peg- 
matite, as  is  shown  by  a collection  of  analyses  at  the  close  of  this  chapter. 

2 We  shall  see  further  on  that  these  porcelain  stones,  which  are  wanting  in 
our  pottery  industry,  contribute  greatly  to  that  of  China  and  Japan. 


460  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


G.  Wagener1  classifies  the  common  or  hard  porcelain  according 
to  the  amount  and  relation  of  silicic  acid  contained,  as  follows : 

a.  Clay  porcelain,  like  that  of  Meissen  and  Sevres.  It^contains 
30  to  36  per  cent,  of  alumina,  and  may  be  considered  as  a mixture 
of  infusible  bi-silicate  of  alumina  (Al2  03,  2 Si  02)  with  glass  free 
from  argillaceous  material. 

b.  Flint  porcelain.  This  contains  a surplus  of  silicic  acid,  and 
can  be  baked  in  a lower  temperature  than  the  two  other  groups. 
It  approaches  glass  porcelain  most  nearly.  By  far  the  greatest 
amount  of  the  porcelain  brought  to  the  market  belongs  to  this 
class,  especially  the  Chinese,  Japanese,  and  Bohemian. 

c.  Silicate  porcelain,  a group  formed  chiefly  of  the  porcelain 
product  of  Berlin,  which,  as  is  well  known,  requires  a high  degree 
of  heat  for  baking,  and  excels  all  others  in  hardness  and  fireproof 
quality.  Under  the  microscope,  it  appears  as  a glass-like,  amor- 
phous, homogeneous  mass,  corresponding  to  the  qualities  above 
named,  and  likewise  in  its  chemical  composition,  consisting  as  it 
does  of  over  70  per  cent,  of  tri-silicate  of  alumina  (Al2  03,  3Si  02) 
with  about  24  per  cent,  of  glass  free  from  clay. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  Chinese  invented  porcelain.  Six 
hundred  years  ago  they  manufactured  many  kinds  of  vessels  from 
it,  and  decorated  some  of  them  with  beautiful  colours,  which  we 
are  not  yet  able  to  imitate.  Whoever  wishes  to  see  and  study 
their  great  accomplishments,  even  at  a time  when  the  most  of  our 
clay-ware  was  still  very  rough  and  coarse,  needs  only  to  examine 
the  fine  Royal  collection  at  Dresden.  It  has  been  arranged  chrono- 
logically as  far  as  possible,  but  the  question  as  to  the  time  of  the 
manufacture  of  the  first  porcelain  is  as  little  answered  there  as 
elsewhere.  Much  has  been  written  and  argued  concerning  it,  but 
still  opinions  are  as  divergent  to-day  as  ever.  This  much  is  agreed 
upon,  however,  that  the  invention  is  not  to  be  referred  to  a period 
before  the  Christian  era. 

In  the  district  of  Jaotscheu,  province  of  Kiang-si,  east  of  Lake 
Poyang,  is  situated  the  celebrated  King-te-tschin,  which  supplies 
all  China  with  porcelain.  It  is  said  to  have  employed  in  former 
times  over  3,000  furnaces  for  burning  porcelain,  and  a million  of 
workmen. 

The  Tai-ping  Rebellion,  which  dealt  such  a heavy  blow  to 
Chinese  art  industry  some  thirty  years  ago,  from  which  it  has  not 
yet  fully  recovered,  destroyed  also  the  furnaces  of  King-te-tschin, 
together  with  the  closely  connected  flourishing  industry  of  the 
inhabitants.  Although  much  has  been  done  since  then  to  revive 
it,  it  has  not  yet  attained  its  former  capabilities. 

King-te-tschin  is  situated  about  54  kilometers  north-east  of  the 
capital  Jaotscheu,  and  was  named  about  1004  A.D.,  after  an 
emperor  of  the  Sung  dynasty,  who  established  the  first  porcelain 

1 “ Ueber  Glas,  Glasuren,  Porzellan,  Steinzeuge  und  feuerfeste  Thone,”  by 
Dr.  G.  Wagener  in  Tokio,  Dingl.  Pol.  Journal^  Bd.  246  (1882),  p.  33. 


CERAMICS. 


461 


furnaces  there.  Burning  establishments  for  earthenware,  however, 
had  been  in  existence  there  since  583  A.D.,  according  to  Salvetat,  as 
the  necessary  raw  material  was  found  in  the  neighbourhood.  St. 
Julien  states  that  porcelain  was  manufactured  much  earlier,  and 
places  its  invention  between  185  B.C.  and  83  A.D.  It  has  been 
objected  to  this,  with  justice,  that  the  Chinese  statements  on  which 
he  bases  his  theory,  are  like  those  of  Marco  Polo,1  very  superficial 
and  indefinite,  and  most  probably  relate  to  quite  other  clay-wares. 

The  conception  of  porcelain  2 in  Europe  also,  as  late  as  the  17th 
century,  was  oftentimes  a false  one,  as  the  Netherlanders  often 
called  their  opaque  Faience,  porcelain,  just  as  Bottger  later  made 
the  same  mistake  with  his  red  and  brown  stone- ware.  Names 
signify  little  in  this  connection,  but  the  meaning  is  everything. 
The  Chinese  at  this  time  used  the  name  Thao  for  their  glazed 
opaque  earthenware,  says  Sartel,3  while  the  designation  Yao,  for 
porcelain,  is  said  to  appear  first  in  the  9th  century.  It  is  to  be 
presumed,  therefore,  that  the  hard,  shell-like  white  and  transparent 
wares  which  we  call  porcelain,  were  first  manufactured  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  9th  century.  The  first  unequivocal  mention  of 
porcelain,  made  by  the  Arab  Soleiman,  who  visited  China  about 
the  middle  of  the  9th  century,  agrees  with  this  opinion.  W.  Wil- 
liams,4 who  is  well  acquainted  with  China,  mentions  prominently 
that  King-te-tschin  did  not  furnish  a better  sort  of  porcelain  till 
after  1000  A.D.  This  was  the  time  when  the  cobalt  decorations 
under  glaze  were  first  employed,  which  from  then  till  now  have 
played  such  an  important  part  in  the  ornamentation  of  Chinese 
porcelain,  especially  for  domestic  use  among  the  Chinese  them- 
selves. 

I must  not  omit  to  mention  here,  that  the  late  Sir  Harry  Parkes, 
during  his  long  residence  in  China  and  Japan,  was  always  of  the 
opinion  that  porcelain  was  not  known  till  the  twelfth  or  the  be- 
ginning of  the  thirteenth  century.  The  fact  that  Chinese  porce- 
lain was  not  known  in  Japan  till  the  13th  century,  harmonizes  with 
this  opinion.  Captain  Brinkley,  in  his  work  on  the  history  of 
Japanese  Ceramics,  calls  attention  to  this,  pointing  to  the  fact  that 
Japan,  from  its  earliest  connection  with  China,  either  in  direct 
communication,  or  by  wayof  Corea,  has  prized  and  imported  the 
manifold  productions  of  Chinese  art  industry,  and  it  seems  doubly 
striking,  therefore,  that  porcelain  did  not  appear  earlier,  if  existing 
at  that  time. 

1 “ Histoire  et  Fabrication  de  la  Porcelaine  Chinoise,”  par  S.  Julien.  Preface 
de  M.  Salvetat.  Paris,  1856. 

2 The  name  porcelain  was  introduced  by  the  Portuguese,  who  were  the  first 
to  bring  large  quantities  of  Chinese  products  to  Europe.  It  refers  to  the  ex- 
terior appearance,  resembling  the  shiny  white  of  the  Cypraea  or  porcelain 
shell  (Port.  Porcellana). 

3 O.  du  Sartel,  “ Zur  Geschichte  der  chin.  Keramik,”  in  the  catalogue  of  the 
Orientalische-Keramischen  Ausstellung  in  Vienna,  1884. 

4 “The  Middle  Kingdom.”  Vol.  ii.  p.  23.  London,  1883. 


462 


ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


The  beautiful  coloured  ground  tints,  chalcedony,  dull  violet,  yel- 
low, and  Turkish  blue,  so  much  valued  by  collectors,  began  to  be 
•used  in  the  13th  century.  The  most  flourishing  period  of  Chinese 
porcelain  making,  however,  like  that  of  most  other  branches  of  its 
art  industry,  was  during  the  Ming  dynasty,  especially  in  the 
second  half  of  the  15th  century.  During  this  period  its  manu- 
facture occupied  a new  position,  owing  to  the  emplQyment  of  many 
coloured  decorations  upon  glaze.  The  so-called  five  principal 
Chinese  colours  were  used  for  these,  viz.,  green  (east),  red  (south), 
white  (west),  black  (north),  and  yellow  (earth),  to  which  the  blue 
of  heaven  was  added  as  a sixth.  Gold,  and  gold-purple,  were  not 
used  till  the  year  1690. 

Single  pieces  of  Chinese  porcelain  were  introduced  gradually 
into  the  countries  of  Southern  and  Western  Asia,  and  even  into 
Egypt,  by  the  Arabs  and  Persians.  Its  distribution  in  Europe 
devolved  on  the  Portuguese  after  the  sea-passage  to  India  was 
discovered,  and  later  upon  their  successors  in  trade  with  Eastern 
Asia — the  Dutch  and  English. 

During  the  first  half  of  the  18th  century,  as  has  been  remarked 
on  page  335,  Chinese  patterns  were  borrowed  for  the  new  direction 
in  artistic  pottery,  not  only  at  Meissen  (Bottger),  but  also  at 
Sevres,  Stoke-upon-Trent  (Wedgewood),  and  elsewhere.  The 
porcelain  and  pottery  collection,  founded  by  Augustus  the  Strong, 
king  of  Saxony,  operated  as  a powerful  and  active  stimulus  to  the 
works  of  Bottger  and  his  associates,  so  that  it  is  easy  to  point  out 
how  directly  the  old  Meissen  style  was  formed  by  it. 

The  languages  of  Japan  and  China  have  no  word  which  dis- 
tinguishes porcelain  sharply  and  unequivocally  from  all  other  clay- 
wares  ; but  there  are  enough  other  evidences  that  Japanese  porce- 
lain manufacture  is  not  yet  three  hundred  years  old,  and  that  its 
introduction  is  closely  connected  with  the  expedition  of  Hideyoshi 
to  Corea  in  1592-1598  A.D.  Documents  of  this  date,  and  the 
written  and  orally  communicated  history  of  porcelain  and  Faience 
manufacture  in  the  several  provinces,  as  well  as  its  existing  pro- 
ductions whose  origin  is  well  known,  corroborate  the  belief  that 
it  began  at  this  time  with  the  forced  importation  of  Corean  potters 
by  the  Daimios  of  Satsuma,  Hizen,  Choshiu,  and  several  others,  in 
their  dominions,  in  1598.  The  founding  of  artistic  pottery  by 
these  Coreans  in  Arita,  Naeshirogawa,  Kagoshima,  Hagi,  and  other 
places,  was  one  of  the  most  important  consequence  of  this  expe- 
dition for  the  conquest  of  Corea  and  China.1 

As  has  been  said  before,  Japanese  clay-wares  are  not  desig- 
nated according  to  their  character,  but  their  origin.  Awata- 
yaki,  Kutani-yaki,  Seto-mono,  Banko-yaki,  and  numerous  other 
names,  show  this.  The  designations  Ishi-yaki  for  hard- burned 

1 Corea,  which  now  appears  so  poor  in  comparison  with  China  and  Japan, 
and  whose  art  industry  has  degenerated  so  much,  once  manufactured  many 
articles  of  high  artistic  value,  especially  in  porcelain  and  bronze. 


CERAMICS. 


463 


resonant  porcelain  and  stone-ware,  and  Tsuchi-yaki  for  softer 
earthenwares,  however,  are  known  and  accepted  everywhere. 
Porcelain  decorated  under  glaze  with  cobalt  is  called  Some-tsuke, 
and  as  it  has  been  manufactured  in  quantities  for  household  pur- 
poses for  several  centuries  at  Seto  in  Owari,  Seto-mono  has  be- 
come the  name  not  only  for  this  special  kind,  but  also  for  all  blue 
decorated  porcelain.  This  blue  cobalt  colour  is  the  oldest  in 
Japan  as  in  China,  and  the  most  popular,  as  a glance  in  any 
porcelain  shop  will  show.  (Concerning  its  production  at  Seto, 
see  p.  308.) 

The  finer  ceramics  of  Japan  present  many  very  interesting 
features.  The  manufacture  is  not  limited,  as  in  China,  to  a single 
district,  but  has  a number  of  centres,  corresponding  to  the  distri- 
tribution  of  the  valuable  and  various  raw  materials,  each  of  which 
is  distinguished  by  peculiarities  of  material  and  production.  More- 
over, while  it  is  very  meagrely  furnished  with  apparatus  and  proper 
mechanical  aids,  its  wonderful  products  show  an  astonishing  de- 
velopment. It  furnishes  egg-shell  porcelain  of  unexcelled  fineness 
and  purity,  and  oftentimes  vases  and  flower-pots  so  large  and 
strong,  that  the  largest  European  specimens  of  the  kind  seem  mere 
dwarfs  in  comparison.  The  manufacture  of  stone-ware  is  not  so 
remarkable  in  its  work. 

It  may  be  generally  understood  that  the  Japanese  potter  as  a 
rule  does  not  lay  so  much  stress  on  the  careful  preparation  and 
formation  of  the  material  as  on  the  adornment  of  his  wares. 
Quality,  as  has  been  said  by  M.  Bing,  is  a matter  of  secondary 
importance.1  He  therefore  employs  not  only  the  usual  modes  of 
decoration  both  over  and  under  glaze,  but  has  successfully  brought 
lacquer  painting  and  cell-enamelling  to  bear  upon  porcelain  and 
crockery.  In  the  polychromatic  ornamentation  of  his  wares,  his 
great  talents  and  sense  of  harmonious  and  pleasing  colour-com- 
binations are  especially  conspicuous  ; they  surpass  those  of  other 
nations.  In  this  respect,  his  former  masters,  the  Chinese,  fall  far 
behind  him.  The  Chinese  have  more  brilliant  and  lively  colours 
at  their  command  in  porcelain  painting,  but  they  do  not  often 
understand  how  to  combine  them  effectively,  and  their  efforts  in 
ceramics,  as  in  other  departments,  have  declined,  during  the  last 
few  decades,  with  their  taste  for  the  fine  arts.  The  Japanese,  on 
the  contrary,  has  not  rested  and  rusted.  The  great  amount  of 
incitement  and  instruction  which  he  has  had  during  the  last  twenty 
years  in  the  International  Exhibitions  and  from  educated  foreigners 
in  Japan,  have  not  been  lost  upon  him.  His  progress,  which  has 
been  already  noted  in  Metal  Industry,  is  unmistakable  in  ceramics 
also.  And  in  remarking  upon  this,  it  seems  but  fair  also  to 
mention  the  name  of  Dr.  G.  Wagener  as  one  who,  more  than  any 
other  foreigner,  has  been  able  to  promote  art  industry  in  Japan  by 
his  knowledge  and  practical  advice.  I found  the  traces  of  his 

1 In  “ L’Art  Japonais,”  par  L.  Gonse,  chap.  ix.  La  Ceramique,  vol.  ii.  p.  242. 


464  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


beneficent  and  unselfish  activity  in  the  porcelain  painting  of  Arita, 
in  the  metal  and  enamel  work  of  Kioto,  in  the  cabinet-making  of 
Tdkio,  and  elsewhere. 

Compared  with  our  European  porcelain  and  stone-ware  factories, 
those  of  the  Japanese  seem  small,  a business  employing  forty  or 
fifty  labourers  being  one  of  the  largest.  The  lighter  labours,  such 
as  rubbing  the  colours,  glazing,  etc.,  are  often  performed  by  women, 
while  the  working  of  the  material,  shaping,  and  burning,  is  always 
done  by  men.  In  order  to  form  an  idea  of  the  extremely  simple 
and  primitive  working  apparatus,  we  must  throw  ourselves  back 
a hundred  years  or  more,  into  the  time  when  in  our  own  country 
porcelain  was  burned  in  low  kilns,  and  the  entire  preparation  of  the 
material  was  effected  without  machines,  or  with  only  the  help  of  the 
simplest  possible  water-power  works.  In  Japan,  too,  the  materials 
needed  are  not  all  usually  found  in  the  place  of  manufacture,  and 
nowhere  are  they  prepared  and  then  brought  to  market,  as  in  China, 
for  instance,  or  as  the  “ China  clay  ” in  England,  but  every  factory 
provides  them  for  itself,  in  raw  condition,  sometimes  from  great 
distances,  and  in  the  most  inconvenient  ways. 

The  constituents  are  separately  broken  up,  washed,  sifted,  etc., 
before  they  are  weighed,  measured,  and  mixed  together.  In  break- 
ing up  the  hard  porcelain  stones,  felspar,  or  quartz,  the  primitive 
stamping-mill  is  used  universally,  as  in  rice  husking  described  on 
page  45.  These  automatic  stamping-mills  are  found  generally  on 
the  little  water  courses  long  before  the  factory  is  reached.  Their 
slow  work  lasts  for  several  days  usually,  before  the  small  quantity 
of  stone  is  broken  up  finely  enough,  in  the  iron-bound  troughs,  to 
be  carried  to  the  washing  process.  These  old-fashioned  stamp 
mills,  with  their  slow  movement,  were  formerly  used  very  generally 
in  Europe, — for  example,  in  the  mining  districts  of  the  Harz  and 
Saxon  Mountains. 

They  are  still  used  in  Asia  Minor,  Armenia,  and  Persia,  to 
pulverize  various  substances,  among  them  oak  tan-bark,  as  was 
lately  observed  by  the  correspondent  of  the  Cologne  Gazette  at 
N iksard 

The  washing  of  the  pulverized  material  (porcelain  stone,  kaolin, 
felspar,  quartz)  is  done  by  hand  after  the  old  fashion,  in  discon- 
nected tubes,  barrels, or  mortar-beds,  and  stirred  about  in  water  with 
paddles,  and  then  left  to  rest  for  a short  time  that  the  coarser  and 
heavier  particles  may  settle  to  the  bottom.  The  separation  of  the 
fine  floating  paste  is  effected  by  opening  one  or  the  other  of  the 
tap-holes,  of  which  there  are  usually  four  placed  irregularly  one 
above  the  other.  Finally,  the  whole  pulpy  mass  is  passed  through 
a fine  cloth  sieve,  which  separates  all  the  coarse  grains  and  other 
impurities. 

Funnel-shaped  boxes  are  used  in  place  of  our  filter  presses. 
The  walls  are  made  of  staves.  On  the  bottom  is  a layer  of  gravel 
1 “ Ein  Ausflug  ins  Armenische,”  Koln.  Zeitung , 21/2,  1886. 


CERAMICS. 


465 


or  perfectly  fine  washed  material  with  a straw  mat  laid  over  it. 
When  the  pasty  substance  is  poured  in,  the  water  filters  partly 
through,  while  the  clay  paste  is  deposited  gradually.  The  water 
which  collects  upon  it  is  drained  off  through  a side  opening,  and 
the  material  is  dried  in  a red-hot  furnace  and  finally  worked  up 
and  kneaded  with  the  feet  and  hands.  When  this  is  done,  it  is 


Fig.  19. — TEAPOT  OF  GREY-BROWN  STONE-WARE  : FROM  KUWANA,  IN  ISE. 

left  to  ferment  in  a pit  or  damp  chest,  not  for  a year,  as  was 
formerly  the  case  in  China,  it  is  said,  but  for  a few  weeks  or 
months,  before  using  in  the  factory. 

By  far  the  largest  part  of  the  clay-wares  of  Japan  are  shaped  on 
the  Rokuro  or  potter’s  wheel.  The  apparatus  employed  for  this 
II.  H H 


466  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


purpose  is  mostly  of  the  simplest  form,  the  shaping  board  serving 
at  the  same  time  as  the  swinging-wheel.  It  has  a hole  near  the 
edge  in  which  a rod,  20  centimeters  long,  is  placed,  by  which  it  is 
set  in  motion.  In  a more  developed  state,  as  at  Arita,  for  instance, 
the  larger  wheel  is  bound  firmly  to  the  shaping  board,  some  20  to 
30  centimeters  apart,  by  four  rods,  and  is  turned  with  the  feet. 
Plaster  of  Paris  moulds  and  castings  of  the  material  are  as  un- 
common as  the  employment  of  patterns  and  models.  These  are 
indeed  striking  wants,  but  the  Japanese  substitutes  for  them  his 
great  skill  in  the  handling  of  his  machine  and  of  the  remarkably 
plastic  material.  Articles  having  an  elliptical  or  polygonal  cross- 
section  cannot  of  course  be  turned  on  the  wheel,  but  are  shaped  in 
moulds  of  burnt  clay  or  wood.  In  the  latter  case,  the  Kata  or 
mould  is  separated  into  smaller  parts.  (See  Banko-yaki.)  The 
handle,  cover  and  its  knob,  sieve  and  spout  of  teapots,  etc.,  are 
each  formed  separately  and  fastened  to  the  body  of  the  vessel. 

For  example,  the  spout  with  its  sieve  on  the  inside,  the  foot, 
handle,  cover,  and  chain,  as  well  as  the  applied  decoration  (pate 
sur  pate)  of  the  pot  of  grey  stone-ware,  16  centimeters  high,  from 
Kuwana  in  Ise  (Fig.  19)  were  all  shaped  separately  and  then  fitted 
to  the  pot  itself.  The  handle  and  cover  represent  branches  of  the 
popular  Matsu  or  pine,  which  divide  and  lie  with  their  needles 
close  upon  the  foundation.  The  bamboo  decoration  is  also  shaped 
by  itself  and  pressed  on,  and  the  circle  of  Kiku-no-hana,  or  Chrys- 
anthemum flowers  at  the  base.  All  the  figures  are  of  the  same 
material,  a rough,  lustreless  biscuit  on  the  outside,  and  trans- 
parently enamelled  within. 

Porcelain  firing  is  done  with  pine-wood  as  fuel,  and  in  the  so- 
called  low  furnace,  the  Kama,  like  other  clay-wares.  A quick 
drying  of  the  ware  in  the  biscuit  kiln  goes  before  the  hard  burning 
of  the  porcelain.  This  furnace,  a simple  vault  of  moderate  size,  is 
almost  always  placed  in  the  courtyard  of  the  factory.  The  interior 
is  divided  lengthwise  into  a narrow  passage  for  the  fire,  and  a 
wider  space  for  an  oven,  by  a wall  60  centimeters  high,  made 
of  upright,  thick  slabs  of  fire  clay.  The  articles  to  be  burned 
are  generally  placed  in  the  oven  without  covering.  There  is  an 
opening  at  one  end  of  the  fire  passage  for  putting  in  wood,  and  a 
place  is  made  for  the  draft  at  the  sill  and  through  a row  of  holes 
high  at  the  back.  When  the  fire  is  lighted,  the  flame  mounts  over 
the  fire-proof  partition  wall  away  to  the  top  of  the  arch,  follows  it 
up  over  the  porcelain  chamber,  and  then  falls  on  the  steeper  side, 
and  operates  by  its  heat  on  the  porcelain  from  above,  the  same  as 
on  the  other  side.  The  length  of  time  necessary  for  burning  the 
biscuit  varies  greatly,  depending  on  the  material,  the  construction 
of  the  furnace,  etc.,  and  can  only  be  determined  by  experience. 

After  cooling  the  porcelain,  comes  painting  under  glaze  with 
cobalt,  and  other  decoration,  then  immersion  in  the  glazing 
material,  and  drying,  just  as  with  us. 


CERAMICS. 


467 


The  glaze,  Jap.  Kusuri,  is  prepared  from  the  argillaceous  flux 
(felspar,  pegmatite,  porcelain  stone)  used  in  the  factory,  by  careful 
sorting  and  working  into  a fine  paste  together  wood  ashes  cleared 
from  their  lye.  For  porcelain,  common  Isu-bai,  the  ashes  from 
the  bark  of  Distylium  racemosmn , S.  and  Z.  (see  page  251)  is  used, 
following  the  example  of  Arita ; for  stone-ware,  usually  Nara-no- 
hai,  oak-wood  ashes  from  Quercus  glctndulif era,  Bl.,  or  Kuri-no-hai, 
from  the  wood  of  Castanea  vulgaris,  Lamk.  (see  page  244).  Dr. 
Sarnow,  to  whom  I gave  a sample  of  Isu-bai  which  I had  brought 
with  me  for  analysis,  found  in  it  the  following  proportions  : ^8'2 7 
parts  lime,  3 '90  magnesia,  o-66  manganous  carbonate,  0^24  iron 
oxide,  8 23  potash,  io-6s  silicic  acid,  3'6i  phosphoric  acid,  V2J 
sulphuric  acid,  04.5  chlorine,  26’85  carbonic  acid,  3 '59  parts  sand 
and  2‘6i  water.  As  the  ashes  of  oak  and  chestnut  woods  are  also 
rich  in  lime,  it  follows  that  the  glazes  used  in  Japan  for  porcelain 
and  stone-ware  form  a transparent  glass,  rich  in  lime,  whose  com- 
position varies,  but  is  closely  related  to  that  of  the  material  to  be 
glazed,  with  which  it  must  unite  perfectly. 

The  porcelain  furnaces  used  for  the  chief  or  second  firing  consist 
of  a row  of  vaults  of  no  regular  number  or  size,  but  governed  by 
requirements.  There  are  usually,  however,  five  to  ten  of  them, 
placed  behind  and  somewhat  above  each  other  on  an  inclined  plane, 
so  that  the  sill  of  each  lies  about  80  or  90  centimeters  higher  than 
the  one  before  it.  In  large  establishments,  each  vault  is  2 Ken  (3’64 
meters)  long,  3 Ken  (54.6  meters)  broad,  and  8 Shaku  (2-43  meters) 
high.  The  fire  boxes  are  narrow  passages,  as  in  the  biscuit  kiln, 
near  the  boundary  between  the  two  arches,  each  of  which  has  a 
special  draft  hole  in  the  upper  part  of  the  arch,  and  on  the  same 
side  with  the  opening  where  the  fire  is  fed.  The  floor  of  the  porce- 
lain chamber  is  covered  with  sand,  and  in  the  final  firing  of  the 
wares,  part  of  them  are  placed  in  fire-proof  cases,  and  part  without, 
the  article  being  placed  only  on  a fire  tile.  When  all  is  ready  for 
the  burning,  the  principal  fire  is  lighted  in  the  lowest  arch  and 
kept  up  from  6 to  12  hours.  The  other  fires  are  now  lighted 
gradually  at  intervals  of  one  or  two  hours,  so  that  really  the  firing 
lasts  fully  24  hours,  and  then  follows  cooling,  for  which  from  3 to  6 
days  must  be  allowed.  The  flames  of  the  lowest  fire  circulate 
as  in  the  biscuit  furnace,  the  hot  gases  pass  through  the  draft 
holes  80  to  90  centimeters  high  up  on  the  wall,  into  the  second 
arch  at  its  floor,  conformably  to  its  higher  position,  and  so  on 
through  the  series  of  arches.  When  the  fire  in  one  arch  goes  out, 
the  outward  openings  are  all  closed  up.  The  necessary  degree  of 
heat  for  burning  the  wares  is  learned  by  practice  ; it  must  be  so 
great  in  the  upper  arches,  that  a billet  of  wood  held  in  one  of  the 
testing  places  is  at  once  kindled. 

A large  well-constructed  furnace  of  fire  clay  can  be  built  for  from 
about  £15  to  £20,  and  lasts  twelve  or  fifteen  years.  It  is  covered 
with  a light  roof  for  protection  from  rain  and  violent  winds.  In 


468  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


the  larger  centres  of  industry,  twelve  and  even  twenty  or  more 
parallel  furnaces  are  ranged  at  short  distances  along  the  same  hill- 
sides, and  not  unfrequently  one  such  furnace  is  used  by  several 
manufacturers  alternately,  like  the  bake-houses  of  German  villages. 

Although  the  loss  in  these  low  furnaces  is  not  nearly  so  great 
as  might  be  thought,  the  gallery  furnaces  of  Europe,  with  their 
stages  of  fire-boxes  and  convenient  arrangements  for  determining 
and  regulating  the  heat,  afford  extraordinary  advantages.  That 
which  is  accomplished  by  the  Chinese  and  Japanese  by  slow 
empirical  processes,  often  the  result  of  accident,  is  put  to  the  test 
with  us  by  the  well  directed  aid  of  chemistry  in  the  shortest 
possible  time,  as  is  the  case  in  experiments  with  new  materials 
and  combinations,  glazes  and  colours. 

The  colours  used  in  Japan  for  decorating  pottery  are  the  same 
as  with  us,  and  are  for  the  most  part  now  imported  from  Europe. 
If  some  of  them,  however,  eg.,  the  blue  of  cobalt  oxide  and  the 
red  of  iron,  appear  deeper,  brighter,  and  more  effective  than  with 
us,  this  is  due  in  part  to  the  different  composition  of  the  ground- 
work, the  manner  of  applying  them,  and  the  heat  of  burning  them 
in  ; but  mainly  to  this  fact,  that  they  are  longer,  more  carefully 
and  finely  ground,  before  using. 

The  most  common  vessels  in  Japanese  ceramics  are:  Wan, 
cup  ; Cha-wan,  tea  dish,  tea  bowl  ; Temmoku,  large  cup  ; Choku, 
small,  hemispherical  cup  for  drinking  Sake  ; Sake-dzuki,  flat  Sake 
dish  ; Domburi,  large,  hemispherical  or  cylindrical  bowl ; Hachi, 
bowl,  porringer ; Shiu-ro,  brazier  for  warming  the  hands  ; Midzu- 
bachi,  water  basin  for  gold  fish  ; Koro,  censer  ; Hana-ike,  flower 
vase  ; Uye-ki-bachi,  flower  pot ; Tokkuri,  flask  ; Cha-bin,  Cha-dashi, 
tea-pot ; Kibisho  and  Kiusu,  small  teapot  of  porcelain  or  stone- 
ware, with  straight  hollow  handle  of  the  same  material  placed  op- 
posite the  spout  ; Do-bin,  an  earthen  teapot,  with  bamboo  or  rattan 
handle  ; Kuwashi-ire,  sugar  bowl,  bonbonniere  ; Tsubo,  egg  or  urn- 
shaped covered  jar  ; Cha-tsubo  or  Cha-ire,  tea  caddy  or  covered 
jar  for  preserving  tea;  Kame,  larger  Tsubo ; Tane-tsubo,  jar  for 
preserving  seeds  of  different  kinds  ; Shita-tsuki,  saucer  ; Sara,  plate, 
dish. 

Artistic  pottery  also  furnishes  Oki-mono  or  knick-knacks  of  all 
sorts,  birds,  cocks  and  hens,  and  other  animals,  human  figures,  and, 
above  all,  hosts  of  Ningio  or  dolls.  One  quarter  of  Kioto,  on  the 
south  side  toward  Fushimi,  is  especially  notable  for  its  large  manu- 
factories of  dolls.  For  building  purposes  bricks  have,  during  the 
last  twenty  years,  been  added  to  the  long  known  and  used  tiles, 
owing  to  foreign  influence.  Their  employment  is  constantly  in- 
creasing, as  brick  houses  are  steadily  replacing  the  combustible 
wooden  buildings. 

The  chief  manufactories  of  the  finer  Japanese  ceramics,  are  at 
Arita,  Kioto,  Seto,  Kanazawa  and  Hongo  for  porcelain  ; Kagoshi- 
ma, Kioto  and  Ota  for  Faience,  and  Yokkaichi  for  stone-ware.  I 


Hein,  Japan.  II. 


Plate  XIX. 


Ancient  Vase  of  Arita  Porcelain. 


Wilhelm  Engelmann,  Leipzig. 


CERAMICS. 


469 


visited  all  of  them  in  1874  and  1875,  and  studied  their  methods, 
the  character  and  occurrence  of  the  raw  materials  used,  and  other 
matters  connected  therewith,  so  far  as  time  permitted,  making  me- 
moranda which  serve  as  basis  for  much  that  is  written  here.  A 
map  is  attached  to  this  work,  illustrative  of  the  chapter  on  Mining 
Industry,  and  giving  nearly  all  the  above  places  as  well  as  the 
most  notable  deposits  of  various  porcelain  stones. 

Arita  Porcelain,  Imari  or  Hizen. 

All  the  porcelain  which  was  brought  into  Europe  previous  to  1854 
by  the  Dutch  from  Japan  by  way  of  Nagasaki,  and  which  has  been 
reckoned  for  a long  time  among  the  most  valuable  portion  of  ceramic 
collections,  is  known  by  one  of  the  three  above  names,  and  also  as 
“ Old  Hizen.”  The  first  of  these  names  (formerly  little  used),  de- 
notes the  place  of  manufacture  ; the  second,  the  small  neighbouring 
harbour  and  shipping  port ; the  third,  the  province  in  which  the 
two,  together  with  Nagasaki,  are  situated. 

Arita  lies  very  nearly  in  the  middle  of  the  most  divided  pro- 
vince of  Japan,  15  Ri  (about  36  miles)  north  of  Nagasaki,  on 
the  farther  side  of  the  bay  of  Omura,  and  11  Ri  west  of  Saga  in 
330  10'  N.  latitude  and  1290  50'  E.  of  Greenwich.  It  is  a small 
city  of  1,200  dwelling-houses,  and  6,000  inhabitants,  most  of  whom 
have  supported  themselves  for  nearly  300  years  as  is  the  case  in 
neighbouring  towns,  by  the  flourishing  porcelain  industry.  Though 
it  is  not  the  central  point  of  Japanese  porcelain  manufacture,  as  it 
has  been  repeatedly  asserted,  its  industry  is  at  any  rate  the  most 
highly  developed  and  most  conspicuous  of  all  the  potteries  in 
Japan. 

The  small  town  is  situated  at  an  elevation  of  90  meters  above  the 
sea,  in  a hilly  region,  covered  mainly  with  pine  forests.  One  of  these 
ranges  of  hills  lying  to  the  eastward,  furnishes  Arita  immense  and 
inexhaustible  quantities  of  porcelain  stone  of  incomparable  quality. 
It  is  a peculiar  material,  from  which  pottery  of  the  most  varying 
forms  is  made,  from  the  light  and  finest  egg-shell  porcelain  to  the 
imposing  vases  of  two  meters  height.1  The  volcanic  origin  of 
Arita-ishi  (Arita  stone)  has  been  recognised  unanimously  by  those 
who  have  examined  it  in  the  place  where  it  is  found,  as  von  Richt- 
hofen, Wagener,  Rein  and  Lyman,  or  from  specimens,  as  by  Giim- 
bel,  Pabst  and  vom  Rath.2 

1 The  original  of  the  coloured  heliotype  of  Plate  XIX.  is  in  the  collection  of 
Wagner  & Co.,  2,  Dessauer  Street,  Berlin,  and  belongs,  on  account  of  its  cylin- 
drical form  and  peculiar  decoration  (coloured  butterflies  raised  on  a white 
ground),  without  doubt  to  the  rare  specimens  of  Arita-yaki. 

2 Differing  from  his  former  opinion  that  it  belongs  to  the  tertiary  unstratified 
rock,  a formation  full  of  silicic  acid  like  Rhyolithic  tufa  (Zeitschrift  der  deutschen 
geol.  Gesellschaft,  32  Bd.  § 255).  F.  von  Richthofen,  in  his  latest  work  (“  Fiihrer 
fur  Forschungsreisende,”  1886,  p.  9,  590),  which  has  just  come  from  the  press, 
expresses  himself  as  follows  : “ The  large  deposits  at  Imari  in  Japan  are  pro- 


470  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


Lyman1  agrees  with  me  in  considering  it  to  be  a product  of  the 
transformation  of  the  old  volcanic  rock,  which  is  found  close  by  in  an 
unchanged  state  as  perlite  breccia  and  trachyte.  This  is  indicated 
by  its  unstratified  occurrence,  its  appearance,  and  the  chemical 
analysis.  It  is  a compact  rock,  as  hard  as  tiles,  and  having  2‘5-27 
specific  gravity.  Its  colour  is  a greyish  white  or  soft  yellow,  strik- 
ingly resembling  trachyte  or  felsite  clay-stone,  according  to  Giimbel.2 
The  chemical  analysis  also  agrees  in  this  (see  Appendix,  table  A). 
The  best  kind  is  almost  pure  kaolin,  while  in  other  places  the 
rock  is  conglomerate,  and  intersected  by  numerous  small  quartz 
veins,  which,  according  to  Mr.  G.  vom  Rath’s  careful  examination 
at  my  request,  are  filled  partly  with  very  small  quartz  crystals,  and 
in  other  portions  with  crystals  of  iron  pyrites,  which  under  the 
microscope  appear  distinctly  in  the  form  of  dice  and  pyritohedrons. 

This  porcelain  stone  is  obtained  in  quarries,  extending  over  a 
range  of  about  1,000  meters.  There  are  three  principal  kinds  ; 
one,  white  and  entirely  kaolinized,  which  also  possesses  the  earthy 
character  of  kaolin  ; a second,  blue  and  rich  in  quartz  ; and  a third, 
yellow,  and  containing  iron.  The  quarrying  is  entirely  unsystem- 
atic, the  material  being  followed  up  as  deeply  and  widely  as  may 
be,  without  any  great  clearing  away  of  other  valueless  materials. 

Eleven  years  ago,  no  one  had  any  idea  of  the  extensive  character 
of  the  deposit,  nor  of  its  depth.  Any  citizen,  by  making  a small 
payment  to  the  town,  can  take  away  as  much  Arita-ishi  as  he  needs, 
but  is  not  allowed  to  send  any  into  other  porcelain  manufacturing 
districts,  nor  to  foreign  countries.  The  water  power  of  small  streams 
is  used  for  stamping  the  material,  and  long  before  reaching  Arita, 
the  preparations  and  arrangements  for  this  work  may  be  seen 
along  the  roads  leading  to  the  town. 

The  preparation  of  the  paste  is  very  much  simplified,  in  com- 
parison to  that  necessary  in  other  porcelain  factories,  as  the  Arita 
stone,  in  its  several  stages  of  decomposition,  furnishes  in  itself  the 
materials  for  making  it  plastic  and  fusible.  Mention  has  already 
been  made  of  the  fact  that  the  potter’s  wheel  is  not  here  as  in  other 
places  the  simple  form  moved  by  the  hand  and  rod,  but  much 
oftener  a combination  of  two  wheels,  the  thick  lower  one  being 
turned  with  the  foot.  The  axis  of  the  wheel  is  not  of  steel,  but  a 
hard-wood  pointed  tenon  fastened  to  the  floor.  Some  of  the  fac- 
tories are  very  large  for  Japan,  and  manufacture,  besides  common 
articles  for  domestic  needs,  a great  many  vases,  some  of  them  of 

duced  by  the  action  of  solfataras  upon  soft,  clayey  sandstone.”  The  latter, 
however,  appear  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  the  porcelain  stone,  with 
the  same  proportion  of  argillaceous  earth,  and  little  less  silicic  acid  ; but  show 
no  trace  of  a transformation  into  porcelain  stone,  or  any  other  generic  relation 
with  it.  I agree  with  him,  however,  in  regard  to  the  action  of  the  solfataras. 
(See  page  316). 

1 “ Geological  Survey  of  Japan.  Reports  of  Progress.”  Tokio,  1879,  p.  122. 

2 Dingl.  Pol.  Journal,  227  Bd.,  p.  501. 


CERAMICS. 


47i 


great  size.  A pair  which  I saw,  were  six  feet  eleven  inches  high 
(1 '995  rn.),  and  were  of  faultless  burning,  richly  decorated  with 
cobalt  blue  under  glaze,  and  valued  at  5 00  yen  or  about  .£100. 
Such  pieces  are  made  up  of  several  parts,  which  must  be  dried  for 
four  or  five  days  in  the  air  after  being  shaped.  They  are  then 
taken  to  the  wheel  again,  and  placed  on  a dish-like  hollowed  mass 
of  soft  material,  when  their  edges  are  so  trimmed  off,  like  wood, 
with  a piece  of  sharpened  sheet-iron  twice  bent  at  right  angles, 
that  the  parts  fit  together  exactly,  or  dove-tail,  in  box-fashion. 
They  are  then  softened  at  these  points  by  long  submersion  in 
water,  and  put  together,  closely  uniting  at  the  points  of  contact, 
by  means  of  the  plastic  paste.  In  the  burning,  which  follows, 
they  are  placed  on  plates  of  fire-proof  tile,  without  cases. 

Egg-shell  porcelain,  Usu-de-yaki,  i.e.  “thin  burned,”  is  now  made 
principally  at  Mikawaji,  a place  3 Ri  from  Arita.  A workman  in 
Arita,  however,  showed  us  the  process.  The  best,  most  finely 
pulverized  and  purified  material  is  used  in  its  manufacture.  The 
dishes  and  cups  are  turned  quite  thin  on  a sharpened  wooden 
gauging-rod,  and  then  left  upon  it  several  days  to  dry  in  the  open 
air,  when,  like  the  pieces  of  vases,  they  are  further  turned  on  the 
wheel,  though  much  more  thoroughly,  and  then  burned  in  cases. 

I saw  a dozen  large  porcelain  furnaces  in  Arita.  The  low  vaults 
are  larger  than  any  others  I observed  in  Japan,  each  one  consisting 
of  12  to  1 6 arches,  .about  25  feet  deep  (7 '5 8 m.),  15  feet  (4*5 5 m-) 
broad,  and  from  10  to  12  (3-03  to  3-64  m.)  high,  all  arranged  in  rows 
one  above  the  other  on  an  inclined  plane.  They  are  built  of  fire- 
proof clay  and  mud,  on  a floor  covered  with  quartz  sand,  with  an 
opening  from  two-thirds  of  a meter  to  one  meter  broad,  and  the  fire 
boxes  and  testing  places  on  one  long  side  of  the  row,  while  the  other 
long  side  is  entirely  closed.  Each  partition  wall  has  a row  of 
square  openings  about  25  to  30  centimeters  above  the  floor,  allowing 
the  hot  air  to  pass  through  from  one  vault  to  the  next  higher. 
The  lowest  and  principal  fire  is  kept  burning  for  almost  a whole 
day  and  the  side  fires  are  kindled  about  six  hours  after  the  first 
has  been  lighted.  C.  Giimbel  analysed  the  raw  material  and  the 
beautiful  white  porcelain  of  Arita  also,  with  the  following  result : 
7074  per  cent.  Si  03,  2175  per  cent.  Ala  03,  2 '02  per  cent.  Fe  03, 
0 72  per  cent.  Ca  O,  0'02  per  cent  Mg  O,  3'23  per  cent.  Ka  O,  and 
2 4 3 per  cent.  Na2  O. 

The  manufacture  at  Arita  is  generally  traced  back  to  Gorodayu 
Shonsui,  a potter  of  the  province  of  Ise,  who  lived  at  the  beginning 
of  the  1 6th  century.  Moved  by  the  beauty  and  value  of  Chinese 
porcelain,  which  began  to  reach  Japan  at  this  time,  he  undertook 
a journey  to  King-te-tschin  by  way  of  Foochow,  and  remained 
there  for  five  years  for  the  purpose  of  learning  the  trade.  After 
his  return,  in  the  10th  year  of  Yeisho  (1 5>I4),  he  settled  in  the  then 
insignificant  town  of  Arita  and  prepared  from  the  materials  he  had 
brought  from  King-te-tschin  a number  of  coarse  porcelain  wares, 


472 


ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


decorated  under  glaze  with  blue  cobalt.  When  his  stock  of  Chinese 
porcelain  material  was  exhausted,  however,  and  he  found  himself 
obliged  to  depend  on  domestic  clay,  he  could  make  nothing  but 
Faience,  as  did  his  successors  up  to  the  close  of  the  century,  with 
cobalt  decoration  under  glaze. 

Ceramics,  however,  received  a new  impulse  here,  and  in  many 
other  parts  of  Japan,  with  the  return  of  the  army  from  Corea 
(1598  A.D.).  Nabeshima  Naoshige,  the  Daimio  of  Hizen,  and  one 
of  the  commanders  of  the  Japanese  troops  in  Corea,  brought  back 
with  him  several  Corean  potters,  who  settled  first  in  the  bathing 
resort  Ureshimo,  but  later  in  Arita.  One  of  them,  Ri-sampei  by 
name,  in  1 599,  discovered  porcelain  stone  on  the  Idzumi-yama  to 
the  east  of  Arita,  and  at  once  inaugurated  the  porcelain  manu- 
facture of  Japan.  The  use  of  Benigara  (red  oxide  of  iron)  followed 
some  years  after  that  of  cobalt  decoration  under  glaze — some  say 
it  was  introduced  by  the  Dutch  in  Deshima — and  two  years  later 
decoration  on  glaze  was  introduced  by  Higashidori  Tokuzayemon, 
a potter  of  Arita,  after  he  had  learned  the  process  from  the  captain 
of  a Chinese  junk,  at  Nagasaki.  This  was  a great  step  forward, 
for  at  this  time  the  notable  skill  and  artistic  talent  of  the  Japanese 
began  to  develop.  The  Dutch,  as  early  as  1680,  imported  “ Old 
Hizen”  from  Nagasaki.  The  rich  collection  at  Dresden  offers 
greater  advantages  than  any  other  in  Europe  to  one  who  wishes  to 
study  the  condition  of  the  porcelain  industry  in  that  period. 

It  is  made  up  mainly  of  large,  urn-shaped,  covered  jars,  or  Tsubo, 
called  tea-urns,  because  they  served  originally  for  preserving  tea ; 
also  of  hemispherical  dishes  (Domburi),  and  round,  flat  plates,  Jap. 
Sara.  They  are  decorated  with  flowers  (pseonies  and  chrysanthe- 
mums especially),  small  landscapes,  human  figures,  in  red  and  gold, 
with  sometimes  a little  green,  but  the  use  of  blue,  violet,  yellow, 
and  black  muffle  colours  belongs  to  a later  period.  This  “ Old 
Hizen,”  which  preserved  its  essential  character  up  to  the  close  of 
the  1 8th  century,  is  now  much  sought  for.  A few  plates,  61  centi- 
meters in  diameter,  with  fine  landscape  decorations,  were  considered 
cheaply  bought,  even  in  Japan,  some  twelve  years  ago,  at  25  yen 
(£$),  and  could  scarcely  be  purchased  in  Europe,  in  view  of  the 
great  risk  of  transportation,  for  less  than  four  or  five  times  this 
amount. 

Porcelain  still  stands  at  the  head  of  all  the  celebrated  products 
(known  as  Meibutsu)  of  the  province  of  Hizen.  It  is  said  to  be 
made  altogether  in  about  thirty-six  places,  although  Arita  far 
excels  all  the  rest,  and  furnishes  now,  as  200  years  ago,  the  most 
highly-valued  wares  of  all  Japan.  Its  porcelain  is  perfectly  uniform, 
and  adds  considerable  translucence  to  a pure  white  colour,  besides 
being  hard  enough  for  all  the  purposes  of  ordinary  life.  It  burns 
so  easily  that  decorative  art  has  in  its  surface,  as  in  that  of  Faience, 
a fine  field,  and  is  aided  also  by  the  very  plastic  character  of  the 
excellent  material. 


Rein,  Japan.  II. 


Plate  XX. 


a.  Arita  Porcelain  Box. 


b.  Old  Satsuma  Stonewase  Bowl. 


Wilhelm  Engelmann,  Leipzig. 


CERAMICS. 


473 


Its  forms  have  greatly  altered  during  the  last  few  decades, 
owing  to  the  influence  of  foreign  customers,  and  have  become 
better  adapted  to  European  tastes  and  uses.  All  kinds  of  plates, 
with  tea  and  coffee  services,  are  exported.  The  urn-shaped 
covered  jars,  without  handles,  have  almost  entirely  disappeared 
from  the  number  of  larger  decorative  pieces,  and  open  flower- 
vases  of  various  forms  and  sizes  have  taken  their  place.  The 
wavy  and  bent-edged  vases  without  handles,  which  were  never 
made  in  former  times,  are  now  especially  numerous.  I have 
already  described  some  (page  377)  which  are  decorated  with 
lacquer-painting ; these  of  course  cannot  be  glazed.  Boiled  glue 
with  iron  ochre  (Tonoko)  ground  to  a paste  forms  the  material 
of  the  ground-work  in  these  cases.  When  it  is  dry,  and  smoothly 
polished,  Naka-nuri,  Togi,  and  Makiyeshi  work  follow,  as  has  been 
described  in  detail  under  lacquer  industry. 

The  Amakusa-ishi,  or  Stone  of  Amakusa. 

A small  group  of  islands,  named  Amakusa,  after  the  largest  and 
most  western  of  the  number,  lies  south  of  the  province  of  Hizen 
and  its  volcanic  peninsula  Shimabara,  in  320  to  32^°  N.  Latitude, 
and  from  130°  to  130^°  E.  of  Greenwich.1  The  north-western  part 
of  the  island  of  Amakusa  can  be  reached  from  Nagasaki  by  the 
southerly  road,  which  leads  to  the  beautifully  situated  little  port  of 
Mogi,  2 ri  distant,  and  then  by  a three  hours’  sail  over  the  Chijiwa- 
nada,  landing  in  Tomioka.  Desirous  of  becoming  acquainted  with 
the  places  where  porcelain  stone  is  quarried,  which  I had  seen 
designated  as  Amakusa-ishi  in  Ota  near  Yokohama,  Kioto,  and 
elsewhere,  I undertook  this  journey  in  the  spring  of  1875.  This 
remarkable  material  is  obtained  at  several  places  on  the  western 
coast,  from  2 to  6 ri  south-west  from  Tomioka,  not  far  from 
the  post  stations  Shimotsuke-Fukei,  Kodakoro,  and  Takahama. 
It  is  used  in  the  last-named  place  also  for  making  a common  porce- 
lain, but  is  chiefly  sent  into  other  parts  of  the  country.  The  best 
comes  from  the  Iguchi-yama,  1 ri  east  of  Takahama,  in  whose 
vicinity  there  is  also  an  antimony  mine  (see  page  309). 

Porcelain  stone  appears  on  this  sterile  island,  with  its  slate 
and  sandstone  rock,  partly  in  great  masses,  standing  often  alone, 
but  generally  surrounded  with  yellowish  or  grey-white  clay  sand- 
stone. It  is  a metamorphic,  volcanic  rock,  white,  grey-white  or 
yellowish  in  colour,  similar  to  Arita-ishi  but  firmer,  harder  and 
heavier,  and  is  partly  silicated  and  partly  kaolinized.  The  body 
presents  a fine-grained  mass  of  kaolin  and  quartz,  and  contains 
single  quartz  grains  as  well  as  crystalline  hollow  spaces  from 

1 The  excellent  map  of  B.  Hassenstein,  in  his  large  Atlas  of  Japan,  serves 
best  for  finding  these  places;  but  the  maps  belonging  to  the  first  volume  of  this 
work  will  also  suffice. 


474 


ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


which  common  felspar  or  plagioklas  crystals  have  crumbled  away. 
G.  vom  Rath  found  on  the  walls  of  these  spaces  and  on  small  clefts 
and  corners,  infinitesimally  small  splinters  of  iron  mica  and  ap- 
parently new-formed  little  quartz  crystals.  These  little  crystal- 
shaped cavities  are  seen  in  every  specimen  and  are  therefore 
the  most  striking  marks  for  the  recognition  and  distinction  of  the 
Amakusa  stone.  This  rock  contains  a large  proportion  of  potash, 
as  may  be  seen  in  the  analysis  of  C.  Sarnow,  I.  Table  B.  A com- 
parison of  the  chemical  composition  of  other  stones  given  there, 
shows  that  in  this  respect  Amakusa-ishi  stands  next  to  the  peg- 
matite (VIII.)  of  Yiikan  in  China. 

Amakusa  belongs  to  the  province  of  Higo,  situated  to  the  east, 
on  the  island  of  Kiushiu,  where  a clay-ware  manufacture  was 
established  at  Yatsushiro,  after  the  Corean  expedition,  which  is 
more  notable  for  the  peculiar  treatment  and  ornamentation  of  its 
productions  than  for  their  extent  and  high  character.  Kato 
Kiyomasa,1  the  great  antagonist  of  Konishi  Yukinaga  and  bitter 
enemy  of  the  Christians  (see  vol.  i.  p.  284),  is  said  to  have  brought 
about  their  introduction  through  the  Corean  Kizo.  It  is  a kind  of 
stone- ware  or  hard  porcelain,  of  a grey  or  greyish  brown  colour,  in 
which  the  decorations  are  of  inlaying  or  incrustations  of  white 
porcelain  material,  similar  to  that  of  Banko-Yaki.  (See  Plate 
XXIII.,  figure  2,  on  the  right  at  the  top  of  the  page). 


Satsuma  Faience  of  Kagoshima  and  Nayeshirogawa. 

The  province  of  Satsuma,  which  bounds  Higo  on  the  south,  is 
known  to  collectors  as  furnishing  the  most  beautiful  and  most 
valuable  Faience  of  Eastern  Asia.  Satsuma-Yaki,  the  designation 
given  it  in  the  country,  is  distinguished  less  by  its  composition  than 
by  its  decoration.  Whatever  can  be  conceived  by  inventive  genius, 
taste  and  perseverance,  is  here  accomplished  in  form  and  decor- 
ations.2 A glaze  adapted  to  the  ware,  varying  in  its  soft  yellow 
colour  from  that  of  old  ivory  to  cream,  is  the  fitting  groundwork 
of  this  ornamentation,  that  consists  of  fine  hairlike  cracks  (craquele) 
of  the  glaze,  and  in  open  work  and  relief  decorations  of  the  material 

1 A remarkable  equestrian  statue  in  bronze,  representing  this  hero,  may  be 
seen  in  the  Industrial  Art  Museum  at  Kensington. 

2 The  heliotype  (Plate  XXI.)  representing  an  urn  of  cream  white  Faience 
of  Kagoshima  shows  the  character  of  the  decoration-  of  Satsuma-Yaki  in  one  of 
its  most  original  forms,  which  Japan  has  borrowed  from  China,  and  often 
employs  for  censers,  but  in  such  case,  in  metal.  The  two  winglike  handles, 
with  their  grotesque  decoration,  are  specially  striking.  The  vessel  rests  on 
three  feet  and  terminates  at  the  top  in  a Botan  blossom  ( Faonia  Moutan ), 
forming  a knob  on  the  cover.  It  is  painted  with  gold  and  muffle  colours. 
The  principal  pattern  of  the  ornaments,  the  leaves  and  blossoms  of  the  chrysan- 
themum and  patrinia  (Kiku-no-hana  and  Omina-meshi,  p.  274)  are  distinctly 
seen  in  the  illustration. 


SATSUMA  STONEWARE  URN. 

Original  in  the  Royal  Kunstgewerbe  Museum  Berlin. 


Rein,  Japan.  II. 


Plate  XXII. 


Sake  Flask  of  Kaga-Porcelain. 


Wilhelm  Engelmann,  Leipzig. 


Rein,  Japan.  H. 


Plate  XXIII. 


Banko-yaki  from  Yokkaichi. 


Wilhelm  Engelmann,  Leipzig. 


CERAMICS. 


475 


itself.  This  is  often  made  to  imitate  basket  ware.  The  orna- 
mentation, however,  consists  in  a rich,  soft  and  harmonious  tone  of 
polychromatic  painting.  The  formation  of  the  hairlike  cracks  (in 
our  artistic  pottery  the  sign  of  a great  miscalculation  of  the  small 
amount  of  shrinkage  after  the  biscuit  burning  and  of  a quick  and 
very  contractile  glaze)  is  produced  intentionally  by  the  Chinese 
and  Japanese,  and  when  well  done,  is  much  admired.  Satsuma 
crackleware  and  all  its  imitations,  like  Awata-yaki,  Awaji-yaki, 
Ota-yaki,  has  a narrow  meshed  net  of  such  fine  cracks,  while  in 
the  older  Chinese  crackle  porcelain,  the  meshes  and  cracks  are 
much  wider  and  coarser. 

The  Japanese  call  this  crackled  clay-ware  Hibi-yaki  or  Hibi-de. 
They  employ  in  its  manufacture  a glaze  of  felspar  with  leached 
wood  ashes,  which  assimilate  with  the  glazing  material,  making  it 
more  easily  fusible.  The  decorations  in  gold,  red  and  green,  re- 
present flowers,  principally  chrysanthemums,  paeonies,  maples ; 
fowls,  peacocks  and  other  birds  are  also  subjects  most  frequently 
taken.  Censers,  tea-pots,  bowls  and  dishes,  and  in  later  times, 
vases,  urns  and  other  larger  articles,  are  the  main  productions  of 
this  industry. 

Its  introduction  is  connected  with  the  expedition  to  Corea. 
Shimadzu  Yoshihisa,  Daimid  of  Satsuma,  on  his  return  to  his  own 
country  in  1598,  brought  with  him  a large  number  of  Corean 
potters  and  their  families,  gave  them  the  rank  of  Samurai,  and 
settled  them  in  Kagoshima  and  several  other  places.  Five  years 
later  he  gathered  the  most  of  them  (seventeen  families)  in  the 
“ Corean  village,”  Nayeshirogawa,  6 ri  distant.  Their  descendants 
live  there  still  and  continue  the  manufacture  of  pottery.  They 
have  adopted  the  Japanese  dress,  mode  of  living  and  language, 
but  hold  themselves  otherwise  aloof,  and  corporately  preserve  their 
Corean  character.  They  are  a stronger  type  of  men  than  the 
Japanese,  with  intelligent  features,  very  prominent  cheek-bones 
and  pointed  chin,  resembling  in  this  respect  more  the  inhabitants 
of  Riukiu. 

The  first  generation  manufactured  only  Raku-yaki,  a black 
glazed  ware  having  no  artistic  quality  and  which  had  already  been 
made  in  Kioto  by  other  Coreans  under  Hideyoshi.  Tea-pots,  bowls 
and  cups,  and  a quantity  of  other  earthenware  of  this  kind,  are 
still  manufactured.  Others  produced  crackle  stone-ware,  as  in  the 
factory  at  Kagoshima;  still  others  genuine  porcelain  of  Amakusaishi, 
and  domestic  kaolin,  using  Isu-bai  as  a glaze.  The  products, 
however,  are  designed  exclusively  for  the  domestic  market,  and 
none  of  them  are  in  any  way  remarkable. 

The  products  which  come  to  the  European  market  under  the 
names  Satsuma,  Satsuma  Faience,  Satsuma  ware,  are  not  from  the 
Corean  village,  but  were  formerly  manufactured  in  Tatsuno,  near 
Kagoshima.  About  twenty  years  ago  the  factory  passed  into  the 
hands  of  a company  of  Samurai,  the  Toki-gaisha,  which  established 


476  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS . 


itself  at  Tano-ura,  beautifully  situated  about  2 miles  from  the 
capital  city  Kagoshima  on  the  bay. 

The  white  porcelain  stone  Kaseda  or  Kaseda-ishi  was  discovered 
between  1624  and  1644  A.D.,  and  took  its  name  from  the  place  of 
discovery  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  little  town  of  Kaseda,  south- 
west of  Kagoshima.  An  analysis  of  this  material,  with  which  I am 
not  further  acquainted,  is  given  in  Table  B,  IV.  The  discovery  of 
the  kaolin  of  Ibusuki1  occurred  also  at  this  time.  The  art  of 
polychromatic  painting  was  introduced  at  the  close  of  the  1 8th 
century  by  two  Coreans  who  had  learned  it  in  Ki6to. 

At  present  the  material  is  prepared  in  Tano-ura  of  13  parts 
Kaseda,  18  parts  Ibusuki  and  3 parts  of  Kirishima-tsuchi,  the  glaze 
of  10  parts  of  white  Kaseda  (Shira-ishi)  and  5 parts  of  Nara-bai, 
i.e.  oak-wood  ashes. 

Imitations  of  the  fine  Faience  of  Satsuma,  more  or  less  success- 
ful, have  been  made  for  many  years  in  several  Japanese  towns, 
and  are  exported  to  foreign  countries  in  large  quantities  and  at  low 
prices,  some  under  the  name  of  Satsuma  and  some  by  the  rightful 
designation  Awata-yaki,  Awai-yaki,  Ota-yaki.  The  durability  of 
the  most  of  them  is  much  less,  and  the  colouring  in  many  cases 
somewhat  different,  now  more  yellow  as  in  Awata-yaki,  and  again 
changing  in  tint  to  grey  or  white.  It  needs,  however,  a practised 
eye  to  distinguish  many  of  these  products  from  genuine  Satsuma 
ware. 


The  Pottery  in  Kioto. 

As  the  silk  and  metal  industry  is  concentrated  on  the  right  side 
of  the  Kamo-gawa,  in  the  principal  part  of  the  old  Japanese  capital, 
the  ceramic  manufacture  has  established  itself  upon  the  left  side,  in 
the  eastern  part  of  the  city.  It  furnishes,  besides  ordinary  pottery, 
Faience  and  porcelain  in  large  quantities  and  excellent  quality. 
The  beginning  of  this  industry  dates  back  to  the  middle  of  the 
17th  century. 

Ninsei,  an  amateur  potter  of  the  family  Nonomura,  which  was 
numbered  with  the  Fujiwara,  gave  a new  impulse  and  higher  aim 
to  the  manufacture  of  pottery  in  Kioto  in  the  second  half  of  the 
above-named  century,  by  the  introduction  of  transparent  glaze  into 
several  factories  in  the  suburbs,  and  by  the  manufacture  of  a kind 
of  Faience  and  half-porcelain.  The  productions,  Ninsei-yaki, 
created  by  his  art  from  Shigaraki  and  other  clays  of  the  vicinity, 

' Ibusuki  is  made  out  of  a mixture  of  three  kinds  of  kaolin,  viz : 10  parts 
Neba,  3 parts  Bara,  and  5 parts  Matsuyakubo.  Nara-bai,  the  oak-wood  ashes  of 
the  glaze,  is  analyzed  by  Atkinson  as  follows  : 3-33  per  cent,  water,  S405  per 
cent,  silicic  acid,  4785  per  cent,  alumina,  3700  per  cent,  iron  oxide,  42765 
per  cent,  lime,  2415  percent.  (?),  potash  074  percent.,  soda,  o’2i5  percent, 
carbonic  acid  34' 145  per  cent.  The  high  percentage  of  carbonic  acid  and  lime 
shows  that  Atkinson  could  not  have  had  a pure  specimen  of  wood  ashes  for 
examination,  but  one  mixed  with  carbonate  of  lime. 


CERAMICS. 


477 


are  distinguished  not  only  by  a more  careful  treatment  of  the 
material,  but  especially  by  their  beautiful  and  boldly  designed 
decorations,  and  now-a-days  are  much  sought  after.  The  same  is 
true  of  the  Kenzan-yaki,  which  was  made  by  his  most  celebrated 
pupil  in  the  first  half  of  the  18th  century.  It  has  a yellowish 
colour  (Ki-iro).  The  manufacturer,  Ogata  Shinsei,  was  called 
Shisui  Kenzan  ( i.e . beautiful  blue  north-west  mountain),  after  the 
factory  located  in  the  north-western  part  of  Kioto,  at  the  foot 
of  the  Atago-yama  (Ken-zan).  The  present  Faience  industry  in 
the  suburb  Awata  has  been  developed  from  the  Kenzan-yaki  and 
Ninsei-yaki,  and  also  the  porcelain  manufacture  at  Kiyomidzu. 

Awata-yaki  is  manufactured  in  the  eastern  part  of  Kioto,  on 
both  sides  of  the  road  which  leads  to  Otsu  in  Omi.  For  the 
material  of  this  kind  of  crockery  three  or  four  kinds  of  kaolin  or 
clays,  viz.  Shigaraki-tsuchi 1 and  Kagami-yama-tsuchi  from  Omi. 
Okazaki-tsuchi  and  Dainichi-yama-tsuchi  from  the  vicinity  of 
Ki6to,  are  mixed  in  equal  parts  after  previous  preparation.  It 
burns  to  a grey  white  with  a touch  of  red  in  the  first  fire  (biscuit 
burning),  but  appears  almost  white  after  the  principal  burning. 
The  yellowish  crackle  glaze  is  said  to  be  obtained  by  mixing  equal 
parts  of  Seki  (stone,  probably  Amakusa-ishi)  and  Aku,  the  ashes 
from  the  waste  of  the  indigo  plant  (see  p.  177).2 

The  porcelain  industry  of  Kioto  has  its  seat  in  the  Kiyomidzu 
quarter,  at  the  foot  of  the  Higashi-yama,  south  of  Awata  (see  vol. 
i.  map  of  Kioto).  In  Goj6-d6ri  or  Goj6-saka,  the  street  leading 
from  the  temple  Kiyomidzu  to  the  Kamo-gawa  is  a continuous 
row  of  porcelain  shops.  Many  sell  the  wares  manufactured  by 
themselves.  The  predominance  of  the  blue  cobalt  decoration 
is  already  recognised  from  a distance,  and  shows  that  the  industry 
serves  Japanese  households  principally;  nevertheless,  in  modern 
times,  the  most  important  houses,  such  as  D6-hachi  and  Roku- 
bai,  have  adapted  themselves  likewise  to  the  tastes  of  foreign 
customers.  This  is  even  more  true  of  Ken-zan,  whose  factory 
is  situated  between  Gojo-zaka  and  Yasaka.  Many  of  the  most 
beautiful  pieces  of  Kiyomidzu-yaki  which  are  seen  in  the  In- 
dustrial Art  Museum  in  Berlin  are  of  his  manufacture ; they  are 
distinguished  by  their  great  hardness,  purity,  transparency,  and  a 
beautiful  white  colour,  which  sets  off  the  cobalt  blue  particularly 
well.  The  material  of  these  valuable  wares  is  made  of  7 parts 
Amakusa-ishi  and  3 parts  Shigaraki-tsuchi ; the  glaze  of  Amakusa- 
ishi  and  Isu-bai. 

Awaji-yaki  or  Mimpei-yaki.  At  the  Universal  Exhibition  in 
Vienna,  a sort  of  Faience  by  this  name,  similar  to  the  Awata-yaki, 
attracted  much  attention  on  account  of  its  fine  crackled  glaze  and 
extraordinarily  careful  and  delicate  painting.  It  originated  in  the 

1 An  analysis  of  this  kaolin  may  be  found  in  Table  C,  No.  I. 

2 The  ware  is  called  Tamago-yaki  (egg-burned),  probably  on  account  of  this 
yellowish  colour. 


478  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


town  of  Igano-mura,  on  the  island  of  Awaji  in  Idzumi-nada  (Bay 
of  Osaka),  from  a small  factory  erected  in  1838  by  Kashiu  Mimpei, 
whose  son  Sanpei  now  carries  on  the  manufacture. 

The  pottery  industry  of  Owari,  Mino,  and  Mikawa  embraces 
the  border  territory  of  these  three  provinces,  and  has  developed 
itself  mostly  at  Seto,  in  north-eastern  Owari,  5 ri  from  the  capital 
city  Nagoya,  so  that  this,  like  Arita  in  Hizen,  may  be  considered 
in  age  and  the  influence  of  its  industry  as  the  central  point  of  this 
second  important  pottery  district  of  Japan.  It  is  a hilly  country, 
extending  to  the  passage  of  the  Nakasendo  from  Shinano  to  Mino, 
and  to  the  boundary  of  Owari  and  Mikawa  toward  the  sea  over 
the  Tokai-do.  The  decomposition  products  of  granite  and  slate 
mountains,  principally  quartzitic  rubble,  and  white  or  mud-coloured 
bald  spots  of  clay,  and  a meagre  vegetation  of  pine  and  bush  forest, 
cover  the  long  extended,  low  range  of  hills,  scarcely  2CO  meters 
high.  Only  here  and  there  are  seen  granite  rocks  and  old  slate 
of  blackish  grey  colour,  which  appear  much  oftener  on  the  larger 
stretches,  and  less  soft  as  one  draws  near  to  the  higher  ridges  on 
the  frontier.  On  the  other  hand,  fossiliferous  Neo-tertiary  strata 
are  seen  along  the  sides  of  these  hills. 

Every  stage  of  transition  may  be  seen,  from  the  well-preserved 
granite,  7 miles  and  a half  from  Seto  onwards,  to  the  decomposi- 
tion, kaolinising,  and  further  transformation  of  felspar  into  many 
clay  deposits  which  appear  on  the  hill  slopes  and  in  the  valleys,  or 
are  covered  with  boulders.  Granite  and  kaolin,  richly  sprinkled 
with  quartz  grains,  form  the  principal  groundwork  of  the  ceramics 
of  this  district.  In  Owari  the  industry  is  concentrated  around 
Seto,  the  manufacture  having  been  carried  on  here  for  five  hun- 
dred years.  Among  its  manifold  products  are  various  small 
household  articles,  such  as  dishes  and  bowls  for  Sake,  tea  and 
rice,  teapots,  Sake  bottles,  small  flower-vases  and  flower-pots  of 
milk-white  porcelain,  tastefully  decorated  with  blue  cobalt  paint- 
ing both  under  and  upon  glaze.  Fine  large  flower-pots  are  among 
the  largest  and  most  beautiful  articles  which  Seto  furnishes.  The 
Royal  Industrial  Art  Museum  in  Berlin  has  one  of  these.  On 
the  outside  a grape  vine,  with  leaves  and  clusters,  is  raised  in 
white  bas-relief  on  a deep  blue  ground,  a piece  of  decoration  of 
fine  effect.  Seto-mono,  as  this  beautiful  ware  is  called,  is  well 
known  throughout  the  whole  of  Japan  ; indeed,  the  expression  is 
often  used  as  a generic  name  for  all  porcelain  decorated  in  this 
way,  signifying  the  same  as  Some-tsuke.  Fine  Seto-mono  and 
Kiyomidzu-yaki  approach  each  other  so  nearly  that  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  distinguish  between  them.1  Seto  porcelain  is  of  a 
more  glassy  nature  than  Arita  ware,  is  also  less  tough,  and  more 
easily  broken.  The  porcelain  biscuit  is  prepared  in  Seto  of  10 
parts  Kairome-tsuchi,  8 parts  Hon-ishi,  2 parts  Chikura-ishi,  and 
2 parts  Giyaman-ishi,  the  glaze  of  Hon-ishi,  Giyaman-ishi,  and 
1 The  analyses  of  their  materials  may  be  compared  in  Table  D,  III.  and  IV. 


CERAMICS. 


479 


Isu-bai.  The  names  Kairome-tsuchi  and  Seto-tsuchi  signify  the 
kaolin  of  the  vicinity,  a greyish  white,  granulated  material,  in 
which  the  felspar  of  the  granite  is  perfectly  decomposed,  but 
the  numerous  bright  quartz  grains  appear  in  their  original  state, 
and  are  held  together  by  kaolin.  Hon-ishi  or  Cho-seki,  i.e.  chief 
stone,  is  the  grey-white  felspar  of  granite.  It  is  obtained  on  the 
boundary  of  Owari  and  Mino,  three  hours  distant  from  Seto,  and 
pulverized  at  Akadzu,  an  hour’s  distance  from  Seto,  by  three  days’ 
stamping  with  water  power  in  the  manner  before  described,  then 
washed  and  brought  to  Seto.  The  Chikura-ishi  and  Hiromi-ishi, 
the  latter  from  Mikawa,  seem  to  be  very  similar.  Dr.  Sarnow 
analysed  a sample  of  Hon-ishi  which  I gave  him,  and  found  its 
contents  as  follows : 6578  per  cent,  silicic  acid,  20'22  per  cent, 
alumina,  043  per  cent,  iron  oxide,  077  per  cent,  lime,  1073  per 
cent,  potash,  1-24  per  cent,  soda,  and  071  per  cent,  water,  so  that 
it  approaches  very  nearly  to  the  Swedish  and  Norwegian  felspar 
(Mikroline),  so  much  used  in  our  German  porcelain  factories.  It 
is  easily  smelted  to  a transparent,  colourless  glass. 

Giyaman-ishi,  i.e.  glass-stone,  is  the  name  given  to  light  grey 
or  blue-white  quartz,  which  is  found  in  the  vicinity  of  Seto,  and  is 
used  in  the  Seto  paste  as  a flux.  The  principal  item  to  be  observed 
in  the  composition  of  this  paste  is  that  it  is  made  in  the  European 
manner,  and  resembles  very  closely  the  Bohemian  porcelain  paste. 

Seto  porcelain  is  burned  partly  in  cases,  but  generally  entirely 
uncovered,  resting  on  fire-proof  supports.  In  order  to  prevent  the 
porcelain  fastening  to  this  stand  by  fusing,  there  is  used  a thin 
plate  of  grey  talc,  which  is  called  Yori-tsuchi  in  Seto,  and  which 
must  be  pulverized  and  washed  before  shaping. 

There  are  from  700  to  1,000  labourers  employed  in  the  porcelain 
industry  of  Seto  itself.  Owari  furnishes  much  earthenware,  be- 
sides Seto-mono,  as  for  instance  the  Tokoname-yaki  in  Chidagori, 
10  ri  from  Nagoya,  the  Inu-yama-yaki  in  Nuira-gori,  and  the 
Toyoske-yaki  in  Nagoya  itself,  which  the  Toyoske  family  finishes 
on  the  inside  with  coloured  lead  glaze,  but  on  the  outside  with 
lacquer  painting. 

The  foundation  of  the  pottery  industry  in  Owari  is  attributed 
to  Kato-Shirosayemon,  called  Toshiro,  who,  after  spending  five 
years  in  China  to  learn  pottery  work,  returned  in  1223,  and 
settled  down  to  its  manufacture  in  Seto.  He  furnished  glazed 
stone-ware,  and,  like  Gorodayu  Shonsui  in  Arita,  used  for  his  first 
efforts  clay  which  he  brought  with  him  from  China.  Later  he 
followed  a common  custom  and  changed  his  name  again  into 
Shunkei,  so  that  Shunkei-vaki  followed  T6shiro-yaki.  Several  of 
his  successors  distinguished  themselves  in  the  manufacture  of  tea- 
jars  (Tsubo),  and  several  other  articles,  which  were  highly  prized 
during  the  time  that  the  Cha-no-yu  (tea  parties)  flourished.  An 
inferior  Faience,  with  coloured  enamel,  was  soon  added  to  stone- 
ware, but  the  art  of  manufacturing  porcelain  was  not  learnt  or 


480  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


practised  till  later,  when  a younger  member  of  the  Tdshiro  family 
of  potters,  Kato-Tamikachi  by  name,  discovered  by  stratagem  the 
secret  of  the  Arita  potters. 

Mino-yaki.  The  Mino  wares,  made  up  almost  entirely  of  small 
useful  articles,  like  teapots,  plates,  dishes,  and  rice-bowls,  Sake- 
flasks,  etc.,  are  generally  not  so  finely  decorated  as  those  of  Seto, 
and  are  more  adapted  to  the  means  and  needs  of  the  common 
people.  Many  sorts  of  earthen  dishes  are  found  among  them  ; 
some  of  such  excellent  material  and  careful  workmanship,  that 
they  might  serve  as  a pattern  for  many  of  our  common  potters. 
The  porcelain  industry  followed  that  of  Seto,  and  was  not  intro- 
duced until  1810.  It  extends  as  far  northward  as  the  village  of 
Nakatsugawa  on  the  Nakasendo.  It  is  carried  on  in  a number  of 
villages  near  to  Ovvari,  especially  in  Takayama,  Tajimi,  and  Ichi- 
nokura.  The  most  beautiful  workmanship  is  to  be  found  in  small 
tea  and  Sake  dishes  of  the  finest  porcelain,  whose  thin  walls  are 
produced  by  turning  the  air-dried  form  on  the  wheel,  as  in  Hizen, 
and  decorated,  either  in  the  above-named  places  or  in  Tdkio,  with 
muffle  colours. 


6ta-yaki,  Maicudzu-yaki. 

In  1872  a merchant,  Suzuki  of  Yokohama,  established  a factory 
in  the  neighbouring  town  of  Ota,  with  the  intention  to  manufacture 
Satsuma  and  other  Faience,  as  well  as  porcelain,  and  especially 
to  meet  the  demand  of  the  foreign  market  for  decorative  pieces. 
He  secured  a potter  by  the  name  of  Miyakawa  Kozan,  from  Kioto, 
as  director.  Vases  were  manufactured  principally,  and  Amakusa- 
ishi  and  several  clays  from  the  neighbouring  Musashi  were  used  as 
raw  materials.  Later,  the  business  is  said  to  have  passed  to 
Miyakawa,  and  the  products  have  often  been  designated  after  his 
former  residence,  Makudzu-ga-hara,  in  Kioto.  Miyakawa  dis- 
played an  uncommon  activity,  and  was  inexhaustible  in  the  in- 
vention and  employment  of  new  designs  of  decoration,  especially 
in  high  relief.  His  productions,  which  during  the  last  fifteen  years 
have  been  exported  in  large  quantifies  and  attracted  much  atten- 
tion at  the  great  International  Industrial  Exhibitions,  betray  many 
departures  from  good  taste,  together  with  some  very  original  and 
beautiful  designs.  There  were,  for  instance,  at  the  Paris  Exhibi- 
tion large  vases  of  long,  cigar  shape,  with  a striped  glaze  having 
the  colouring  of  the  Awata-yaki,  around  which  large  rusty  anchors 
were  represented  in  high  relief,  and  on  them  little  goblins  sitting. 
There  were  other  vases  which  were  made  with  a lumpy  or  knobby 
surface  in  the  lower  part,  resembling  that  of  a wall  which  has 
been  plastered  with  pasty  cement  mixed  with  little  gravel  stones. 
Open-work  basket  and  bamboo  weaving  was  also  imitated  with 
great  exactness.  All  this  impressed  the  judges  in  such  a manner, 
that  they  added  to  the  distinctions  already  received  in  Vienna 


CERAMICS. 


481 


and  Philadelphia,  the  gold  medal,  as  a recognition  of  the  work  of 
the  exhibitor. 

The  Faience  of  Ota  resembles  porcelain  very  closely,  and  excels 
all  other  Japanese  Delft- ware  in  hardness  and  firmness.  Its 
colouring  is  somewhat  between  that  of  Satsuma  and  Awata-yaki  ; 
the  factory,  however,  has  produced  no  articles  which  are  distin- 
guished by  polychromatic  painting  or  which  eclipse  the  better 
products  of  Kagoshima  and  Awata. 

Hongo-yaki. 

The  town  of  Hongo,  which  gives  its  name  to  this  porcelain, 
is  situated  in  the  Aidzu-taira  (Plain  of  Aidzu),  in  the  province  of 
Iwashiro  on  the  way  from  Sann6-toge  to  the  capital  Wakamatsu, 
and  about  5 miles  distant  from  the  latter.  On  the  south  side  of  the 
village  rises  a hill,  on  which  at  least  a dozen  low  furnaces  with 
their  vaults  following  one  upon  another  are  ranged.  Hard  por- 
celain is  manufactured  here  and  decorated  with  cobalt  colour  under 
glaze  ; the  ware,  however,  cannot  compare  favourably  with  that  of 
Seto  and  Kiyomidzu  in  respect  to  fineness  and  decorative  art.  The 
industry  is  limited  almost  exclusively  to  common,  useful  articles. 
It  uses  neither  felspar  nor  quartz,  but  finds  a rich  and  valuable 
material  in  the  volcanic,  old  crystalline  products  of  decomposition 
at  greater  or  less  distance.  Table  B III.  gives  the  composition 
of  one  of  these  materials,  the  Tonokuchi-ishi,  which  I saw  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  Inawashiro  Lake.  ' The  kaolins  are  found 
generally  in  the  vicinity  of  Hongo.  In  one  of  the  factories  the 
material  consists  of  5 parts  Shirojari,  3 parts  Haguro,  3 parts 
Dobiyama-tsuchi,  and  2 parts  Tonokuchi.  It  has  a tint  of  yellow, 
but  burns  to  a pure  white. 

Kutani-yaki,  or  Kaga  Porcelain. 

Although  it  is  not  known  exactly  in  what  year  (the  date  1650 
A.D.  is  commonly  accepted)  the  manufacture  of  this  peculiar  por- 
celain, so  highly  prized  on  account  of  its  decoration,  began,  its 
history  is  nevertheless  much  older  than  that  of  most  of  the  porce- 
lains which  Japan  has  furnished.  Mayeda  Toshiharu,  the  first 
Daimio  of  Daishoji  in  Kaga,  soon  after  coming  into  power  in  1639 
A.D.,  brought  a potter  from  Kidto  and  commissioned  him  to  seek 
for  materials  for  fine  clay-wares.  The  industry  began  after  such 
materials  had  been  found  in  Kutani-mura  and  elsewhere.  The 
successor  of  the  prince,  Mayeda  Toshiaki,  in  order  to  advance  the 
work,  sent  a workman  named  Tamura  Gonzayemon  to  Hizen,  that 
he  might  learn  there  the  manufacture  of  porcelain.  After  his 
return  he  erected  the  first  porcelain  furnace  at  Kutani-mura,  8 ri 
south-east  of  Daishdji,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  place  where 
Kutani-ishi  is  found,  of  which  we  shall  speak  further  on.  Ac- 

II.  I I 


482  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


cording  to  another  version,  it  was  not  Tamura  Gonzayemon 
but  a certain  G6to  Saijiro  who  founded  this  first  porcelain 
factory  at  Kaga  in  1650,  aided  by  a very  talented  painter,  who 
settled  in  Kaga,  Kuzumi  Morikage  by  name.  His  wares  met  with 
great  approbation,  not  only  with  the  prince  of  Kaga,  but  also  with 
the  Shbgun  Tsunayoshi  in  Yeddo.  Later  the  works  of  this  fac- 
tory declined  in  value,  and  toward  the  end  of  the  18th  century  the 
business  was  given  up  entirely.  In  June,  1810,  the  manufacture 
was  again  begun  by  a merchant  in  Kutani.  As  Kutani,  however, 
lies  high  up  in  the  mountains,  and  the  long,  severe  winters  hin- 
dered the  workmen  very  much,  the  owner  removed  his  factory  in 
1814  to  the  bathing-place  Yamashiro-mura,  I ri  east  of,  Daishdji. 
It  was  still  in  operation  when  I visited  it  in  1874,  but  two  larger 
furnaces  had  been  established  since  then,  8 cho  (about  a mile)  outside 
of  the  place,  which  manufactured  Kutani-yaki  and  common  pottery 
with  a kind  of  Faience  also.  The  porcelain  is  sent  for  the  most 
part  to  Kanazawa,  the  capital  of  the  province,  and  there  decor- 
ated. The  Kaga  porcelain  is  made  from  a paste  which  consists  of 
8 parts  of  Kutani-ishi,  2 parts  Nabetani-ishi,  6 parts  Gokoji-tsuchi, 
and  4 parts  of  Yamashiro-tsuchi.1  The  last  of  these  materials  is 
a common  potter’s  clay;  the  Gokoji-tsuchi  is  a kaolin,  similar  to 
that  of  Seto,  sprinkled  with  many  quartz  grains.  The  Nabetani- 
ishi,  more  rightly  Nabetani-tsuchi,  of  Nabeya-mura  is  found  8 ri 
from  Yamashiro-mura  on  the  way  to  Kanazawa,  and  is  likewise 
a white-grained  kaolin.  Most  interest  centres  on  Kutani-ishi,  an 
analysis  of  which  is  given  in  Table  B II.  This  is  a quartz  por- 
phyry, very  much  decomposed  in  its  transformation  into  kaolin. 
It  is  greyish  white  when  freshly  broken,  and  reddish  brown  from 
the  iron  in  its  clefts  and  fissures.  Small  quartz  crystals,  isolated 
crystals  of  orthoclase,  and  little  decomposed  particles  of  biotite  may 
be  distinctly  recognised  in  it  and  leave  no  doubt  as  to  the  character 
of  the  rock. 

The  preparation  of  the  paste  for  Kutani-yaki  is  not  so  careful 
as  with  most  other  porcelain.  Nor  does  it  bake  so  white  and 
smooth  ; the  potsherd  shows  a much  stronger  inclination  to  red  or 
grey  and  a granulated  structure.  If,  nevertheless,  the  plates,  vases, 
teapots,  bowls,  cups,  etc.  manufactured  from  it  have  a very  high 
reputation  throughout  Japan,  and  range  higher  in  price  than  the 
same  articles  made  in  other  porcelain  districts,  it  is  due  entirely 
to  the  peculiar  rich  and  careful  decoration  with  gold,  gold  purple 
and  iron-red,  to  which  in  many  cases  sub-acetate  of  copper,  but 
seldom  a fifth  colour,  is  added.  This  mode  of  decoration  on  glaze 
was  introduced  in  1814;  before  this,  blue  cobalt  decoration  under 
glaze  was  used,  as  in  Seto  and  Kidto  porcelain.  The  most  promi- 
nent works  of  Kaga  porcelain  painting  in  the  last  fifteen  years  are 
referable  to  a company  of  Samurai  in  Kanazawa,  with  Abe  at  the 
head.  The  decoration  of  the  Kaga-yaki  is  so  strikingly  peculiar 
1 The  glazing  consists  of  6 parts  Kutani-ishi  and  4 parts  Isu-bai. 


CERAMICS. 


483 


that,  usually,  it  does  not  require  much  practice  to  recognise  it. 
Generally  a conventional  ornamental  space  in  gold  and  red,  in 
many  cases  a meander,  divides  the  surface  to  be  decorated  into 
separate  fields,  on  which  the  paintings  proper,  human  figures, 
flowers,  birds,  clouds  consisting  of  single  points  of  iron-red,  are 
represented.  Sometimes,  too,  these  pictures  are  executed  in 
enamel  colours,  although  this  is  much  less  frequ.ent  than  in 
Seto-mono.  Many  articles  of  Kutani-yaki  are  among  the  most 
beautiful  that  ceramic  industry  in  general  has  ever  furnished, 
because  of  their  extremely  careful  and  effective  decoration.  The 
character  of  this  decoration  may  be  distinctly  seen  in  the  heliotype 
on  Plate  XXII. 

Banko-yaki.  The  province  of  Ise  yields,  under  this  name,  in  the 
cities  Yokkaichi  and  Kuwana,  on  the  Tokai-dd,  as  well  as  in  several 
towns  between  them,  partly  flint-ware  and  partly  a kind  of  glazed 
earthenware  with  beautiful  enamel  decorations,  which  has  been 
called  very  aptly  Japanese  Majolica.  In  a narrower  sense,  how- 
ever, Banko-yaki  consists  of  clay-wares  having  a red  to  dark 
brown,  yellowish,  or  white  colour,  either  plain,  marbled  or  painted. 
They  are  extremely  tasteful,  but  thin,  light,  and  not  very  durable, 
burning  very  hard,  and  exhibiting  in  the  potsherd  quite  the 
character  of  stone-ware.  They  are  generally  smaller  articles,  tea- 
pots, jugs,  small  vases  and  several  others  which  are  formed  neither 
on  the  wheel  nor  by  the  hand,  but  in  adjustable  katas  or  moulds. 
The  ferruginous  clay  which  is  used  for  the  coloured  ware  is  ob- 
tained in  several  places  on  a neighbouring  hill  near  Obuke ; the 
white  ware  is  from  the  porcelain  material  of  Seto.  When  the  two 
kinds  have  been  finely  pulverized  and  washed,  pressed  through 
cloths  and  transformed  to  plastic  paste,  they  are  separated  for  the 
plain  wares  and  mixed  for  the  marbled ; i.e.  in  the  latter  case 
they  are  superficially  kneaded  together,  and  then  rolled  to  a thin 
paste  like  cake  dough.  The  adjustable  wooden  moulds,  having 
a long  prismatic  or  cylindrical  piece  as  a handle  in  the  middle, 
are  made  wet  and  covered  with  strips  of  oiled  or  Shibu-saturated 
paper.  The  sheets  of  doughy  paste  are  then  pressed  firmly  on  all 
parts  of  the  mould.  That  which  lies  over  the  edges  is  trimmed 
off.  Special  strips  of  the  material  are  laid  on  and  pressed  close 
together  to  form  the  neck ; the  bottom  also  is  cut  out  by  itself  and 
pressed  on.  The  same  is  done  with  the  handle  and  spout,  which 
must  be  ready  made  beforehand.  When  the  pot  is  thus  modelled 
on  the  kata  and  somewhat  dried,  the  form  is  taken  apart  and  out 
from  the  centre,  and  the  article  placed  to  dry,  after  which  the  strips 
of  Shibu-gami  may  be  easily  removed.  The  cover  is  formed 
separately  also.  The  burning  lasts  twenty-four  hours  and  the 
articles  are  not  glazed. 

The  four  pots  on  Plate  XXIII.  are  decorated  each  in  a different 
fashion.  The  rings  and  knobs  of  the  covers  of  the  two  upper  pots 
may  be  turned  easily.  The  vertical  striping  of  both  is  effected  by  a 


48-1.  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


pressure  of  the  material  upon  the  form.  The  white  pot  (upper 
left)  is  decorated  with  birds  and  blooming  branches ; the  greyish 
brown  at  the  right,  with  the  white  botan  blossom  (paeony),  laid  in 
with  a corresponding  material.  The  third  pot  (lower  left)  shows 
the  places  where  the  thumb  pressed  the  thin  dough  on  the  form. 
The  little  house  with  which  it  is  decorated  is  made  of  paste  applied 
to  the  paste  of  the  pot.  In  the  fourth  a peculiar  marbling  may 
be  noticed,  produced  by  a mixture  of  several  coloured  pastes. 
Wares  of  this  kind  are  called  Momi-kome,  or  Kamo-gata. 

Banko  Kichibei,  after  whom  this  flint-ware  or  “ Gres  de  Banco  ” 
is  named,  erected  a furnace  at  Yeddo,  between  1652  and  .1660, 
which  was  intended  as  a branch  of  the  factory  in  Kutani,  but  was 
given  up  later.  Forty  years  ago,  a porcelain  potter,  by  the  name 
of  Yiusetsu,  built  a furnace  in  the  village  of  Obuke,  near  Kuwana, 
changed  his  name  into  Banko,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
present  peculiar  industry  which  bears  his  adopted  name.  Its 
principal  seat  is  Yokkaichi,  on  the  Tokai-do,  where  the  manu- 
facturer Kawahara-ya  employs  about  eighty  workmen.  The  fac- 
tory in  Obuke  is  still  in  operation,  but  furnishes  more  majolica, 
with  beautiful  enamelled  decorations  in  relief.  Several  potters  from 
Yokkaichi  transplanted  the  industry  to  Onko  in  Mino,  and  are 
now  producing  many  durable  wares. 

It  remains  still  to  mention  Imbe-yaki,  a peculiar  stone-ware  from 
the  province  of  Bizen,  which,  when  burned  in  an  intense  fire,  is 
distinguished  by  a beautiful  brownish  red  colour,  and  resembles 
certain  Chinese  wares  of  a similar  character. 


A. — Analyses  of  the  Porcelain  Materials  of  Arita,  in 
Hizen.1 


I. 

Tsuji- 

tsuchi. 

II. 

Arita- 

stone. 

III. 

Arita- 

stone. 

IV. 

Tsuji- 

tsuchi. 

V. 

Sakai- 

me- 

tsuchi. 

VI. 

Uwa- 

kusuri. 

VII. 

Shiro- 

tsuchi. 

VIII. 

Tsuji- 

tsuchi. 

IX. 

Sakai- 

me- 

tsuchi. 

X. 

Uwa- 

kusuri. 

Silicic  acid  . . 

7870 

77-35 

83-00 

78-18 

78-07 

78-21 

77' 68 

78-27 

77-88 

77-05 

Alumina  . . . 

14-27 

14-27 

ii’6o 

1570 

13-99 

14-41 

15-19 

14-69 

14-78 

I5'28 

Ferric  oxide 

it6 

2. 1 1 

0-70 

o"66 

I -02 

1-41 

0-90 

— 

— 

Manganic  oxide 

— 

traces 

traces 

— 

0-03 

ool 

— 

— 

— 

Lime  .... 

0-45 

0-15 

o'i8 

traces 

0 19 

O-IO 

1-46 

0-44 

o'33 

0'40 

Magnesia  . . 

traces 

029 

traces 

O’lO 

0-23 

— 

o"io 

— 

— 

— 

Potash  . . . 

2-24 

178 

1 -90 

°‘55 

0-96 

0-14 

0-51 

4'23 

3'55 

3 '98 

Sodium  oxide  . 

— 

072 

0-09 

174 

1-72 

r3S 

1-47 

— 

— 

Water.  . . . 

3 ‘29 

276 

2 '49 

2-52 

3-32 

372 

3 "33 

2 '99 

284 

291 

IOO'II 

99'°3 

99-96 

99'45 

99 '5  3 

99'37 

100-65 

100-62 

99'3§ 

99-62 

1 These  Japanese  names  are  not  terms  for  the  Arita  porcelain- stones  them- 
selves, but  for  material  made  from  them. 


CERAMICS. 


485 


—Analyses  of  Porcelain  Materials  from  various 
sources. 


I. 

Ama- 

kusa- 

ishi. 

11. 

Kutani- 

ishi. 

III. 

Tono- 

kuchi- 

ishi. 

IV. 

Kaseda 

V. 

VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 

Pegma- 

tite 

from  St. 
Yrieix. 

Porcelain-stones  from 
the  quarries  of  Ki- 
monnhsien,  at  Kingte- 
tschin,  in  China. 

Pegmatite 
from  Yiikan, 
in  China. 

Silicic  acid  . . 

73  87 

7660 

78-72 

77-15 

7477 

75-42 

7775 

74-70 

77-00 

74-99 

Alumina  . . . 

D '25 

1475 

14-51 

I3'SO 

16*29 

16-45 

15-38 

1570 

15-00 

14-80 

Ferric  oxide 

073 

-0-86 

traces 

0-94 

— 

— 

— 

o"37 

Manganic  oxide 

— 

,, 

— 

— 

— 

OTO 

— 

Lime  .... 

o'43 

0-29 

,, 

0*83 

2-61 

0-74 

1-26 

O'lO 

0*20 

1-09 

Magnesia  . . 

— 

0-42 

C62 

— 

— 

0*20 

— 

0-36 

Potash  . . . 

5-46 

3' 9 1 

°"39 

3‘34 

2-8i 

2-45 

3-32 

f 471 

Sodium  oxide  . 

voy 

0 65 

1-85 

2-05 

2-34 

r 040; 

470 

\3-49 

Water.  . . . 

223 

2-68 

5 '34 

1-64 

2-42 

2’74 

2-51 

2-40 

2-40 

0-65 

99-04 

9974 

99-38 

99-87 

100-95 

100-14 

100.22 

99-6o 

9970 

ioo"o6 

Explanations  of  the  foregoing  tables. 

A contains  several  analyses  of  Arita-ishi,  the  basis  of  the  cele- 
brated porcelain  industry  in  Hizen  ; and  B contains  analyses  of 
porcelain  stones  of  varying  origin  and  character. 

A I.,  B I.,  III.  and  IV.  were  made  by  Dr.  C.  Sarnow,  in  the 
Royal  Porcelain  Factory  at  Charlottenburg,  and  published  in  the 
Thonindustriezeitung , 1878,  No.  28.  I myself  collected  the 

material  in  Japan.  Sarnow  makes  the  following  notes:  A I., 
Arita-ishi.  “ White,  stony  substance,  with  numerous  black  spots 
in  it ; almost  capable  of  resisting  the  porcelain-fire.”  B I.,  Ama- 
kusa-ishi.  “ White,  stony  substance,  yielding,  when  broken  to 
pieces,  a white  powder,  which,  mixed  to  consistency  with  water, 
melts  at  the  temperature  in  which  the  porcelain  of  the  Royal 
Porcelain  Factory  of  Berlin  is  burned.”  B II.,  Kutani-ishi.  “Stone 
of  a yellow  colour,  or  yellowish  white,  threaded  with  yellow  veins, 
and  showing  indications  of  melting  in  the  porcelain-fire.”  B III., 
Tonokuchi-ishi,  kaolin,  from  the  vicinity  of  Lake  Inawashiro. 
“ The  pieces  are  of  a yellowish  white  colour,  very  resistible  to  fire, 
and  burning  quite  white.” 

A II.  and  III.  are  analyses  of  Arita-stone,  published  by  Giimbel 
in  Dingl.  Polyt.  fourn.,  Bd.  227,  p.  501.  He  obtained  the  ma- 
terial through  Dr.  G.  Wagener,  from  the  Vienna  Exhibition. 

The  analyses  A IV.,  V.,  VI.,  VII.,  were  made  by  H.  Wurtz,  and 
are  reproduced  by  Atkinson  in  Vol.  VIII.,  p.  273,  of  the  “ Transac- 
tions As.  Soc.  of  Japan,”  1880.  In  the  same  article,  R.  W.  Atkinson 


486  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


gives  a number  of  his  own  investigations  of  the  materials  employed 
in  Japanese  ceramics,  and  B IV.  is  taken  from  these. 

The  last  three  analyses  of  table  A,  as  well  as  B V.,  VI.,  and 
VII.,  were  taken  from  the  “ Untersuchung  von  Chinesischen  und 
Japanischen  zur  Porzellanfabrikation  verwandten  Gesteinvorkomm- 
nissen,”  von  W.  Pabst  in  the  “ Zeitschrift  der  deutsch.  geol. 
Gesellschaft,”  Bd.  32  (1880).  F.  von  Richthofen  furnished  the 
samples,  besides  notes  on  occurrence  in  Japan  and  at  Arita. 
According  to  these,  von  Richthofen  regarded  Arita-ishi  as  a ter- 
tiary, unstratified  rock,  rich  in  silicic  acid,  and  resembling  rhyolith- 
tufa,  while  the  porcelain-stones  of  Kingte-tschin  have  great 
similarity  to  “ Halleflinta  ” and  Petrosilex. 

The  porcelain-stone  of  Yiikan,  of  which  B VIII.  and  IX.  are 
two  analyses  by  Salvetat,  are  called  by  him  pegmatite,  and  by 
von  Richthofen  porphyroid.  B X.  is  an  analysis  of  the  pegmatite 
of  Yrieix,  in  France,  published  by  Seger,  and  placed  here  for  pur- 
poses of  comparison. 


C. — Analyses  of  various  Japanese  Kaolins  and  Clays,  com- 
pared WITH  SOME  OF  OTHER  COUNTRIES. 


Washed  Normal-kaolins. 

I. 

Shiga-raki 
(near  Kidto). 

II. 

Seto  (Ovvari) . 

III. 

Kuwana 

(Ise). 

_IV. 

Kiri-shima- 
yaroa  (Osumi). 

V. 

Arita  (Hizen). 

VI. 

Kingte-tschin 

(Kiang-si). 

VII. 

Zettlitz 

(Carlsbad). 

VIII. 

St.  Yrieix 
(Limoges). 

IX. 

St.  Austell. 
(Cornwall). 

Silicic  Acid  . . 

56-87 

S4‘6S 

64-65 

59-42 

49-25 

50-64 

45-68 

S4-40 

4SjS 

Alumina  . . . 

28-56 

32.3S 

22-56 

27-90 

38-89- 

3274 

38-S4 

4930 

36*00 

Ferric  Oxide  . . 

0-98 

— 

1-46 

— 

I'I4 

°'95 

o*i8 

— 

075 

FeOandMnO  . 

— 

— . 

— 

■ — 

— 

2-52 

— 

— 

Lime 

0-69 

0-90 

0*22 

0-13 

0-15 

0-50 

0'02 

\ 0*6  - 

traces 

Magnesia  . . . 

°'47 

0-37 

— 

0-26 

0-36 

0-2  7 

0-15 

j-  0 05 

Potash  .... 
Sodium  Oxide 

2 '08 
o‘o6 

3-27 

2°22 

.0-03 

0*30 

o-6 1 
roi 

2'OI 

0-39 

2-52 

traces 

j-  o"66 

2'3S 

0-96 

. W ater  .... 

io'i6 

630 

IO-34 

"'55 

5-90 

IO'OO 

13-00 

— 

13-00 

99-87 

ioo'o6 

99-56  ioo-88 

1 

98-09 

100-14 

98-23 

O 

°> 

O 

99-06 

CERAMICS. 


487 


D. — Analyses  of  various  Porcelain  Pastes. 


1. 

Arita. 

II. 

Arita. 

III. 

Seto. 

IV. 

Kiyo- 

midzu 

(Kioto). 

V. 

Berlin. 

VI. 

Sevres 

(Paste 

for 

Plates.) 

VJL 

Sevres 

(Paste 

for 

Sculp- 

turing.) 

IX. 

Limo- 

ges. 

X. 

China. 

Silicic  Acid  . . 

74'53 

71-31 

6470 

67-17 

63-07 

58.00 

64-23 

6671 

68  "oo 

Alumina.  . . . 

16-09 

1974 

22*01 

21-50 

24.67 

2440 

30-05 

21-58 

I2'00 

Ferric  Acid  . . 

1-03 

0-73 

0-74 

o-68 

0-59 

— 

0-47 

traces 

Lime 

o'o6 

0-17 

0-57 

0-56 

0*42 

4-5° 

2-89 

o‘6i 

14-00 

Magnesia  . . . 

0-25 

— 

— 

— 

— 

0-37 

— 

Potash  .... 
Sodium  Oxide.  . 

4'37 

no 

4-04 

O'lO 

4'95 

0-36 

4‘97 

} 4*25 

3'00 

279 

2'93 

1-62 

j-  6 '00 

Water  .... 

2-83 

4-oi 

6'  06 

5-85 

7*00 

— 

— 

5 '54 

— 

IQO'26 

OO'IO 

99'39 

100-73 

100*00 

89-90 

99-96 

99'83 

100*00 

C.  Analyses  of  various  Kaolins  and  Clays. 

Of  these  R.  W.  Atkinson  published  Nos.  I. -IV.,  in  “Trans- 
actions As.  Soc.  of  Japan,”  vol.  viii.  pp.  274,  275  ; Giimbel,  V., 
Dingl.  Pol.  J.  Bd.  227,  p.  501  ; Kalmann,  VI.,  in  Dingl.  Pol. 
J.  Bd.  220,  p.  445  ; and  K.  Bischof,  VII.,  VIII.,  and  IX.,  in 
Dingl.  Pol.  J.  Bd.  198,  p.  396.  As  can  be  seen  by  comparing 
them,  the  Arita-kaolin,  which  is  found  in  company  with  the  Arita 
porcelain-stone,  and  must  be  regarded  as  only  a further  developed 
form  of  this,  comes  next  to  the  normal  kaolin  from  St.  Austell,  in 
Cornwall.  Its  burning  is  facilitated  by  its  high  amount  of  alkali, 
which  is  of  great  value  for  the  porcelain  industry  of  Arita.  Of 
the  other  Japanese  porcelain  clays  in  the  table,.  Shiga-raki  is  used 
not  only  for  Kioto  Faience,  but  for  porcelain  ; and  the  kaolin  of 
Kirishima-yama  is  used  for  the  Faience  of  Satsuma.  That  of 
Seto  supplies  the  porcelain  factories  of  Owari  and  Mino,  which 
employ,  besides,  many  other  clays.  The  clay  which  is  used  for 
the  lighter  Banko-yaki  is  found  at  Kuwana  in  Ise ; and  a reddish 
clay  with  over  5 per  cent,  of  ferric  oxide,  from  which,  for  example, 
the  vessel  in  Fig.  19  was  made,  is  also  found  here  in  Ise  as  a 
valuable  material  for  its  own  peculiar  industry. 

Table  D,  “Analyses  of  various  Porcelain  Pastes,”  offers  matter 
for  interesting  comparisons.  The  first  two,  of  Arita-substances, 
are  especially  notable  for  their  large  amount  of  silicic  acid.  They, 
like  No.  VIII.,  were  published  by  Seger  and  Aron,  in  the  “Thon- 
industriezeitung.”  The  director  of  the  experiment-station  at  Char- 
lottenburg,  so  well  known  for  his  notable  labours  in  the  subject  of 
ceramics,  remarks  upon  these  as  follows:  “The  Japanese  paste  I. 


488  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


exhibits  the  highest  degree  of  plasticity,  so  that,  in  view  of  the 
small  amount  of  argillaceous  cement,  it  is  hard  to  believe  that  a 
real  plastic  clay  has  been  employed.”  And  indeed  this  is  not  the 
case.  The  substance,  like  the  porcelain-stone  that  yields  it,  is 
unique  in  the  porcelain  industry. 

For  analyses  III.  and  IV.,  I am  indebted  to  Dr.  Sarnow.  He 
remarks  of  paste  III.  that  it  is  yellowish  grey,  tolerably  plastic,  and 
that  it  burned  white,  and  is  of  nearly  the  same  resistibility  to  heat 
as  the  Berlin  pulp.  The  paste  of  Kiyomidzu  shows  the  same  pro- 
perties. In  chemical  composition  these  three  materials  approach 
one  another,  though  the  Berlin  paste  is  richer  in  alumina,  and 
correspondingly  more  resistible  in  firing.  The  porcelains  of  both 
districts  correspond  to  the  near  relationship  of  the  Seto  substances 
to  that  of  Kioto.  Analyses  VI.  and  VII.  are  by  Laurent,  and 
were,  like  IX.  taken  from  Kerl’s  “ Handbuch  der  Thonwaaren- 
industrie.”  The  large  amount  of  lime  and  alkali  in  the  Chinese 
paste  IX.  renders  the  porcelain  obtained  from  it  very  easy  to  melt, 
approaching  the  English  paste  for  soft  porcelain  substance. 


9.  Enamel  Industry. 

The  Nature  and  Varieties  of  Enamel. — Historical  Glance  at  the 
Development  of  the  Industry  in  different  Countries. — Character 
of  the  Chinese  and  fapanese  Cloisonne.  — Method  of  Cellular 
Lacquer-work  Mamifacture  in  fapan  on  Copper , Porcelain , and 
Stone-ware. — Free  Enamel. — Composition  and  Preparation  of 
fapanese  Vitreous  Colours. 

Literature. 

1.  Theophilus  Presbiter : “Schedula  diversarum  artium.”  Published  by 
H.  Hagen  in  “ Quellenschriften  fur  Kunstgeschichte.”  7 Band.  Wien,  1S74. 

2.  Popelin  : “ L’art  de  1’email.”  Paris,  1868. 

3.  Burty  : “ Les  Emaux  cloisonnes.”  Paris,  1868. 

4.  v.  Brandt : “ Ueber  Japanisches  email  cloisonne.”  “ Mittheil  d.  deutsch. 
Ges.  Ostasiens.”  5 Heft,  pp.  1-3,  1874. 

5.  Bucher  : “ Geschichte  der  technischen  Klinste.”  Stuttgart,  1875. 

6.  J.  L.  Bowes:  “ Japanese  Enamels.”  Liverpool,  1884. 

7.  G.  Audsley : “The  Ornamental  Arts  of  Japan.”  Part  III.  London, 
1885. 

Enamel,  Japanese  Shippd,  is  the  name  given,  first,  to  an  easily 
fusible  glass  material  coloured  by  a metal  oxide,  produced  princi- 
pally on  metals,  less  frequently  on  clay-wares  and  glass,  either  as 
a protecting  covering  or  for  mere  decoration,  second,  the  article 
decorated  with  enamel.  Under  the  first  head  the  base  (the  ex- 
cipient) is  evenly  covered  with  enamel  of  one  colour,  e.g.,  in  modern 
times  many  household  articles  of  cast-iron.  Such  an  enamel  cor- 
responds to  the  glaze  of  earthenware,  from  which  it  is  also  difficult 
to  distinguish  it  in  the  composition  and  use. 


ENAMEL  INDUSTRY. 


489 


If  the  enamel  is  to  serve  as  decoration  merely,  it  is  treated  like 
painting  colours.  The  pulverized  mixture  of  its  constituents  is 
ground  to  a fine  paste  with  water  and  laid  upon  the  groundwork 
with  a little  stick  or  brush,  and  then  fused  at  a moderate  heat  in  a 
small  furnace.  This  enamel  decoration  is  usually  executed  in 
several  colours,  like  the  polychromatic  painting  of  clay-wares.  As 
the  enamel  colours  may  be  both  opaque  and  transparent,  they 
furnish  a very  rich  palette  which  makes  it  possible  to  imitate  the 
appearance  of  several  ornamental  stones,  thus  giving  rise  to  the 
Japanese  name  Shippo,  for  enamel,  and  Shippo-yaki  for  enamelled 
metallic  vessels.1 

Enamel  decoration  is  an  art  which  has  been  practised  by  many 
civilized  people  in  ancient  as  well  as  in  modern  times,  and  in  which 
the  Japanese  especially  show  marvellous  skill.  While  other  nations, 
especially  the  Chinese,  have  contented  themselves  with  decorating 
metals  only  in  this  way,  the  Japanese  have  succeeded  with  equally 
good  results  in  using  it  on  hard-burned  clay-ware  (porcelain  and 
Faience).  But  before  I describe  more  closely  the  manner  in  which 
the  Japanese  produce  their  enamel,  I will  make  some  general 
observations  on  the  varieties  of  enamel  and  its  introduction.  The 
several  processes  of  enamel  decoration  are  grouped  in  two  classes : 

1.  Bound  enamel,  also  called  incrusted  or  imbedded  enamel. 
This  is  a mosaic  work  in  which  the  single  enamel  colours  and  con- 
stituents of  the  decoration  are  separated  from  each  other  by  a 
narrow  metal  band.  In  its  manufacture  a network  of  metallic 
cells  is  made  on  the  foundation,  either  by  casting,  hollowing  out 
or  soldering,  which  corresponds  to  the  contour  of  the  single  parts 
of  the  picture.  The  cells  are  then  filled,  either  entirely  or  partly, 
with  the  several  enamel  colours,  and  then  comes  the  fusing  or 
burning,  in  which  the  thin  cell  walls  prevent  the  overflow  of  the 
different  enamel  colours ; and  after  being  rubbed  down  make  the 
contour  of  the  different  parts  of  the  enamel  picture  sharply  dis- 
tinct. 

This  bound  enamel  is  again  divided  into  : 

a.  Cell  enamel,  or  cloisonne  enamel  (incrusted  enamel),  in  which 
the  cells  are  formed  separately  of  narrow  metal  bands  correspond- 
ing to  the  pattern  of  the  decoration,  and  then  soldered  to  the 
foundation. 

b.  Pit  enamel,  or  enamel  champleve  (embedded  enamel).  In 
this  variety  the  cell  walls  are  parts  of  the  groundwork  itself,  and 
are  produced,  like  the  enclosed  hollows,  by  casting  or  carving 
out. 

In  both  these  varieties  of  enamel  the  fused  colours  fill  up  the 
cells  completely  after  the  rubbing  and  polishing,  so  that  the  deco- 

1 Shippo-yaki  signifies  “The  burned  ware  of  the  seven  costly  things” 
(Shippo,  see  p.  424),  because  gold,  silver,  lapis-lazuli,  coral,  agate,  rock 
crystal,  and  pearls  are  imitated  to  a certain  degree  and  can  be  combined  in 
this  kind  of  cell-enamelling.  . 


49°  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


rations  lie  in  an  even  surface.  On  this  account  it  is  also  called 
surface  or  smooth  enamel,  an  expression  which  is  employed  by 
the  Russians  especially  for  this  kind  of  product.  Another  kind 
of  cell  enamel  is  made  in  Moscow,  and  there  only,  viz. : — 

c.  The  so-called  filigree  enamel  is  called  by  the  Russians  Filo- 
granuije  enamel  or  Soskanju  enamel,  i.e.  literally  “ enamel  with 
twisted  thread.”  It  differs  from  the  smooth  enamel  in  this,  that 
only  the  bottom  of  the  cells  is  covered  with  the  enamel  colours 
and  the  cloisons  or  cell  walls  stand  out  in  relief. 

2.  Free  enamel  is  laid  on  with  the  brush,  not  in  cells  but  upon 
the  smooth  metallic  surface.  It  is  distinguished  as  painted  enamel 
(email  de  peintre)  or  Limoges,  after  the  city  in  which  it  was 
principally  employed  in  the  15th  and  16th  centuries  with  remark- 
able effect,  and  as  translucent  (email  translucide),  raised  or  high 
enamel  (opera  di  basso  rilievo).  The  ornamentation,  which  is 
formed  by  the  embossing  and  cutting  of  the  metal  foundation 
itself,  or  by  means  of  a putty  in  surface  relief,  is  painted  with 
transparent  enamel  colours,  so  that  the  lustrous  metallic  ground- 
work is  seen  through  the  crust  of  enamel. 

The  origin  of  flat  enamel,  with  which  we  have  principally  to  do, 
belongs  to  a period  before  the  Christian  era.  The  old  Egyptians 
filled  gold  cells  with  polished  costly  stones  or  glass,  and  1 saw  in 
1878,  in  the  Musee  de  Cluny  at  Paris,  a piece  of  bronze  bearing  the 
number  3510  (a  clasp)  which  was  similarly  treated.  It  was  about 
five  or  six  centimeters  long  and  broad,  with  dice-shaped  hollows 
filled  out  with  polished  coloured  stones.  Whether  it  was  really 
of  Celtic  origin,  as  the  label  stated,  or  was  made  rather  by  the 
Romans,  is  of  no  consequence  here.  It  is  certain  that  the  next 
step  was  to  fill  these  cells  with  enamel  colours  instead  of  coloured 
stones  or  pieces  of  glass. 

Articles  decorated  with  Cloisonne  enamel  in  ancient  times  are 
infrequent  and  usually  small.  The  groundwork  was  almost  always 
of  embossed  gold  or  silver.  The  cells  were  small  strips  of  gold 
soldered  in.  Pit  enamel  soon  followed.  In  the  flourishing  period 
of  the  Eastern  Empire,  especially  at  the  time  of  Justinian,  who  was 
able  to  use  his  great  wealth  to  gratify  his  taste  for  magnificence  in 
churches  and  castles,  weapons  and  armours,  Byzantine  enamel  (cell 
and  pit  enamel)  was  brought  to  its  highest  development  in  Con- 
stantinople. It  is  not  known  whether  the  Byzantines  discovered 
the  art  or  learned  it  from  the  orientals ; the  assumption  that  it 
came  from  the  Chinese,  on  the  other  hand,  is  entirely  unfounded 
and  erroneous.  It  gained  entrance  to  Western  Europe  and  firm 
foundation  undoubtedly  by  means  of  the  crusades.  Its  greatest 
display  was  in  the  13th  and  14th  centuries,  as  can  be  readily 
seen  by  its  products  in  the  art  collections  of  many  old  Catholic 
churches,  for  example,  in  the  cathedral  at  Aix-la-Chapelle.  De- 
coration with  precious  stones,  some  of  which  stand  out  above  the 
enamel,  was  combined  with  the  electrum,  as  enamel  was  called 


ENAMEL  INDUSTRY. 


49' 


during  the  middle  ages,  as  Theophilus 1 has  stated  and  is  shown  by 
numerous  examples.  Enamelled  reliquary  shrines  were  especially 
popular,  and  not  only  these  but  coffins,  altars,  crucifixes,  censers, 
and  other  ecclesiastical  vessels  were  decorated  with  pit  enamel,  also 
weapons,  girdles,  and  all  kinds  of  ornamental  articles.  Instead  of 
precious  metals  for  the  foundation,  they  gradually  employed  the 
cheaper  copper,  on  whose  polished  surface  the  decorations  were 
sketched  and  then  hollowed  out  with  the  graver’s  burin.  It  was 
not  till  some  time  later  that  this  work  was  materially  lightened  by 
first  casting  and  then  engraving.  Pit  enamel  on  copper,  like  cell 
enamel  on  precious  metal,  made  the  decoration  of  large  surfaces 
possible  in  an  entirely  different  manner,  and  was  predominant  in 
Europe,  while  Cloisonne  enamel  found  'its  chief  employment  in 
China  and  Japan. 

German  inhabitants  of  Lorraine  introduced  pit  enamel  into 
Paris.  Thence  it  passed  down  in  the  12th  century  to  Limoges, 
where  it  had  an  extremely  flourishing  existence.  But  as  in  the 
15th  century  the  art  declined  in  the  favour  of  the  public,  the 
Limoges  enamel,  or  enamel  painting  of  Limoges,  in  which  the  art 
of  enamelling  in  general  has  shown  its  greatest  accomplishments, 
began  to  be  developed.  In  the  17th  century  the  still  flourishing 
Faience  industry  succeeded  this  enamel  painting  in  Limoges, 
and  was  joined  in  the  18th  century  by  the  porcelain  industry. 
The  art  of  decorating  metallic  objects  with  surface  enamel,  and 
especially  pit  enamel,  gradually  disappeared  in  Europe  towards 
the  end  of  the  Middle  Ages,  without  entirely  dying  out.  Its 
first  revival  occurred  in  the  17th  century  at  the  “time  of  the 
Patriarchs  and  Czars,”  in  Moscow,  through  the  influence  of  Greek 
masters.  Bishops’  caps,  crucifixes,  sceptres,  imperial  globes  with 
their  crosses,  shields,  swords,  quivers,  and  many  other  articles 
were  decorated  with  stones  and  enamel.  But  this  enamel  shows, 
like  modern  European  cell  enamel  generally,  much  more  brilliant 
colours.  The  cause  lies  undoubtedly  in  a difference  in  process. 
While  in  former  times,  and  in  Japan  and  China  until  within  a very 
few  years,  the  colours  were  mixed  with  the  other  constituents  of 
the  cell  enamel  and  combined  in  the  cells  or  pits  by  heat  to  a glassy 
paste,  pieces  of  coloured  glass  are  now  employed.  They  are 
thoroughly  pulverized  and  then  ground  with  water  to  a fine  paste 
with  which  the  cells  are  filled  and  again  fused.  This  produces  the 
easier  and  more  perfect  filling  of  the  cells,  and  no  less  the  higher 
brilliancy  of  the  modern  work.  They  are  manufactured  in  Moscow 
principally,  by  the  firms  Hlebnikow,  Ovtschinnekow  and  Sazikow, 
though  in  St.  Petersburg  also.  These  Russian  productions,  with 
all  their  magnificence,  however,  lack  often  the  correct  taste  in  com-, 
bination  of  the  colours  which  so  distinguishes  the  works  of  Ravene 

1 Theophiius,  or  Rugerus,  who  lived  during  the  middle  of  the  nth  century, 
gives  in  his  manuscripts  “ Diversarum  artium  schedula,”  the  first  description  of 
the  manufacture  of  Cloisonne  enamel. 


492  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


in  Berlin,  and  Barbedienne  in  Paris.  These  costly  articles  with  pit 
enamel  are  seldom  seen  in  Germany.  The  deceased  L.  Ravene 
was  the  first  and  only  one  who  endeavoured  to  found  this  industry 
in  Germany.  His  manufacture  of  smaller  articles,  like  brooches 
and  cuff  buttons,  was  all  that  found  sufficient  support,  while  for 
larger  productions,  in  spite  of  their  marvellous  execution,  there 
was  no  sufficient  appreciation,  and  on  the  other  hand  facilities  for 
making  them  were  wanting. 

Barbedienne  in  Paris  had  a much  better  field  for  his  work. 
Twenty  years  ago,  when  the  first  larger  articles  of  Cloisonne  enamel 
came  from  Japan,  he  endeavoured  to  imitate  them.  Several  other 
bronze  manufacturers,  like  Christofle,  followed  his  example.  They 
soon  succeeded  in  decorating  vases,  plate,  and  other  articles,  with 
cell  enamel  as  beautifully  as  the  Chinese  and  Japanese,  but  with 
such  an  expenditure  of  time  and  money  as  made  competition  with 
Eastern  Asia  impossible. 

It  has  never  been  exactly  determined  how  long  the  art  of 
enamelling  was  practised  by  the  Chinese,  nor  when  it  was  com- 
municated by  them  to  the  Japanese,  but  it  seems  scarcely  doubtful 
that  it  was  not  known  in  either  of  these  countries  before  the  inven- 
tion or  introduction  of  the  porcelain  industry.  After  the  sacking 
of  the  treasures  in  the  Summer  Palace  at  Pekin  in  1859,  the  French 
brought  to  Paris,  among  other  art  treasures,  some  Cloisonne  enamel 
on  copper,  consisting  of  pieces  with  inscriptions  and  marks  which 
left  no  doubt  as  to  their  origin  in  the  time  of  the  Ming  dynasty 
(1368-1645  A.D.).  No  older  specimens  of  enamel  have  been  received 
from  China. 

According  to  Japanese  statements  whose  correctness  we  have 
no  reason  to  doubt,  the  art  of  manufacturing  Shipp6-yaki  was 
introduced  into  Japan  near  the  close  of  the  16th  century  by 
Hirato  Hikoshiro,  and  established  itself  at  Nagoya  in  Owari,  where 
it  still  has  its  principal  seat.  The  industry  is  carried  on  there 
and  in  several  neighbouring  places,  among  them  in  Toshima,  3 ri 
west  of  Nagoya,  in  about  thirty  houses,  generally  as  a small  trade. 
About  twenty  or  thirty  years  ago  it  was  also  established  in  Kioto, 
Osaka,  Tokio,  and  Yokohama.  Here  they  have  not  stopped  with 
enamelling  copper  vessels,  but  the  process  has  been  successfully 
extended  to  porcelain  (Toki).  Nagoya  consequently  furnishes  now- 
a-days  Toki-shippo,  as  well  as  Shippd-yaki,  i.e.  Cloisonne  enamel 
on  porcelain  and  copper.  Still  another  peculiar  kind  of  decoration 
is  seen  in  the  products  from  Seto,  especially  on  flower  vases,  bearing 
the  name  Shippo-urushi.  The  surface  to  be  decorated  is  covered 
with  a network  of  brass  cells,  which  are  filled  not  with  enamel 
polours  but  with  the  groundwork  material  of  the  lacquer  industry, 
and  finally  painted  over  with  lacquer  colours. 

Thirty  years  ago  Japanese  enamel  was  not  at  all  known  in 
Europe  and  was  not  to  be  found  in  any  of  the  old  collections  with 
the  Japanese  lacquer  ware,  bronzes,  and  porcelain.  The  reason  of 


ENAMEL  INDUSTRY. 


493 


this  may  be  that  Shipp6-yaki  was  not  manufactured  on  the  island 
of  Kiushiu  and  even  in  these  days  is  seldom  to  be  had  there,  even 
in  Nagasaki. 

Although  the  Chinese  also  make  email  champleve,  the  Japan- 
ese have  not  followed  them.  Their  older  Cloisonne  enamel  is 
quite  as  dull  in  colour  as  the  Chinese,  but  amateurs  of  both  give  the 
Japanese  the  credit  of  a bolder  design  and  better  execution.  The 
Chinese  began  also  earlier  to  give  brighter  colours  to  their  cell 
enamel.  Do  the  duller  enamel  colours  of  both  nations  correspond 
to  the  taste — a better  taste  in  the  opinion  of  many — and  did  they 
have  their  origin  in  this,  or  were  these  colours  only  a natural  con- 
sequence of  the  process  of  manufacture?  European  connoisseurs 
and  collectors  of  these  old  enamels  are  generally  inclined  to  take 
the  first  view,  but  on  closer  investigation  of  the  earlier  processes  of 
manufacture  the  cause  seems  to  be  found  in  that  alone. 

The  older  Japanese  Shippd-yaki  has  a foundation  of  thin  em- 
bossed copper,  and  for  cloisons  it  has  thin  brass  bands  like  those 
used  at  present,  some  of  which  were  made  probably  by  beating  or 
by  the  rolling  of  brass  wire.  Azure  blue,  yellowish  green,  and  a 
dirty  white  are  its  most  common  colours,  but  a Turkish  blue  ground 
is  generally  used.  In  the  newer  work  the  groundwork  is  thicker 
and  the  colours  used  seem  far  more  abundant  and  brilliant,  besides 
filling  up  the  cells  much  more  evenly  and  perfectly. 

The  process  of  the  manufacture  of  Japanese  Cloisonne  enamel 
is,  as  I had  the  opportunity  to  observe,  everywhere  essentially  the 
same.  That  of  a factory  at  Ota,  near  Yokohama,  where  fifteen 
years  ago  fifty  persons  were  employed  to  apply  the  cell  enamel  to 
vases,  tea  boxes,  flat  plates,  dishes,  and  several  other  copper  articles, 
will  serve  as  an  example  for  all. 

The  prepared  dishes  are  provided  with  a brass  edge  folding  over 
the  top  towards  the  inner  and  outer  side,  and  with  a brass  rim 
soldered  on  at  the  foot.  The  decorations  are  sketched,  generally 
after  patterns,  with  a white-lead  varnish.  The  workman  then 
covers  the  pattern  with  a transparent  pane  of  glass  and  places 
on  it  the  cells,  which  represent  the  contours  of  parts  of  flowers, 
leaves,  feathers,  etc.,  or  even  of  figures.  These  cells,  are  to  serve  as 
the  ornament  for  the  entire  surface,  and  correspond  exactly  to  the 
picture  pattern,  with  their  narrow  strips  of  brass,  which  are  either 
cast  or  bent  by  the  workman,  as  he  requires  .them,  with  a pair  of 
wire  pincers.  In  the  latter  case,  they  must  have  been  heated 
beforehand,  in  order  to  take  off  their  elasticity.  When  he  has 
placed  the  figures — eg.  a flower  or  a net  of  meshes — together  in 
this  way,  the  metal  strips  naturally  stand  upon  their  narrow  edge, 
and  are  then  applied  to  the. corresponding  design  on  the  article 
to  be  enamelled.  The  Biyaku-gu,  or  bulb  of  an  orchid  called’ 
Shuran 1 (. Bletia  hyacinthina,  R.  Br.),  furnishes  the  cement  for 

1 I found  this  species  of  orchid,  known  by  its  splendid  red  flowers,  in  great 
abundance  in  Southern  Japan  on  a bare  hillside.  It  was  introduced  in  1802 


494  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


fastening  them,  a sort  of  salep-glue.  It  is  ground  down  upon 
a rough  sharkskin  (Same-no-kawa),  and  made  into  a thick  pasty 
fluid  with  boiling  water.  It  is  then  laid  on  with  a brush  in  the 
designated  places,  and  the  cell  walls  are  placed  upon  it.  When 
dry  they  adhere  so  firmly  to  the  groundwork  that  the  workmen 
can  now  proceed  to  the  melting  of  the  solder. 

This  Ro  (solder)  is  a grey  substance  made  by  melting  together 
8 parts  of  brass,  7 parts  of  tin,  and  10  parts  of  zinc.  YVhen  it  is 
to  be  used,  10  parts  of  this  pulverized  alloy  are  taken  with  3 parts 
of  borax,  and  enough  water  is  added  to  make  a pulpy  paste,  with 
which  the  groundwork  is  coated  at  the  places  where  the  cloisons 
come  in  contact  with  it.  The  article  is  then  heated  over  a 
moderate  coal  fire,  so  that  the  solder  soon  melts.  When  cooled, 
the  cell  walls  are  firmly  fixed,  and  are  now  ready  for  the  soft 
enamel  colours.1 

The  solder  (R6)  which  is  used  for  Awata  ware  in  Kioto  con- 
tains 6 parts  of  brass  (Shinshiu),  3 parts  of  zinc  (Totan),  and  10 
parts  of  borax  (Hosha).  When  the  metals  have  melted  together, 
the  still  hot  alloy  is  placed  in  a stone  mortar,  pulverized,  mixed 
with  borax,  and  then  ground  with  water  to  a paste  which  can  be 
laid  on  with  the  brush. 

The  article  designed  for  'enamelling,  and  provided  with  firmly 
adhering  cells,  passes  now  into  the  hands  of  the  painters.  These 
are  generally  women,  who  sit  in  a circle  around  their  pots  contain- 
ing different  colours.  There  is  usually  a thorough  division  of 
labour  in  this  work,  of  such  a kind  that  each  person  represents 
one  colour.  She  dips  a little  staff  in  the  prepared  coloured  pulp 
paste  and  fills  one  cell  with  it ; then  the  second,  which  should 
receive  the  same  colour ; and  so  on.  Thereupon  the  article  goes 
to  the  hands  of  the  second  painter,  who  proceeds  in  like  manner 
with  her  colour  ; and  thus  the  work  goes  on,  till  all  the  colours  are 
laid  on  and  all  the  cells  are  filled.  When  the  enamel  has  become 
as  dry  as  is  possible  in  the  open  air,  its  burning  follows.  The 
colours  shrink  considerably,  and  holes  are  formed  in  the  enamel,  so 
that  there  must  be  a continual  filling  up  of  the  cells.  Then  comes 
the  second  burning,  and  afterwards  the  first  rubbing  and  polishing. 
The  cracks  and  other  hollows  in  the  cells  are  again  filled  up  and 
improved,  then  burnt  for  the  third  time,  and  often  a fourth,  and 
once  more  rubbed  and  polished.  Cracks  and  holes  which  still 
appear  are  often  filled  and  painted  over  with  Ro  (vegetable  tallow), 
a deceit  which  should  be  avoided.  The  older  Chinese  and  Japanese 
enamels  show  these  imperfections  in  great  number,  especially  the 

into  England,  and  appears  to  be  identical  with  Epidendrum  tuberosum , Lour. 
(Lour.  “ Flora  cochin-chinensis,”  p.  639),  concerning  which  the  author  states  that 
it  is  cultivated  in  the  gardens  of  China  and  Cochin  China. 

1 Enamel  workmen  in  Nagoya  assured  me  that  they  did  not  use  any  Ro,  but 
filled  in  the  enamel  colours  as  soon  as  the  cells  had  been  fastened  down  with 
Biyaku-gu. 


ENAMEL  INDUSTRY. 


495 


holes.  They  appear  almost  as  a necessary  attribute  of  the  entire 
character  of  the  work. 

The  burning  in  of  the  enamel  colour  is  accomplished  in  a 
manner  similar  to  that  of  the  colours  on  clay-ware,  in  a simple 
apparatus  not  very  well  suited  to  the  purpose,  which  may  be 
described  as  a muffle  without  a furnace.  Fig.  20  gives  an  illustra- 
tion of  such  a one  as  was  used  at  Awata  in  Kioto  some  fifteen 
years  ago.  The  muffle  is  made  of  Kawarake,  or  brick-paste.  Its 
size  depends  on  that  of  the  objects  to  be  enamelled.  In  this  case 
it  was  only  15J  Japanese  inches  (50  centimeters)  high,  and  I2i 
inches  (38  centimeters)  broad.  The  hole  in  the  cover,  5 or  6 
centimeters  wide,  is  used  for  testing.  The  muffle  usually  admits 
only  one  article  decorated  with  enamel  colours.  There  are  no 
special  conditions  in  regard  to  fuel ; charcoal  or  carbonized  wood 
is  placed  around  the  muffle,  and  heaped  up 
to  the  top,  and  then  kept  tight  together  with 
iron  wire.  The  cover  is  put  on  with  a long 
pair  of  tongs  when  the  flames  have  reached 
the  upper  edge.  The  fire  is  generally  kept 
up  for  two  hours,  and  removed  quickly  as 
soon  as  the  test  shows  a perfect  fusing  of 
the  enamel  colours.  The  cover,  however,  for 
reasons  easily  understood,  must  not  be  taken 
off  till  after  a sufficient  cooling. 

The  same  substances  which  are  used  for 
the  purpose  in  the  lacquer  industry  serve  for 
rubbing  and  polishing  the  cell  enamel-work, 
viz.,  coarse  and  fine  sandstone,  slate,  and 
magnolia  charcoal,  after  the  second,  third,  or 
fourth  burning,  with  ashes  of  hartshorn  and 
rape  oil  for  polishing.1 

Substantially  the  same  process  is  followed 
in  the  manufacture  of  Toki-shipp6,  or  email 
cloisonne  on  porcelain,  in  Nagoya  and  Kioto,  and  of  Awata- 
shippd  or  on  Awata-yaki  in  Kioto,  as  in  Shipp6-yaki.  Those 
parts  of  the  clay-wares  under  consideration  which  are  to  be 
decorated  with  cloisonne  enamel  must  remain  unglazed.  The 
others  are  treated  in  the  usual  way,  i.e.  with  strong  fire  colours 
under  glaze  and  with  muffle  colours  on  the  glaze.  When  this  is 
done,  the  net  of  brass  cells,  i.e.  the  contour  of  the  leaves,  flowers, 
and  fruits,  of  animals,  and  the  other  several  constituent  parts  of 
the  meander  and  other  figures — in  short,  of  all  the  single  elements 

1 The  order  in  which  the  above-mentioned  polishing  materials  are  usually 
employed  is  as  follows  : 1.  Ara-to,  a coarse-grained  grey  sandstone  from 
.Shinano  ; 2.  lyo-to,  a sandstone  from  Iyo  ; 3.  Omura-do,  a fine-grained  white 
sandstone  from  Omura  in  Hizen  ; 4.  Joken-ji,  a yellowish  clay  sandstone  ; 5. 
'Tsu-shima-ishi,  a slate  whetstone  from  the  island  of  Tsu  ; 6.  Ho-no-ai-sumi, 
magnolia  charcoal. 


COLOURS. 


496  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


which  are  to  make  the  whole  enamel  decoration,  is  then  placed 
in  the  same  as  upon  copper.  The  contour  of  these  cloisons  is 
sketched  beforehand  with  Indian  ink.  For  fastening  the  thick 
pasty  glue  made  from  the  bulbs  of  Bletia  hyacinthina  is  used,  but 
no  solder  or  R6.  When  the  cement  is  dry  the  cells  are  filled 
with  the  pulpy  enamel  colours,  as  in  other  cases.  In  this  case 
also  the  single  air-dried  colours  are  not  fused  separately,  but  all 
at  one  time,  and  practice  and  experience  have  shown  how  to 
prepare  the  mixtures  by  a number  of  different  fluxes,  so  that  the 
fusing  of  all  becomes  possible  in  the  same  degree  of  heat.  On 
account  of  the  shrinkage  of  the  enamel  in  burning  and  the  escape 
of  air  bubbles,  cracks,  holes  and  hollows  appear,  which  must  be 
filled  up.  Then  follows  a second  burning,  then  the  first  polishing, 
another  filling  up,  and  a third  burning,  to  which  often  a fourth  is 
added. 

In  Awata-yaki  polychromatic  painting  is  combined  in  a very 
effective  manner  with  the  decoration  by  means  of  many-coloured 
cell  enamel.  Those  parts  of  the  article  which  are  destined  for  the 
latter  form  sharply  defined  medallions  of  various  figure  and  size, 
which  lie  usually  about  one  millimeter  below  the  surface.  This 
kind  of  decoration  is  copied  on  the  copper  basin  seen  in  Plate 
XXIV.,  but  changed  as  required  by  the  composition  of  the  ground- 
work. We  see  there  a medallion  which  is  surrounded  or  framed 
in  by  a large,  thick-walled  brass  cell,  and  filled  with  white  enamel. 
The  decorator  has  then  applied  green  and  blue  muffle  colours  and 
gold  to  the  coloured  picture  on  this  enamelled  groundwork,  and 
the  whole  has  been  burned  in.  Here  too  the  application  of  the 
enamel  must  have  preceded  the  ornamentation  of  the  medallion 
with  the  paeony  and  flying  butterfly. 

Nagoya  was  not  only  the  first  to  develop  the  cell  enamel  on 
copper,  but  some  twenty  years  ago  was  in  advance  of  Kioto  in 
transferring  the  process  to  crockery.  Porcelain  vases  from  Seto 
were  here  decorated  in  another  peculiar  way  which  is  known  as 
Nuri-shippo  or  Shippo-urushi.  It  is  a peculiar  form  of  ornament- 
ing clay-wares  by  lacquer  painting.  A net  of  brass  cells  is  placed 
on  the  surface,  the  same  as  in  Toki-shippo,  but  the  cement  used  is 
not  Biyaku-gu,  but  rather  a mixture  of  paste  with  Seshime-urushi. 
Instead  of  enamel  colours  for  filling  the  cells,  the  well-known 
groundwork  materials  of  lacquer  work  are  used,  a paste  made  of 
Tonoko  and  water  ; and  then  the  Sabi  or  Tonoko  is  mixed  with 
Seshime.  When  dry,  the  article  is  polished  with  sandstone,  the 
Omura-do,  and  then  receives  a coating  of  Seshime  and  Ro-iro- 
urushi  as  the  final  process  of  the  groundwork.  The  further  deco- 
ration and  treatment  answers  entirely  to  that  of  the  lacquering 
of  other  articles.  Naturally  the  polishing  must  be  continued  each 
time  till  the  brass  cells  appear  on  the  surface,  which  excludes 
the  employment  of  raised  lacquer  work. 

A free  enamel  painting  is  also  employed  in  Japan  with  the  best 


Rein,  Japan.  II. 


Plate  XXIV. 


Copper  Vessel  with  Email  cloissonnd  and  painting. 


Wilhelm  Engelmann,  Leipzig. 


ENAMEL  INDUSTRY. 


497 


results.  In  clay-wares  this  is  often  combined  with  the  common 
decoration,  and  thereby  pictures  of  flowers,  butterflies,  birds,  and 
other  objects  are  produced,  which  are  burned  in  with  the  muffle 
colours,  and  then  appear  as  surface  reliefs.  This  fine  addition  to 
the  porcelain  and  Faience  painting  has  been  employed  for  a long 
time  with  cobalt  enamel  on  Seto-mono,  and  with  several  other 
enamel  colours  on  Banko-yaki  and  Awata-yaki.  In  Awatashippd 
it  heightens  the  charm  of  the  many-coloured  pictures  which  adorn 
the  above  mentioned  sunken  medallions. 

Cast-iron  vessels  also,  particularly  water-kettles,  have  been 
painted  for  the  last  fifteen  years  with  opaque  enamel  colours  at 
Kanazawa,  the  industrial  capital  of  Kaga.  The  Royal  Industrial 
Art  Museum  at  Berlin  has  several  fine  specimens  of  this  peculiar 
and  highly  pleasing  relief  decoration.  They  are  cast-iron  kettles 
and  pans  made  by  the  Sano  Nobuteri  in  Kanazawa,  the  inventor 
of  this  peculiar  kind  of  enamelling. 

Since  1875,  Japan  has  made  great  technical  progress  in  enamel 
industry,  as  well  as  in  the  working  and  decoration  of  metals,  and 
has  successfully  overcome  a number  of  difficulties  with  astonishing 
skill.  While  the  enamel  colours  were  formerly  used  together  in 
the  cells  with  their  accessories,  they  are  now  treated  more  and 
more  after  the  European  manner,  and  coloured  glass  flux  is  used 
instead  of  pulverized  mineral  colours.  This  coloured  glass  is 
stamped  fine  and,  with  the  addition  of  water,  ground  to  a fine  paste; 
the  cells  are  then  filled  and  it  is  again  fused.  In  this  way  much 
purer  and  more  brilliant  colours  are  obtained  than  was  possible 
formerly.  In  order  to  preserve  the  lustre  it  is  necessary  that  the 
last  enamel  colour,  applied  as  a thin  coating  after  the  burning, 
should  not  be  further  polished.  The  employment  and  shading  of 
transparent  enamel,  and  the  gradual  toning  of  one  enamel  colour 
into  another,  eg.  from  sky  blue  to  evening  red,  are  undoubtedly 
among  the  most  progressive  steps  in  this  department.  As  in  the 
inlaying  of  cast-iron  vases  and  plates,  so  also  in  this  enamel  work, 
the  decoration  of  the  open  spaces  which  surround  the  many- 
coloured  pictures  of  cell  enamel  on  the  medallions,  geometrical 
figures,  the  Buddhist  cross  cramponee,  the  Greek  fret,  and  other 
straight-lined  elements  of  decoration  which  are  formed  with  thin 
brass  strips  and  filled  with  an  enamel  colour,  are  used  in  pre- 
ference. Enamel  pictures  of  uniform  enamel  covering  and  blue 
or  white  colour  are  seen  much  oftener  without  a framing  of  all  the 
cells. 

The  criticisms  on  the  new  works  differ  very  widely  in  regard  to 
their  artistic  quality.  Wherever  the  taste  has  been  formed  by  the 
dull  but  harmonious  colouring  of  the  older  Japanese  cell  enamel  a 
departure  from  the  old  methods  is  observed  with  regret,  and  the 
modern  efforts  are  held  in  smaller  estimation.  They  are  regarded 
as  degenerate  specimens,  and  one  misses  the  old  force  in  the  com- 
position, the  delicacy  in  colour,  and  the  care  in  execution.  On  the 

II.  K K 


498  ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


other  hand,  and  especially  in  Germany,  the  modern  enamel  works 
of  the  Japanese,  such  as  were  brought  forward  in  the  Exhibition  at 
Nuremberg,  in  1885,  have  met  with  the  greatest  approval  among 
those  no  less  competent  to  judge.  The  drawing,  grouping,  and 
colouring,  and  especially  the  perfect  harmony  in  the  many  colours 
of  the  enamel,  are  particularly  admired.1 


Supplement. 

Composition  and  Preparation  of  Japanese  Colours. 

The  enamel  colours  which  are  used  by  the  Japanese  are  the  same 
as  those  employed  in  the  painting  of  clay-wares.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  red  oxide  of  iron,  white-lead,  verdigris,  and  blue  vitriol,  and 
several  fluxes,  all  these  colours  are  imported  from  Europe.  Beni- 
gara,  ferric  oxide,  is  used  to  produce  red,  brown,  and  dark  shades  of 
colour.  Murasaki,  i.e.  violet,  is  obtained  from  peroxide  of  man- 
ganese ; Kon-jo  or  blue,  from  T6-gosu,  cobalt  oxide,  and  from 
Gosu  (an  impure  cobalt  oxide  containing  manganese,  from 
Asbolan),  Kuro-gosu,  or  Ao-gosu  (mixture  of  cobalt  oxide  and 
peroxide  of  manganese),  or  Hana-kon-j6  (smalt  blue).  Roku-sho 
(Dd-sei  or  verdigris)  is  used  for  the  green  colour,  also  chloritic 
oxide  of  copper  and  malachite,  which  bear  the  same  names,  and 
oxide  of  copper,  while  chromic  oxide  was,  at  least  formerly,  un- 
known, and  was  used  as  little  as  other  chromic  compositions. 
Those  already  mentioned,  and  other  copper  combinations  in  pow- 
der form  were  called  also  Awo-ko,  green  (blue)  powder,  and  Daikon 
(radish  green).  Yellow  is  obtained  from  To-shirome  or  antimony, 
likewise  brown. 

Bowes3  had  the  colourless  ground  material  of  Japanese  cell 
enamel  analyzed  by  Dupre.  The  composition  was  found  to  be  as 
follows  : — 


Lead  oxide 
Lime  ... 
Magnesia 
Soda  ... 
Silicic  acid 


3715  Per  cent. 
4'9.2  „ 

0'9°  j> 

5'r9  „ 

5 1 '84  „ 


ioo'oo  per  cent. 


Therefore,  essentially,  it  would  be  a lead-glaze, — not  an  un- 
common thing  in  glazes.  And  from  this  we  see  why  they  use 
Yo-no-tsuchi  (white-lead),  called  also  Haku-fun,  white  powder ; 
and  Shiratama,  or  pulverized  lead-glaze,  in  almost  all  their  vitrifi- 


1 See  L.  Gmelin  : “ Internationale  Ausstellung  von  Arbeiten  aus  edlen 

Metallen  und  Legierungen  in  Niirnberg  in  Jahre  1885.”  “ Zeitschrift  des  Kunst- 
gewerbevereins  zu  Munchen,”  1885,  p.  91. 

3 See  Bowes  : “Japanese  Enamels,”  p.  15. 


ENAMEL  INDUSTRY. 


499 


able  pigments.  Hino-oka  or  Keisan,  a silicic  earth,  is  also  often 
used,  besides,  but  more  seldom,  Hosha  or  borax,  and  Yo-tsuchi,  a 
sort  of  kaolin. 

Dupr6  analysed  red  and  green  enamel  pastes  also,  and  found 
them  composed  of  the  following  materials  : — 


Green. 


Copper  oxide 

!..  6- 14  per  cent. 

Lead  oxide 

...  34-89  „ 

Lime 

...  4-62  „ 

Magnesia... 

0.84  „ 

Soda 

...  4-82  „ 

Silicic  acid 

...  48-69  „ 

ioo'oo  per  cent. 

Red. 


Ferric  oxide 

8-62 

Lead  oxide 

••  33'93 

Lime 

4'49 

Magnesia ... 

...  0-82 

Soda 

478 

Silicic  acid 

•••  47’36 

ioctoo  per  cent. 


The  following  recipes  were  formerly  used  in  Nagoya  for  making 
dull  enamel  colours  : — 


1.  White  (Shiro) 

2.  Dark  blue  (Konj6)  ... 

3.  Light  blue  (Awo)  ... 

4.  Light  blue  (Usu-awo) 

5.  Rape-green  (Na-iro) 

6.  Yellow  (l£i-iro) 

7.  Dark  violet  (Usu-kon) 

8.  Red  (Aka)  

9.  Brown  (Cha-iro) 


Shiratama 

T6-no-tsuchi  . 

Hino-oka 

Shiratama 

T6-no-tsuchi  . 

Hino-oka 

Kon-jo 

(Cobalt  oxide) 

Shiratama 

To-no-tsuchi  . 

Daikon 

Awo-ko 

Shiratama 

To-no-tsuchi  . 

Hino-oka 

Awo-ko 

Shiratama 

T6-no-tsuchi  . 

Hino-oka 

Awo-ko 

Daikon 

Shiratama 

To-no-tsuchi  . 

Hino-oka 

T6-shirome  . 

Shiratama 

To-no-tsuchi  . 

Kon-jo 

Shiratama 

To-no-tsuchi  . 

Hino-oka 

Benigara 

Shiratama 

To-no-tsuchi  . 

To-shirome  . 

Kei-san 


5 parts. 
3 
3 
5 

3 

» 

4 


O’ 1 5 

100 

30 


25 

10 

6 

2 

oh 

°‘S 


500 


ART  INDUSTRY  AND  RELATED  OCCUPATIONS. 


io.  Grey  (Nedzumi) 

...  Shiratama 

...  47  parts. 

To-no-tsuchi  ... 

■ 5 

Murasaki-ko  ... 

...  5-8  „ 

ii.  Black  (Kuro) 

...  Shiratama 

• ••  S 

Awo 

s » 

Kon-jo 

• 3 

Keisan 

...  2'5  „ 

TRADE  AND  COMMERCE. 


IV. 


TRADE  AND  COMMERCE. 


Literature. 


1.  E.  Kaempfer:  “ Geschichte  und  Beschreibung  von  Japan.”  Herausgegeben 
von  Dohm.  II.  Band.  Lerngo,  1779. 

2.  C.  P.  Thunberg  : “ Resa  uti  Europa,  Africa,  Asia.  1770-1779.”  Tredje- 
delen,  pp.  47-129.  Upsala,  1788. 

3.  P.  v.  Siebold  : “Nippon,”  Archiv,  etc.  VI.  p.  36. 

4.  G.  F.  Meijlan  : “ Geschiedkundig  Overzigt  van  den  Handel  der  Europezen 
op  Japan.”  Batav.  Genootsch.  van  Kunsten  en  Wetensch.  Bd.  14.  Batavia, 
1832. 

5.  Antonio  de  Morga : “The  Philippine  Islands,  Moluccas,  Siam,  Cambodia, 
Japan,  and  China  at  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century.”  Translated  by  the 
Hakluyt  Society.  London,  1869. 

6.  “Memorials  of  the  Empire  of  Japan.”  By  Th.  Rundal.  Hakluyt  Soc. 
Lond.,  1850. 

7.  “ Diary  of  R.  Cocks.”  By  E.  M.  Thompson.  Hakluyt  Soc.  London,  1883. 

8.  E.  Satovv : “Notes  on  the  Intercourse  between  Japan  and  Siam  in  the 
Seventeenth  Century.”  Transact.  As.  Soc.  of  Japan.  Vol.  XIII.  p.  139. 

9.  G.  Wagener  : “ Geschichtliches  iiber  Maass-  und  Gewichtssysteme  in 
China  und  Japan.”  Mitth.  d.  deutschen  Gesellsch.  Ostasiens.  12  Heft,  p.  35. 

10.  J.  Scriba  : “ Bemerkungen  iiber  japanische  Gold-  und  Silbermiinzen.” 
Mitth.  d.  deutsch.  Ges.  Ostasiens.  29  Heft,  p.  392. 

11.  German,  English,  and  United  States  Consular  Reports. 

12.  Commercial  Reports,  published  by  the  Board  of  Trade.  Tokio,  1883, 
1884,  1885. 


1.  Coins,  Measures,  and  Weights. 


a. — Money , Kane  or  Kinsu  ; Paper  money,  Shi-hei  and  Kin-satsu  ; 

Bank  Notes,  Satsu  or  Gin-ko-satsu. 

Since  1871,  Japan  has  had  a new  system  of  coinage,  whose 
unit  is  the  Yen,  of  the  same  value  as  a Mexican  dollar,  or  about 
four  shillings. 

1 Yen  = 100  Sen,  1 Sen  = 10  Rin.  The  following  kinds  of  money 
are  coined  : — 

a.  Copper  Coins  (Aka  gane).  b.  Silver  Coins. 

1.  Ichi  Rin,  1 Rin  piece.  5.  Go  Sen,  5 Sen  piece. 


2.  Go  „ 5 „ 

3.  Ichi  Sen,  1 Sen 


6.  Ju  „ 10  „ „ 

7.  Ni-ju  „ 20  „ „ 

8.  Go-ju  „ 50  „ „ 

9.  Ichi  Yen,  1 Yen  „ 


504 


TRADE  AND  COMMERCE. 


c.  Gold  Coins. 

10.  Ichi  Yen,  i Yen  piece. 

11.  Ni  „ 2 „ „ 

12.  Yo  ,,  5 „ „ 

13.  Ju  „ 10  ,,  „ 

14.  Mi-ju  „ 20  „ „ 

The  Imperial  mint  in  Osaka,  from  which  this  money  is  issued, 
was  among  the  first  and  best  innovations  which  were  made  soon 
after  the  deposition  of  the  Shogunate.  It  was  built  under  the  very 
capable  direction  of  an  Englishman,  Major  T.  W.  Kinder,  arranged 
after  English  model,  and  opened  on  the  4th  of  August,  1871.  The 
European  patterns  were  closely  followed  in  the  circular  form  of 
the  new  coins.  The  impressions  are  not  at  all  behind  those  of  the 
best  European  coins  in  respect  to  clearness  and  other  requirements. 
They  are  bordered  and  milled,  and  show  on  both  sides  the  various 
emblems  and  arms  of  the  country,  viz.,  the  rising  sun,  the  chrysan- 
themum blossom,  the  Kiri-  and  the  Awoi-mon  (see  vol.  i.  p.  317), 
the  dragon,  and  the  legends  in  Chinese  characters,  together  with 
the  value,  generally  in  Roman  letters  and  Arabic  figures.  During 
the  five  years,  1870-1875,  in  which  Major  Kinder  had  charge  of 
the  institution,  136,885,541  coins,  with  a value  of  62,421,744  Yen, 
were  stamped  at  the  Mint.  Kinder  conducted  also  the  analysis 
and  refining  processes,  and  united  with  the  Mint  a sulphuric  acid 
and  nitric  acid  factory,  whereby  the  further  importation  of  two 
important  requirements  of  the  chemical  industry  became  un- 
necessary. 

Paper  money,  or  Kin-satsu,  which  has  been  known  in  Japan 
since  the  14th  century,  is  now  issued  of  the  respective  values 
of  10,  20,  and  50  Sen,  as  well  as  of  1,  2,  5,  and  more  Yen,  corre- 
sponding to  the  several  gold  coins.  This  was  effected  by  means  of 
lithographs  from  Dondorf’s  establishment  in  Frankfort-on-the-Main, 
which  had  for  a while  turned  out  satisfactorily  the  new  Kin-satsu. 
Besides  the  national  treasury  notes,  the  Government  allowed  paper 
money  to  be  issued  by  many  of  the  banks  that  sprang  into 
existence  about  this  time. 

Until  1870,  there  were  in  use  Zeni  (Sen),  or  small  coins  made  of 
iron,  copper,  bronze  ; Gin-su  or  silver  pieces,  and  Kin-ka  or  gold 
pieces,  besides  various  paper  bills  ; all  differing  in  shape  and  ap- 
pearance from  one  another,  and  from  the  coins  used  at  the  present 
time.  There  were  pieces  : — 

a.  Of  Iron  (Tetsu). 

1.  Ichi  Mon,  1 Mon  = o’oi  Sen  or  about  0^004  pence. 

2.  Shi  „ 4 „ = C04  „ „ o-oo8  „ 

b.  Of  Bronze  (Kara-kane)  OR  Copper  (Aka-gane). 

3.  Ju  Mon,  10  Mon  = cio  Sen,  or  about  C04  pence. 

4.  Ju-go  „ 15  „ = 0-15  „ „ 0-06  „ 

5.  Ni-ju  „ 20  „ = o'2o  „ „ o’o8  „ 


CO/NS,  MEASURES,  AND  WEIGHTS. 


505 


c.  Of  Bronze  (Kara-kane). 

6.  Ichi  Tempo,  80  Mon  = 3'8o  Sen,  or  about  032  pence. 

All  these  small  coins  had  a square  hole  in  the  centre,  through 
which  a cord  could  be  drawn,  so  that  large  numbers,  according  to 
trade  requirements,  could  be  easily  strung  together,  packed,  and 
carried.  They  were  circular,  except  the  Tempo,1  which  was  oval. 
The  iron  pieces  were  withdrawn  from  circulation  in  1873  ; the  oval 
Tempo  not  till  1885.  The  government  had  them  melted  for  canon. 
Some  of  the  round  bronze  and  copper  coins,  however,  are  still  in 
circulation.  Of  special  frequency  among  these  round  bronze  coins 
are  the  co-called  Nami-sen  or  wave-coins,  worth  20  Mon  or  2 Rin, 
and  the  Bun-kiju-sen,  of  the  period  i86i-63,worth  15  Mon  or  1 \ Rin. 
Most  of  the  iron  10  Mon  pieces  now  in  existence  date  from  the 
period  Kuwan-yei  (1624-1643). 

The  silver  pieces  that  were  coined  in  different  periods  (Nengo) 
of  the  Tokugawa  dynasty  (1600-1868),  mostly  containing  but  little 
copper,  and  of  very  unequal  weight,  have  the  shape  of  little 
rectangular  tablets  or  bars.  These  are  pieces  of : — 

1.  I’-shu  (Ishu-gin),  x Shu,  worth  7'4-i7'4  Sen. 

2.  Ni-shu  (Ni-shu-gin),  1 Bu,  worth  29'6-46'5  Sen. 

3.  Ichi-bu  (Ichi-bu-gin),  1 Bu,  worth  3177-347  Sen. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  Shogunate  the  relations  of  weight  and 
values  were  more  regular.  These  were  : — 

1.  I’-shu,  1 Shu  pieces,  at  6‘25  Sen. 

2.  Ni-shu,  2 Shu  „ „ i2-so  „ 

3.  Ichi-bu,  1 Bu,  „ „ 25-oo  „ 

To  these  were  added,  as  money  of  account : — 

4.  Ni-bu,  2 Bu,  at  5o'oo  Sen. 

5.  Ichi-rio,2  1 Rio,  „ 100  „ 

Besides  the  three  first-mentioned  old  stamped  silver  coins,  for 
which  there  were  corresponding  paper  notes,  silver  pieces  were 
also  in  circulation  of  divers  shapes  and  sizes,  named  Ita-gin,  Cho- 
gin,  etc.,  according  as  they  had  the  form  of  little  bars,  rounded 
lumps,  etc.  They  bore  the  stamp  of  the  Nengo  in  which  they 
were  minted.  They  contained  only  a little  copper,  and  were 
weighed  in  the  presence  of  the  purchaser  and  reckoned  according 
to  an  established  scale  of  value. 

The  older  gold  pieces  are  especially  interesting.  The  larger  ones 
were  in  the  shape  of  oval  tablets,  known  as  O-ban,  Ko-ban,  and 
Nibu-ban,  while  the  smaller  had  the  rectangular  form  of  the  silver 

1 The  name  Tem-po  refers  to  the  period  of  1830-1843,  in  which  the  larger 
and  heavy  coins  were  struck. 

2 Ri6  (Riyo),  Bu  (Bun),  and  Shu  are  originally  Chinese  terms  of  weight  (see 
apothecaries’  weight).  One  Ri6  (Riy6)  is  a weight  of  4 Momme  or  13,026,084 
grammes.  - 


506 


TRADE  AND  COMMERCE. 


Shu  and  Bu.  An  Oban  should  weigh  about  44  Mon-me  (pro- 
nounce Momme),  and  contain  10  Rio,  = 40  Monme,  of  pure  gold. 
The  Koban  should  have  the  tenth  part  of  this  weight  and  amount 
of  gold,  and  the  Ni-bu-ban  the  twentieth  part. 

As  a matter  of  fact,  however,  these  coins  from  the  different 
periods  of  the  Shdgunate  of  the  Tokugawa  are  of  extraordinary 
diversity  in  weight,  value,  and  amount  of  gold  contained  ; to  such 
an  extent,  indeed,  that  an  Oban  of  the  period  Keicho  (1596-1614), 
for  instance,  contained  67-2  per  cent,  of  gold  and  only  294.  per 
cent,  of  silver,  and  while  weighing  44-059  Momme,  was  worth  75 
Yen  ; while  the  Genroku-Oban  (Oban  from  the  period  Genroku, 
1695-1716),  which  is  almost  as  heavy  (its  weight  being  43'95 
Momme),  is  worth  only  59-27  Yen,  with  52-11  percent,  of  gold 
and  44'84  per  cent,  of  silver,  and  the  Ansei-Oban  from  the  period 
1859-1862,  weighing  30  Momme,  has  a value  of  only  28-2 66  Yen, 
with  34-35  per  cent,  of  gold  and  63-92  per  cent,  of  silver,  corre- 
sponding to  4146  Yen  for  the  same  weight  of  44  Momme.  The 
same  thing  is  true  of  the  Ko-ban  of  different  Nengd.  Their 
weight  varied  between  473  Momme  and  2-293  Momme  ; their 
proportion  of  gold  between  86  7 per  cent,  and  55-94  per  cent.  ; 
their  value  between  10-115  Yen  and  1-30  Yen. 

In  order  to  free  the  gold  from  the  large  quantities  of  silver 
generally  united  to  it,  the  Japanese  always  used  to  employ  common 
salt,  with  which  they  melted  up  the  alloy  obtained  in  working 
the  ore.  The  gold  thus  purified  was  called  Yaki-kin,  i.e.  burnt  or 
roasted  gold  (see  p.  370).  It  corresponds  very  nearly  to  our  ducat- 
gold.  The  supposition  being  that  an  Oban  of  such  Yaki-kin  was 
44  Momme  of  pure  gold,  the  number  44  was  written  on  the  coins 
with  bright  black  lacquer  colour,  and  they  were  regarded  as  the 
standard  for  the  Oban  that  were  richer  in  silver.  They  were 
marked  with  the  numbers  succeeding  44,  beside  the  proper  Nengo, 
in  such  a way  that,  for  example,  the  number  45  indicated  44  parts 
of  gold  to  one  part  silver  ; the  number  46  showing  44  parts  gold 
and  two  parts  silver,  etc. 

The  estimation  of  gold  as  shown  by  its  value  compared  with 
silver  during  the  long  period  when  the  country  was  closed  is  very 
noticeable.  According  to  a decree  of  the  Nobunaga,  about  the  15th 
century,  44  Momme  of  gold  should  be  given  for  420  Momme  of 
silver,  i.e.  one  part  gold  for  9^  parts  silver.  In  1765  this  pro- 
portion was  changed  to  1 : 11-35.  On  the  other  hand,  according  to 
Scherzer,1  when  the  country  was  opened  to  commerce,  in  1855-60, 
the  price  was  based  upon  a valuation  of  the  two  metals  in  the 
relation  of  1 : 4-6,  since  the  above-mentioned  gold-piece  was  worth 
i8£  shillings  in  London,  while  in  Japan,  eg.,  at  Kanagawa  (Yoko- 
hama), it  could  be  exchanged  for  4 Bu  of  silver  as  late  as  the 
year  1858.  The  natural  consequence  was  that  gold  coins  became 
an  extremely  profitable,  and  hence  much  sought,  article  of  ex- 
1 Scherzer  : “ Deutsch-CEsterr.  Expedition,”  etc.,  p.  456. 


COINS,  MEASURES,  AND  WEIGHTS. 


507 


portation,  and  in  the  case  of  the  Ko-ban  the  price  gradually  ran 
up  to  8 Bu.  In  order  now  to  prevent  the  rapid  withdrawal  of 
gold,  the  government  fixed  the  value  of  the  Ko-ban  at  14  Bu,  i.e. 
above  its  real  worth  in  Europe.  A return  of  6-ban  and  Ko-ban  to 
the  national  treasury  now  took  place,  in  so  far  as  they  were  not 
melted  down  in  foreign  countries  ; hence  there  was  a further  loss 
for  Japan.  To  prevent  this,  new  Ko-ban  were  at  last  issued,  in 
i860,  corresponding  to  the  current  relative  value  of  gold  and  silver. 

b. — Measures  and  Weights. 

1.  Measure  of  length.  Its  unit  is  the  foot,  Shaku  or  Kane-shaku 

= o-30303m.  1 Jo  — 10  Shaku=ioo  Sun  (inches)  = 1000  Bu  (lines) 

= 1,000  Riu  (strokes)  = 100,000  Mo.  6 Shaku  = 1 Ken=  r8i8i8m  = 
I fathom  (about),  (1  m.  = 3'  3"  Jap.). 

2.  Measure  of  distance.  The  unit  is  the  Japanese  mile  or  1 Ri  = 
3927-27m-  (1  geogr.  mile=r886  Ri ; 28-29  Ri  = i degree;  1 Ri  = 
244  English  miles).  The  Chinese  mile  or  Li  contains  only  447‘i9m 
= 0‘o6  geogr.  miles.  Accordingly  1 Ri  = 8‘782  Li. 

1 Ri=36  Cho=2i6o  Ken=  12,960  Shaku. 

1 „ = 60  „ = 360  „ 

1 „ = 6 „ 

1 Shaku=ii'9  English  inches. 

3.  Cloth  measure.  The  unit  Shaku  or  Kujira-shoku,  i.e.  fishbone- 
foot  1=  Kane  Shaku  = o-3787878m  ; accordingly  1 m.  = 2-74 
Kujira-shaku.  The  smaller  denominations  are  the  same  as  in  the 
common  measure  of  length. 

One  Tan  or  piece  is  26  and  more  Shaku  long.  One  Hiki  = 2 tan 
of  silk  stuff,  measures  52  Shaku. 

4.  Field  measure.  The  unit  is  called  Tsubo  and  is  equal  to 
3' 305785  square  metres. 

1 Cho=io  Tan=ioo  Se=3,ooo  Tsubo=no,8oo  sq.  Shaku. 
j „ = 10  ,,  — 300  „ ==  10,800  „ „ 

1 „ = 30  „ = 1,080  „ „ 

1 „ = 36  „ 

1 016=9917-355  sq.  m.=i  Hectare  nearly  ; more  exactly  120  Cho=ii9  Ha. 

1 Are=3o-2S  Tsubo.  1 Ha=3025  Tsubo. 

1 Tatami  or  Japanese  foot-mat=3  x6  Shaku=i  Tsubo. 

A single  rice-field  is  generally  1 Tan=i5X20  Tsubo. 

5.  Measure  of  Capacity.  For  its  unit  is  taken  the  Sho=  1-803907 
liters. 

1 Koku=io  To=ioo  Sh6=  1,000  Go=io,ooo  Shaku. 

1 „ = 10  „ = 100  „ = 1,000  „ 

1 „ — 10  „ = 100  „ 

1 „ = 10  „ 

Hence  5 Sh6=9  liters. 


Because  it  was  made  from  fish-bone. 


TRADE  AND  COMMERCE. 


i ;* 

The  Go  contains  therefore  180  cm. ; the  Koku,  which  is  mostly 
used  in  measuring  grain,  while  Sho  and  Go  are  used  for  liquids, 
equals  180  hi.  = 5 bushels,  reckoning  the  bushel  at  36  liters. 

The  Sho  was  introduced  in  the  year  1623.  Its  inner  dimensions 
are  4"  9"'  x 4"  g'"x2"  f"  Japanese  measure.  The  government 
ordains  that  the  Go  shall  be  a stout  wooden  box  with  a square 
bottom,  its  upper  edges  covered  with  sheet  iron  and  its  cubic  con- 
tents to  be  2' 1 x 2'l  x 14.7  Sun.  Only  such  measures  are  allowed 
in  business  as  bear  the  legal  stamp  burned  into  each  of  their  four 
visible  outer  faces. 

6.  Weight.  The  unit  of  weight  is  called  Momme  (Monme),  i.e. 
the  Mon-weight,  so  designated  because  the  smallest  iron  coin, 
Mon,1  used  to  be  taken  as  the  basis  of  weight.  One  Mon-me  (pro- 
nounce Momme)  = 37565 12  grammes;  hence  1 gr.  = 0'266204 
Momme.  The  Japanese  system  of  weights  based  hereupon  is  as 
follows : — 

1  Kwam-me2 3=io  Hiyaku-me=ioo  Ju-me=i,ooo  Mon -me  =10,000  Fun= 
100,000  Rin=i,ooo,ooo  Mo.  1 Hiyaku-me=io  Ju-me=ioo  Mon-me=i,ooo 
Fun=io,ooo  Rin=ioo,ooo  Mo.  1 Ju-me=io  Mon-me=ioo  Fun=i,ooo  Rin 
= 10,000  Mo.  1 Mon-me=io  Fun=ioo  Rin=i,ooo  Mo.  1 Fun=io  Rin= 
100  Mo.  1 Rin=io  Mo. 

The  Chinese  Pikul=ioo  Catties  or  1 Hiyak’kin  (100  Kin)=6o-io4  kg.  ; 10 
Pikuls=i  Sen-gin  (1,000  Kin)=6oro4  kg. 

Kin=i  Kwam-me,  1 Kwam-me=37565i2  kg.  A Japanese  pound  or 
Kin=i6o  Momme=6oro4336  gr.  10  Kin  = 6-oio4  kg.,  so  that  5 Japanese 
pounds  are  to  be  taken  to  equal  6 German  pounds. 

The  old  Chinese  subdivision  of  the  pound  has  kept  its  place  in 
the  apothecaries’  weight  of  Japan.  According  to  it,  1 Kin  = 16 
Rio  or  Riyd,  1 Riyo  = 4 Bun  or  Bu,  1 Bu  = 4 Shu. 

The  word  Shu  designates  among  the  Chinese  a sort  of  Sorghum 
(Sorghum  rubrum),  Jap.  Kuro-kibi,  i.e.  “black  millet,”  whose  dark 
brown  seeds  are  somewhat  pointed  on  both  sides,  and  are  dis- 
tinguished for  singular  uniformity.  Such  a Shu-grain  became, 
4,500  years  ago  in  China,  the  basis  not  merely  of  weight,  but  of  all 
measures  in  general,  even  measures  of  sound.* 


2.  Further  Means  of  Intercourse. 

All  kinds  of  limitations  were  added  to  the  natural  hindrances  of 
commerce  under  the  long  dynasty  of  the  Tokugawa.  These  were 
imposed  by  the  system  of  government  upon  the  people,  and  were 

1 To  the  Mon  corresponds  the  Chinese  Tsien,  called  Mace  by  foreigners, 
10  Mace=i  Tael,  10  Tael=i  Catty,  10  Catties=i  Pikul.  The  Chinese  Kin 
or  pound  went  over  to  the  Japanese  unaltered,  though  the  latter  have  another 
pound  of  180  Momme  besides. 

2 Properly  Kuwan-me,  pronounced  Kamme. 

3 For  further  information  on  this  point,  see  the  above  cited  treatise  by  G. 
Wagener,  in  the  “ Mittheilungen  der  deutschen  Gesellschaft  Ostasiens.” 


F.URTHER  MEANS  OF  INTERCOURSE. 


509 


by  no  means  confined  to  separation  from  the  outside  world.  The 
natural  hindrances  to  commerce  are  occasioned  by  the  long  ex- 
tended form  of  the  Japanese  Empire,  and  its  being  split  up  into 
many  islands,  also  by  its  dominating  mountainous  character  and 
the  swelling  and  overflowing  of  its  numerous  rivers  during  the 
frequent  long  rains. 

The  highways,  or  Do,  each  one  of  which  connects  the  provinces 
of  a generally  long  extent  of  territory,  as  eg.  the  T6-kai-d6  and 
the  N aka-sen-do,  served  almost  exclusively  military  and  adminis- 
trative purposes.  We  must  not  think  of  them  as  well-made  high- 
ways laid  out  like  our  own,  according  to  a comprehensive  plan, 
and  provided  with  similar  means  of  conveyance.  There  are  no 
stretches  of  macadamized  road,  and  paving  is  seldom  seen,  and 
only  in  places  where  the  steepness  of  a particularly  important 
mountain  pass  makes  it  necessary,  as  eg.  on  the  Hakone  pass. 
For  this  reason  most  of  the  Japanese  country  highways  are  utterly 
useless  for  heavy  conveyances  in  rainy  weather.  They  are  not 
intended  for  this  purpose.  Since  heavy  wagons  were  not  used — 
indeed,  were  wholly  unknown — and  even  the  Chinese  wheelbarrow 
was  only  exceptionally  seen,  people  either  walked  or  rode  in  sedan- 
chairs,  luggage  and  merchandise  was  carried  almost  exclusively  by 
bearers  or  beasts  of  burden  (horses  or  oxen)1  till  modern  times, 
the  requirements  for  a solid  foundation  and  greater  weight  did 
not  exist.  Even  now,  except  the  numerous  Jin-riki-shas,2  a few 
coaches  which  travel  the  better  roads  from  Tokio  to  Odawara, 
Takasaki  and  Utsunomiya,  and  some  heavy  carts,  no  conveyances 
are  to  be  seen  on  the  Japanese  roads. 

The  road  has  a varying  width  ; is  sometimes  narrowed  to  a 
simple  path,  and  at  others  ten  or  more  meters  broad.  The  cross- 
ing of  the  rivers  is  provided  for  by  bridges  and  ferries,  but  at  the 
time  of  long,  heavy  rains  the  road  is  often  obstructed  for  days. 
The  oldest  and  best  known  country  roads  of  Japan  are  those  which 
connect  Kidto  with  Tokio,  the  Td-kai-dd,  i.e.  “East  Sea  Road,” 
which  passes  along  in  the  vicinity  of  the  sea,  and  the  Naka-sen-do, 
“ the  street  between  the  mountains,”  through  the  interior  of  Hondo. 
The  former  is  125  Ri  long,  the  latter  132  Ri.  There  is  also  an 
Oshiu-kai-do,  which  leads  from  Tokio  toward  the  north  to  Awomori, 
19 1 \ Ri  distant,  and  the  San-yo-dd,  from  Kidto  to  Shimonoseki, 
which  passes  along  the  Inland  Sea  ; and  several  others  of  those  old 
country  roads  of  the  principal  islands,  upon  which  in  former  times 

1 40  Kam-me  (=i5o’26  kilograms)  are  counted  a fair  horse-load  on  a good 
even  road,  but  upon  the  worst  mountain  paths  only  18  Kam-me,  or  67  '62  kilo- 
grams. The  load  for  a man  is  a weight  of  7 Kam-me  (=25 ‘3  kilograms). 

2 Jin-riki-sha,  i.e.  “Man-power  wagon,”  is  a modem  very  popular  vehicle, 
introduced  into  Japan  some  twenty  years  ago,  and  now  as  universal  as  the  cabs 
of  our  cities.  The  Jin-riki-sha,  or  Kuruma  (wagon),  is  a two-wheeled  light 
cart  with  a seat  over  the  axle,  and  a pair  of  shafts  in  which  the  Ninsoku,  or 
man,  places  himself.  He  grasps  the  two  poles,  and  then  rushes  forward  at  a 
rapid  rate  with  his  load  of  one  or  two  persons. 


5io 


TRADE  AND  COMMERCE. 


the  great  Daimid-processions  travelled,  and  which  in  other  ways 
afforded  a regular  commercial  intercourse  such  as  has  been  already 
described  by  E.  Kaempfer.1  The  conifers,  principally  pines,  which 
form  the  avenues  along  the  roads,  have  been  already  (page  276) 
specially  mentioned. 

River  navigation  has  many  obstacles  in  Japan,  as  stated  in  vol.  i. 
p.  89.  Of  course  large  river-systems  could  not  be  developed,  but 
also  many  difficulties  are  placed  in  the  way  of  navigation  by  the 
rapid  fall  of  the  upper  courses  of  the  great  rivers,  and  the  shallows 
of  the  lower  parts,  produced  by  shifting  deposits  of  sand  and  other 
detritus.  These  difficulties  can  be  only  partly  overcome.2 3  Never- 
theless, on  many  of  the  larger  rivers  traffic  used  to  be  very  lively, 
and  is  so  still  to  a certain  extent,  especially  on  the  chief  island  ; 
but  this  is  due  to  the  insufficiency  of  the  roads  and  land  con- 
veyances. In  this  respect  Kiushiu  was  especially  ill-situated.  Its 
industrial  and  commercial  development  was  far  behind  that  of 
Hondo  during  the  Tokugawa  Shdgunate  (1600-1868  A.D.).  Be- 
sides its  ceramics,  it  had  no  notable  industry.  Silk  culture  was  not 
practised  at  all,  and  tea  raising  with  but  little  care.  There  were 
no  good  roads  or  means  of  communication  in  the  interior,  with  the 
exception  of  those  which  several  rivers  (the  Chikugo-gawa  chiefly) 
afforded  in  the  lower  part  of  their  courses.  This  is  to  be  attributed 
partly  to  the  mountainous  character  of  the  island  ; more,  however, 
to  the  isolation  of  the  country  and  the  lack  of  co-operation  between 
the  several  Daimios.  A central  power  was  lacking,  for  the  Bakufu 
(the  government  of  the  Shdgun  in  Yeddo)  either  did  not  concern 
itself  at  all  in  these  matters,  or  had  an  interest  in  preventing  the 
co-operation  of  two  powerful  neighbours.  It  came  to  pass  in  this 
way  that  not  only  on  Kiushiu,  but  also  on  the  two  neighbouring 
islands,  the  highways  from  one  province  to  another  remained  in 
the  worst  possible  condition  ; and  it  seemed  better  to  make  long 
roundabout  journeys  and  long  junk  voyages  at  sea  rather  than  give 
up  the  strained  relations  and  the  separation  from  one’s  nearest 
neighbour,  and  thus  bring  about  the  benefit  of  an  easier  inter- 
course. 

The  great  sea  expeditions  which  the  Japanese  had  carried  on  in 
early  times  were  placed  under  inextricable  bonds  by  Iyeyasu  at  the 
beginning  of  the  17th  century.  For  more  than  250  years,  up  to  the 
restoration  of  Mikado  dynasty,  Japanese  navigation  had  been  con- 
fined to  the  coasting  service  along  its  own  shores,  and,  like  its  com- 
merce in  general,  placed  in  a straight  jacket,  to  throw  off  which  re- 
quired a foreign  impulse.  Commodore  Perry  accomplished  in  1854, 
however,  what  the  repeated  efforts  of  English  and  Russians  had  not 

1 See  also  Rein  : “ Der  Nakasendo,”  Erganzungsheft  59  zu  Petermann’s 

Mittheilungen. 

3 The  rapidly  changing  depth  of  the  rivers  has  even  given  rise  to  a proverbial 
expression  : Kin6-no-fuchi  kio-no  se  : Yesterday  a deep  place  in  the  river,  to- 
day a shallow.” 


FURTHER  MEANS  OF  INTERCOURSE. 


511 


succeeded  in  doing,  viz.,  to  peacefully  wrest  the  country  from  its 
seclusion  and  bring  it  into  friendly  intercourse  with  the  great  sea- 
faring powers. 

At  the  time  of  the  first  landing  of  Mendez  Pinto  and  his  com- 
panions, in  1 542,  nothing  excited  the  attention  and  amazement  of 
the  Japanese  like  the  long  firelocks  which  the  explorers  carried  with 
them,  and  they  soon  succeeded  in  making  them,  and  gunpowder 
also.  So  it  was  now.  Commodore  Perry  impressed  them  much 
more  by  setting  up  a little  telegraph  line  and  a miniature  railroad 
than  by  his  stately  squadron.  These  things  aroused  the  greatest 
interest,  and  the  desire  to  become  possessed  of  them  as  a means 
of  intercourse.  It  is  no  wonder  then  that,  after  the  opening  of 
commerce  with  Christian  nations,  and  the  overthrow  of  the  Shdgu- 
nate,  the  building  of  steamboats  and  the  establishment  of  telegraph 
lines  and  railroads  became  the  first  care  of  the  new  government 
under  the  Mikado.  For  the  most  influential  adherents  of  the  latter 
and  protectors  of  his  old  rights  against  the  Shogunate,  had,  even 
before  the  decisive  battles  of  1868  (see  vol.  i.  p.  357),  laid  aside 
their  prejudice  against  the  incoming  barbarians,  and  recognised 
that  only  by  accepting  and  carrying  on  all  the  newly  introduced 
improvements  on  the  new  basis  established  by  the  Bakufu  (Yeddo 
Government)  could  Japan  become  strong  again  and  steadily  de- 
velop. But  it  was  not  until  the  year  1870  that  this  new  govern- 
ment, after  overcoming  the  first  great  difficulties  of  the  interior 
organization,  entered  on  the  most  varied  departments  of  business, 
and  especially  of  open  commerce,  with  a spirit  of  enterprise  and 
reform,  which  to  many  of  the  lookers  on  seemed  going  too  far,  and 
awakened  many  fears  as  to  the  outcome.  Fortunately,  these  fears 
have  not  been  fulfilled.  To-day,  whoever  glances  without  preju- 
dice over  what  has  been  accomplished  in  the  commercial  life  of 
Japan  on  land  and  water  since  that  time,  cannot  withhold  his 
admiration  of  the  men  who  stood  at  the  head  of  these  enterprises. 
In  other  departments,  especially  in  that  of  education,  the  reforms 
and  their  achievements  have  been  no  less  important. 

The  establishment  of  an  arsenal,  and  the  erection  of  lighthouses 
and  many  other  institutions  for  promoting  navigation,  went  hand 
in  hand  with  the  foundation  of  the  navy,  begun  by  the  Shogunate. 
The  arsenal  at  Yokosuka,  south  of  Yokohama,  was  soon  developed 
into  a model  institution  and  school  for  Japanese  machinists  under 
the  long-continued  careful  direction  of  the  Frenchman  Verni  and 
his  associates.  The  Englishman  Brunton  directed  the  erection  of 
lighthouses  and  other  protective  arrangements  for  navigation,  so 
that  fifteen  years  ago  the  most  important  or  dangerous  points  along 
the  coast  had  been  provided  with  good  signals,  and  the  danger  of 
commerce  in  Japanese  waters  greatly  diminished.  Japanese  war- 
ships have  undertaken  many  soundings,  harbour  measurements, 
and  other  labours,  whose  results  have  been  made  permanent 
in  valuable  charts,  so  that  in  this  respect  also  the  Hi-no-maru, 


512 


TRADE  AND  COMMERCE. 


or  “ Circle  of  the  Sun,”  i.e.  the  national  flag,  with  a red  sun  in  a 
white  field,  need  not  hide  its  folds. 

Enterprising  merchants  of  Kochi,  the  capital  of  Tosa,  on  Shi- 
koku, with  some  considerable  help  from  the  government,  estab- 
lished in  1874  the  first  Steamship  Navigation  Company,  the 
Mitsu-bishi-guwai-sha,  a name  founded  on  its  choice  of  a flag.1  A 
second  company,  the  Kiyodounyu-guwai-sha,  was  established  some 
years  later,  and  soon  united  with  the  first.  The  company  is  now 
called  Nipon  Yu-sen-guwai-sha,  or  “Japanese  Post  Steamship 
Company.”  Its  boats  have  regular  connection  with  all  the  im- 
portant ports  of  the  country,  as  well  as  with  Shanghai,  Fusan, 
Wonsan  (Gensan),  and  Wladiwostok.  They  have  a monopoly  of 
Japanese  coast  navigation,  and  fifteen  years  ago  had  driven  out 
the  previous  foreign  competition  on  the  lines  of  Yokohama,  Kobe, 
Nagasaki  and  Shanghai. 

In  order  to  advance  inland  commerce  four  merchants  founded,  in 
1872,  the  Nai-koku-tsu-un-guwai-sha  or  Inland  Transportation 
Company,  with  a capital  of  150,000  Yen  or  about  .£30,000.  It  has 
its  chief  office  in  Tdkio  and  its  agents  in  every  large  town,  forward- 
ing not  only  merchandise  and  freight  of  all  kinds,  but  money  also, 
and  has  established  a reliable,  well  organized  service,  as  I was  re- 
peatedly able  to  observe.  I know  nothing  of  its  present  condition. 
The  government  decided  in  February,  1871,  to  undertake  the  entire 
postal  service  of  the  country.  Two  months  later  this  was  begun 
experimentally  between  the  three  capital  cities,  Tokio,  Ki6to  and 
Osaka,  and  has  been  gradually  developed  and  increased  with  the 
best  success  so  far  as  the  inland  service  is  concerned,  and  now  also 
with  foreign  countries.  In  1879  the  English  and  French  post 
offices,  which  had  existed  up  to  that  time,  were  superseded  by  the 
Japanese  post  office. 

The  first  telegraph  line  of  the  country  was  built  in  January,  1870, 
between  Tokio  and  Yokohama.  Others  followed  soon  after,  and 
the  network  which  now  binds  all  the  larger  towns  of  the  empire 
together,  and  all  with  the  capital  city  of  Tokio,  grows  constantly 
thicker  and  closer.  Even  in  the  use  of  the  telegraph  for  weather 
reports  to  the  Central  Meteorological  Office  at  the  capital,  the 
Japanese  have  followed  the  example  of  progressive  Christian 
countries.  A very  special  interest  centres  also  in  the  development 
of  the 


Railroads,  or  Tetsu-d6. 

At  the  close  of  the  year  1885  Japan  had  the  following  railroads 
in  operation  : — 

1 This  flag  has  three  (Mitsu)  red  parallelograms  in  a white  field,  which  are 
intended  to  represent  the  figure  of  a water  nut  {Trafia  bicomis , Hishi  or  Bishi), 
which  is  said  to  be  very  common  in  Tosa.  Guwai-sha=Kuwai-sha,  pronounced 
Kaischa,  is  “ company.” 


FURTHER  MEANS  OF  INTERCOURSE. 


513 


1.  Tokio-Yokohama  . . . . 7 Ri  11  Cho. 

2.  Hidgo-Osaka-Kioto-Otsu  . . . 24  „ 

3.  Nagahama-Tsuruga  . . . 11  „ 

4.  Nagahama-Ogaki  . . . 23  „ 

5.  Tdkio-Takasaki  . . . 25  „ 20  Cho. 


In  all  90  Ri  31  Cho. 


or  3S6'84  kilometers.  At  present  in  process  of 

6.  Takasaki- Ogaki 

Besides  which  the  following  are  projected  : — 

7.  Osaka-Sakai  ..... 

8.  Ogaki-Yokkaichi 

8.  Uyeda-Niigata  ..... 

10.  Tokio- Awomori 

11.  Fukuoka-Kumamoto. 

12.  Miike-Kumamoto. 


construction  : — 


275 

km. 

II 

km. 

S3 

„ 

235 

„ 

705 

„ 

After  the  completion  of  No.  6,  the  principal  line  along  the 
Naka-sen-do  from  Yokohama  to  Hiogo  vid  Tdkio,  Takasaki, 
Uyeda,  Ogaki,  Otsu,  Kioto  and  Osaka,  will  build  branch  lines  to 
Sakai,  Tsuruga,  Yokkaichi  and  Niigata. 

All  the  roads  now  in  operation  were  built  by  English  engineers 
commissioned  by  the  government,  and  were  provided  with  English 
rolling  stock,  but  came  then  under  administration  and  service  of 
the  Japanese,  who  proved  themselves  fully  equal  to  their  new  tasks, 
so  that  no  great  accidents  are  reported  up  to  this  time.  The  first 
line,  from  Tokio  to  Yokohama,  was  opened  on  the  12th  of  June, 
1872.  All  classes  of  inhabitants  were  soon  delighted  with  it  and 
patronized  it  so  extensively  that  a desire  for  the  benefits  of  the  new 
means  of  communication  was  excited  in  other  parts  of  the  country. 
The  second  road,  from  Osaka  to  Hiogo,  was  opened  on  the  1 ith  of 
May,  1874,  and  in  the  following  years  was  extended  from  Osaka 
to  Kioto,  until  on  the  15th  of  July,  1880,  the  track  from  Kioto  to 
Otsu  on  Lake  Biwa  was  added.  Then  followed  railway  lines  from 
Nagahama  to  Tsuruga  and  Ogaki,  on  which,  as  on  the  track  from 
Kidto  to  Otsu,  pupils  of  the  School  of  Engineers  received  their 
practical  training,  under  English  direction.  The  junction  between 
Otsu  and  Nagahama  was  temporarily  effected  by  steamboat,  but  the 
time  seems  not  far  distant  when  a railway  will  girdle  the  lake  and 
supersede  the  steamer.  Of  a more  recent  date  among  the  railroads 
at  present  in  operation  is  the  one  from  Tokio  to  Takasaki,  opened 
in  May,  1884,  by  the  Mikado.  It  is  the  first  one  planned,  built 
and  worked  by  the  Japanese  without  foreign  help.  Although 
rolling  stock  is  still  imported  from  a foreign  country  (America), 
rails  are  now  being  manufactured  or  cast  at  Ikuno,  near  Kobe,  and 

II.  L L 


5*4 


TRADE  AND  COMMERCE. 


cars  are  being  made  in  T6kio.  Surely  this  is  much  progress  in  a 
very  short  space  of  time.  It  is  no  wonder  that  they  are  moving 
about  new  enterprises  in  the  same  direction,  and  have  planned  a 
large  number  of  projects  whose  execution  may  well  be  delayed  for 
some  time  yet  on  account  of  the  great  expense. 

3.  The  Foreign  Trade  of  Japan  up  to  the  Time  of  the 
Opening  of  the  Country  under  Commodore  Perry 
in  1854. 

a. — From  the  Discovery  of  the  Country  by  Mendez  Pinto  in  1542 
to  1639. 

“The  history  of  Japanese  expeditions  to  foreign  lands  is' yet  to 
be  written  ” is  the  observation  of  E.  Satow,  who  remarks  further 
that  the  materials  for  this  work  are  widely  scattered  and  must  first 
be  collected.  It  exceeds  my  power,  as  well  as  my  purpose,  to  form 
such  a collection,  but  it  has  seemed  to  me  of  interest,  to  group  to- 
gether here  the  most  prominent  dates  which  I have  met  with  in  read- 
ing the  works  quoted,  as  well  as  many  others,  regarding  the  foreign 
trade  of  the  Japanese  in  former  times,  because  they  will  show  the 
change  which  has  taken  place  here,  as  well  as  in  many  other  de- 
partments, by  comparing  the  ways  and  means  of  those  days  with 
the  present  foreign  commerce.  We  see  in  this  that  the  articles 
of  export  formerly  of  high  value  have  either  fallen  back  very  largely 
or  disappeared  entirely,  while  others  which  were  scarcely  regarded 
at  all  thirty  years  ago  now  occupy  the  first  place.  Formerly  the 
“ marrow  of  the  country,”  as  Kaempfer  expresses  it,  was  its  mining 
productions  ; gold,  silver  and  copper.  In  modern  times  agri- 
cultural products,  such  as  silk,  tea,  and  rice  (the  latter  only  in 
favourable  years)  exceed  all  the  other  numerous  articles  of  export 
in  importance. 

In  the  first  three  decades  of  the  17th  century  the  Dutch  were 
able  to  drive  out  the  Portuguese,  Spanish,  and  English  in  the 
commerce  with  Japan,  but  they  have  been  obliged  to  give  way 
to  the  powerful  competition  of  the  larger  commercial  and  indus- 
trial States  since  the  time  of  the  opening  of  the  country  thirty 
years  ago.  The  trade  of  Holland  declined  far  below  that  of  most 
of  the  larger  countries,  England  and  North  America  at  the  head, 
to  a point  corresponding  to  the  small  extent  of  its  own  industry 
and  its  own  consumption.  The  trade  with  Yokohama  and  Kobe 
was  developed  in  a similar  way  at  the  expense  of  Nagasaki  and 
Osaka. 

There  is  a great  lack  of  direct  information  concerning  the  old 
relations  of  Japan  in  trade  with  its  Western  neighbours,  China  and 
Corea,  before  the  first  landing  of  the  Portuguese. 

Hakata  in  Chikuzen  appears  to  have  been  one  of  the  Japanese 
ports  from  which  a lively  intercourse  with  China  was  maintained. 


FOREIGN  TRADE  UP  TO  OPENING  OF  COUNTRY.  515 


It  is  mentioned  also  in  Taketori  Monogatari,  “ The  Maid  from  the 
Moon.”  1 6saka  also,  formerly  called  Naniwa,  and  Sakai,  were  im- 
portant ports,  having  large  commercial  relations  with  China  during 
the  Middle  Ages.  Marco  Polo  does  not  mention  this  intercourse, 
nor  does  Barros  in  his  work  “ Da  Asia  ” make  any  statement  of  this 
kind  ; he  does  hot  once  name  the  Japanese.  On  the  other  hand, 
according  to  Crawford,2  in  a commentary  on  Albuquerque,  written 
by  his  son,  according  to  information  which  the  great  Albu- 
querque received  upon  taking  possession  of  Malacca  in  1510,  the 
Japanese  (there  called  Gore)  are  said  to  have  arrived  every  year 
with  two  or  three  ships.  They  were  a silent,  truth-loving  people, 
who  usually  left  their  country  in  January  and  returned  in  August 
or  September.  Their  wares  were  raw  and  prepared  silk,  brocade, 
porcelain,  a great  deal  of  wheat,  copper,  alum,  and  quantities  of 
gold  bearing  the  king’s  seal.  The  mention  of  silk  and  porcelain 
as  export  articles  of  Japan  at  that  time,  creates  the  suspicion  that 
the  writer  perhaps  confused  the  Japanese  with  the  Coreans. 

Evidences  are  not  wanting  that  greatly  feared  pirates  came  from 
Japan,  especially  from  the  island  of  Kiushiu,  who  not  only  made 
the  coasts  of  China  unsafe,  but  extended  their  depredations  to  the 
Philippine  Islands  and  the  Malay  Archipelago.3  These  occurred 
principally  at  a time  when  civil  wars  in  Japan  had  desolated  the 
country  and  relaxed  all  the  restrictions  of  law  and  order,  as  for 
example,  at  the  end  of  the  14th  century  (see  vol.  i.  pp.  259,  260), 
and  finally  in  the  year  1600  A.D.,  before  Iyeyasu  had  gathered 
the  imperial  power  of  the  entire  country  in  his  own  firm  hands, 
and  shortly  after  put  an  end  not  only  to  pirates,  but  also  to  the 
direct  intercourse  of  Japan  with  other  countries. 

It  is  certainly  remarkable  that  the  three  most  notable  sea 
voyages  of  great  discovery  in  ancient  times,  were  undertaken  with 
the  view  of  securing  for  Spain  and  Portugal  the  most  valuable 
productions  of  Asiatic  countries  at  the  least  expense.  Columbus 
discovered  America  as  he  was  endeavouring  by  sailing  westward 
to  reach  the  countries  of  Eastern  Asia,  especially  the  golden 
Zipangu  (Japan)  and  Cathay  (China),  with  its  abundance  of  silks. 
For  according  to  the  descriptions  of  his  countryman,  Marco  Polo, 
and  Arab  geographers,  the  former  was  the  El  Dorado  of  the  Chinese 
and  Arabs  (see  p.  295),  while  the  latter  has  for  ages  enjoyed  the 
reputation  of  a rich  country  because  of  its  silk.  Vasco  de  Gama 
led  the  Portuguese  around  South  Africa  to  India,  and  thereby 
turned  the  previous  trade  with  this  productive,  highly  civilized 
country,  into  entirely  different  lines.  Fernao  de  Magalhaes,  a 

1 Translated  by  R.  Lange,  17  Heft  der  Mitth.  d.  d-  Ges.  Ostasiens. 

2 Crawford  : “ Descriptive  Diet,  of  the  Mai.  Archipelago,”  p.  164. 

3 “ The  men  of  Japan  have  done  much  mischief  unto  the  men  of  China,  and 
many  times  fallen  upon  their  coasts  and  put  all  to  fire  and  sword.”— The 
voyage  of  John  Huyghen  van  Linschoten  to  the  East  Indies,  p.  155.  Hakluyt 
Soc.,  London,  1875. 


TRADE  AND  COMMERCE. 


Si6 


countryman  of  Vasco  de  Gama,  may  be  called  the  third  promi- 
nent navigator  of  this  period.  He  devoted  himself,  after  the  con- 
quest of  Malacca,  out  of  spite  towards  his  king,  to  the  service  of 
Charles  V.  (Charles  I.),  in  order  to  furnish  the  Spaniards  with  the 
highly  prized  cloves  of  the  Moluccas,  while  avoiding  the  Portuguese 
route.  He  accomplished  in  this  effort,  as  is  well  known,  the  first 
circumnavigation  of  the  globe,  a few  years  after  the  Portuguese 
had  sailed  round  tropical  Asia,  and  obtained  in  Macao  a new  basis 
of  operations  for  their  trade. 

Japan  was  finally  discovered  by  the  Portuguese,  and  the  ship- 
wreck which  brought  Mendez  Pinto  and  his  companions  on  its 
southern  shore  in  1 542  A.D.  was  the  beginning  of  a notable  period 
for  Japan,  in  which  the  spread  of  Christianity  during  the  second 
half  of  the  sixteenth  century  kept  equal  pace  with  an  extremely 
profitable  trade,  with  Nagasaki  as  its  chief  point  The  trade  of 
Japan  with  China  also  flourished  in  this  period  ; for  according  to 
Thunberg  some  200  Chinese  ships  arrived  every  year  up  to  1684, 
each  with  an  average  manning  of  fifty  persons.  They  brought 
silk,  silk  handkerchiefs,  sugar,  turpentine,  incense,  agates,  Baros 
camphor,  ginseng  and  several  other  medicinal  wares,  besides 
medical  books,  taking  away  copper  in  bars,  lacquer  work,  and 
other  productions  of  Japan. 

Portuguese  trade  between  Goa,  Malacca,  Macao,  and  Nagasaki 
(or  Hirado)  was  regulated  by  the  monsoons  and  the  king  of  Por- 
tugal. Linschoten  states  that  the  latter  allowed  but  one  ship  to 
sail  each  year  from  Macao  to  Japan.  This  was  a very  large,  good 
ship  of  1,600  tons,  the  command  of  which  for  three  years  was  given  in 
reward  for  services  rendered,  as  the  captain  made  between  1 50,000 
and  200,000  ducats  on  each  voyage  to  Japan.  He  brought  various 
wares  from  Macao,  especially  silks.  The  return  trade  was  of  silver 
and  gold,  which  paid  an  immense  profit,  of  100  per  cent,  according 
to  Kaempfer.  Meijian  states  that  at  the  period  when  this  Portu- 
guese trade  was  at  its  highest  point,  the  average  annual  value  of 
this  exportation  of  precious  metals  from  Japan  amounted  to  from 
eight  to  nine  millions  of  Dutch  gulden  (£765,000).  Thunberg,  in- 
deed, estimates  it  at  the  enormous  quantity  of  300  tons  of  gold, 
and  remarks  further,  that  even  after  the  Portuguese  had  made  them- 
selves objects  of  hatred  by  their  conduct  in  Nagasaki  and  else- 
where, and  their  trade  had  fallen  into  complete  decadence,  they 
still  exported  considerable  quantities  of  silver— thus  in  1636  A.D. 
2,360  chests  or  2,350,000  Japanese  taels  at  2 s.  gd,  in  1637  A.D. 
2,142,365  taels,  and  in  1638  A.D.  1,259,023  taels.1 

With  this,  as  is  well  known,  the  trade  of  the  Portuguese  in  Japan 
came  to  an  end  ; for  their  complete  exclusion  soon  followed  (1639), 
and  when  in  1640  they  had  again  separated  from  Spain  and  attained 
their  former  independence,  they  saw  themselves  robbed  of  their 
profitable  commerce  and  rich  possessions  in  Asia,  down  to  a few 

1 A Japanese  tael  is  reckoned  at  33  stiver=r65  Dutch  florins=2j.  9^/. 


FOREIGN  TRADE  UP  TO  OPENING  OF  COUNTRY.  517 


inconsiderable  remnants.  Several  attempts  that  were  made  from 
Macao  to  regain  the  commercial  ground  lost  in  Japan  met  only 
with  the  greatest  misfortune.  Their  former  paradise  remained 
closed  to  them. 

After  the  union  of  Portugal  with  Spain,  through  Philip  II.,  in 
1580  A.D.,  an  occurrence  from  which  the  Portuguese  date  the  decline 
and  eventual  loss  of  their  commanding  position  and  of  their  con- 
siderable Asiatic  commerce,  Manila  was  also  included  in  this  de- 
privation. The  commerce  of  this  city  with  Macao  and  Japan, 
in  regard  to  which  the  work  of  A.  de  Morga  cited  above  gives 
interesting  information,  was  very  active. 

Towards  the  end  of  October  and  during  March  the  ships  used  to 
sail  with  northerly  winds  from  Nagasaki  to  Manila.  They  brought 
to  the  Philippines  chiefly  flour  of  very  good  quality,  and  also  much 
valued  salt  meat,  salt  tunny-fish,  very  good  (?)  fresh  pears,  iron 
tools  and  weapons,  among  them  fine  swords,  besides  beautiful 
screens,  artistically  lacquered  jewel  cases  of  rare  woods,  and  other 
trifles  attractive  and  handsome, — cages,  a little  silver,  patterned 
silks.  There  were  also  horses  from  Japan,  of  which  de  Morga 
gives  an  excellent  description.  The  ships  returned  to  Nagasaki  in 
June  or  July,  under  the  influence  of  the  southern  monsoon  winds  ; 
their  freight  from  Manila  consisted  of  raw  silk  (from  China),  hart- 
shorn-shavings (?)  and  brazil-wood  for  dyeing,  honey,  wax,  wine 
(from  Spain),  Thibetian  cats,  great  jars  (Tibdr)  for  keeping  tea,  and 
also  glass  and  clothing  material. 

The  first  disturbance  of  these  amicable  relations  was  made  by 
“Taiko-sama,  the  Lord  of  all  Japan,”  in  a letter  to  the  Governor,1 
wherein  he  arrogantly  ordered  him  to  recognise  his  superior  rank 
and  to  send  tribute  in  recognition  of  it,  or  he  would  come  with 
a fleet  and  destroy  the  land.  The  tone  of  this  letter  corresponds 
exactly  to  that  in  which  Hideyoshi  addressed  the  king  of  Corea 
when  he  desired  him  to  enter  into  an  alliance  against  China  (see 
vol.  i.  p.  282).  The  correspondence  lasted  several  years  according 
to  de  Morga,  and  then  Taiko-sama  died.  From  this  it  is  seen  that 
this  insolent  letter  must  have  been  written  about  the  year  1595. 3 
It  occasioned  great  anxiety  in  Manila.  Through  fear  of  an  in- 
vasion all  the  Japanese,  who  were  there  in  considerable  number, 
were  sent  back  to  their  country. 

In  the  year  1596  Don  Francisco  Tello,  the  new  governor  of  the 
Philippines,  came  into  office.  One  year  later  the  ship  San  Felipe, 

1 Gomez  Perez  Dasmarinas,  who  had  arrived  at  his  post  in  1590,  by  the  route 
then  common — via  Acapulco. 

2 According  to  Dutch  sources  (“  Mdmorables  Embassies,”  etc.),  Taiko-sama 
had  stated  in  this  document  that  the  civil  wars  in  Japan  were  over,  and  that  he 
himself  was  a pledge  of  internal  peace.  He  now  wished  to  make  war  upon 
China,  and  desired  to  this  end  the  good-will  of  the  governors,  as  signs  of  this 
demanding  subjection  and  tribute.  From  this  we  might  conclude  that  the  state 
paper  dates  from  the  year  1591,  as  the  expedition  to  Corea,  for  the  above- 
mentioned  purpose,  took  place  in  1592. 


TRADE  AND  COMMERCE. 


518 


which  had  been  driven  out  of  its  course  by  contrary  winds  oft  a 
voyage  from  Manila  to  New  Spain  (Mexico),  touched  at  the  coast 
of  Tosa  on  the  island  Shikoku.  The  head  quartermaster,  Fran- 
cisco de  Landa,  declared  to  the  confidential  adviser  and  pleni- 
potentiary of  Taiko-sama1  that  Spain  was  conquering  the  world, 
with  the  help  of  Spanish  priests.  This  contributed  not  a little 
to  the  increasing  aversion  of  the  governing  classes  to  Christianity, 
a feeling  which  soon  resulted  in  the  bloody  persecution  of  its 
missionaries,  and  later  in  its  complete  extirpation. 

Iyeyasu2  was  at  that  time  still  inclined  to  trade  with  the  Spanish 
and  Portuguese,  even  going  so  far  as  to  negotiate  with  Father 
Geronymo  (who  had  concealed  himself  during  the  first  persecution 
of  the  Christians  by  Taiko-sama  in  1597)  for  the  importation  of 
Spanish  carpenters  from  Manila  to  build  ships,  in  order  that  he 
himself  might  establish  direct  commercial  relations  with  New 
Spain.  Chiquiro  (?),  the  ambassador  of  Iyeyasu,  who  carried  his 
presents  and  good  wishes  with  letters  of  Father  Geronymo  to  the 
Governor  of  the  Philippines,  found  a friendly  enough  reception, 
but  did  not  obtain  the  desired  ship  carpenters,  because  the 
Japanese  were  not  wanted  as  competitors  for  the  trade  ol 
Nueva  Espana. 

In  vain  did  Iyeyasu  and  Geronymo  wait  for  the  vessel’s  return. 
It  had  been  wrecked  on  the  coast  of  Formosa  and  sank  with  all 
on  board.  Later  Fray  Geronymo  himself  went  to  Manila,  return- 
ing thence  in  1601  with  excuses  and  gifts  for  Iyeyasu.  These 
gifts  were  a large,  richly  decorated  mirror  and  other  glass-wares, 
Castilian  cloths,  honey,  several  large  Chinese  porcelain  jars,  and 
Spanish  Tibdr,  or  vases  and  jars  of  Faience. 

Meanwhile  Iyeyasu  had  succeeded  to  the  Shogunate,  with  prac- 
tical supremacy  over  the  whole  of  Japan.  The  struggles  of  the 
year  1600,  in  which  he  overcame  his  adversaries,  had  tempted  the 
coast  population  of  Kiushiu  once  more  to  piracy.  Not  less  than 
six  corsair  ships  had  sailed  out  from  Satsuma  to  ravage  the  coasts 
of  China  and  the  Philippines.  Upon  the  complaints  of  the  governor 
of  Manila,  Iyeyasu  promised  assistance,  demanding,  however,  in 
return,  that  fugitive  Japanese  should  not  receive  protection,  and 
still  less  assistance  in  effecting  secret  landings  on  Japanese  coasts. 
It  seems,  however,  that  this  wish  was  not  fulfilled.  With  reference 
to  this,  as  in  many  another  respect,  peculiar  interest  attaches  to  a 
letter  of  the  mighty  Shogun  to  the  Governor  Don  Pedro  de  Acuna 
in  the  year  1605.  In  it  Iyeyasu  first  thanks  the  governor  for  his 
presents,  of  which  the  wine  especially  had  given  him  great  pleasure. 
But  then  he  begs  the  governor  to  hinder  fugitive  Japanese  from 

1 He  is  called  Ximonojo,  Yemonojo,  and  Gibunoxa.  He  seems  to  have  been 
Ishida  Mitsunari,  one  of  the  later  five  governors.  (See  vol.  i.  p.  494.) 

2 “ Yeyasu  dono,  Lord  of  Quanto,”  as  he  is  called  in  the  English  translation 
of  the  book  by  A.  de  Morga,  p.  143.  Compare  vol.  i.  pp.  11,  282,  and  p.  311 
of  this  work. 


FOREIGN  TRADE  UP  TO  OPENING  OF  COUNTRY.  519 


finding  support  in  Manila  and  returning  to  Japan  with  Spanish 
ships  without  his  (Iyeyasu’s)  permission.  To  the  numerous  re- 
presentations with  respect  to  the  Christian  sect  which  the  governor 
and  others  had  made  to  him,  he  could  not  agree.  “ It  is  in  no 
wise  agreeable  to  our  best  interests  that  your  faith  be  preached 
and  disseminated  in  Japan,  and  if  your  Highness  desires  to  main- 
tain friendship  with  the  rulers  of  Japan  and  with  me,  I beg  you  to 
agree  to  my  wishes  and  to  do  nothing  displeasing  to  me.”  It  is 
plainly  seen  from  this  energetic  language  that  Iyeyasu  was  already 
firmly  determined  to  strenuously  oppose  the  spread  of  Christianity. 
Only  once,  as  is  seen  in  what  follows,  do  we  find  him  friendly  dis- 
posed towards  Christianity,  but  this  might  have  been  expected  from 
his  earlier  expressions. 

In  the  year  1608 — the  “ Memorials  of  the  Empire  of  Japan  ” tell 
us,  according  to  Th.  Rundall — the  ship  was  wrecked  in  which  the 
Governor  General  of  the  Philippines,  Rodrigo  de  Vivero  y Velasco, 
was  returning  from  Manila  to  Spain,  via  Acapulco.  This  was  on 
the  east  coast  of  Hondo,  in  latitude  35J0  N.  The  crew  and  Don 
Rodrigo  saved  only  their  lives,  but  were  hospitably  received  by 
the  Japanese,  and  provided  with  every  necessity.  The  Governor 
General  in  particular  received  on  all  sides  a great  friendliness  cor- 
responding to  his  rank,  especially  at  the  court  in  Yeddo,  and  also 
at  Shidzuoka  in  Suruga,  whither  Iyeyasu  had  withdrawn  in  1605, 
although  still  retaining  the  guidance  of  national  affairs. 

Everything  was  restored  to  the  Spaniards  that  could  be  saved 
from  the  wreck,  although  according  to  law  and  custom  the  Japan- 
ese government  possessed  full  jurisdiction  over  stranded  goods. 
In  Shidzuoka  Don  Rodrigo  laid  three  requests  before  the  ex- 
Shdgun,  viz.  : — 

1.  That  Iyeyasu  would  extend  his  protection  to  foreign  priests 
and  their  missions. 

2.  That  he  would  continue  in  maintaining  friendly  relations  with 
the  king  of  Spain. 

3.  That  he  would  forbid  the  Dutch,  being  rebels  and  pirates,  to 
sojourn  in  his  country. 

Iyeyasu  expressed  to  Don  Rodrigo  his  satisfaction  that,  although 
stripped  of  all  his  possessions,  he  had  sought  nothing  for  himself, 
but  everything  for  his  king  and  his  religion.  He  was  prepared  to 
grant  the  first  two  petitions,  not  the  third,  having  pledged  his  word 
to  the  Dutch  and  allowed  them  to  trade  in  his  country  under  the 
same  conditions  as  other  foreigners. 

Iyeyasu  requested  from  the  king  of  Spain,  through  Don  Rodrigo, 
fifty  miners  experienced  in  the  silver  mining  of  New  Spain,  his 
own  being  unable  to  extract  half  the  precious  metal  existing  in  the 
mines.  He  dismissed  him  in  the  friendliest  manner.  The  object 
of  Don  Rodrigo’s  next  journey  was  “ Meako  ” (Kidto),  where  the 
governor,  by  order  of  his  master,  made  him  acquainted  with  every- 
thing worthy  of  notice.  Thus  Don  Rodrigo  saw  among  other 


520 


TRADE  AND  COMMERCE. 


things  the  Daibutsu,  of  which  he  remarks  that  it  should  be  reckoned 
among  the  wonders  of  the  world.  From  Kioto  he  betook  himself 
by  way  of  Fushimi  to  Osaka,  and  then  in  a boat  to  Nagasaki.  But 
the  ship  which  was  to  have  brought  him  back  to  Manila  not  being 
ready,  he  returned  to  Suruga  and  did  not  leave  Japan  until  August, 
1610,  departing  with  rich  gifts.  Hence  he  had  full  knowledge  of 
the  landing  of  the  Dutch  on  Hirado,1  and  their  entrance  into  the 
competition,  which  was  soon  so  fateful  for  the  Portuguese  and 
Spanish,  as  well  as  for  the  Catholic  Japanese. 

The  trade  between  Japan  and  the  Philippines  lasted  over  fifty 
years,  from  1580.  During  this  time  Japanese  enterprise  developed 
itself  also  in  other  directions.  Japanese  seamen  not  only  took 
service  on  foreign  ships  and  made  long  journeys  in  them,  but,  in 
conjunction  with  merchants,  fitted  out  junks  themselves.  At 
times  they  ran  in  friendly  commerce  along  the  coasts  of  China  and 
Farther  India,  and  again  as  bold  corsairs  they  preyed  upon  trade 
in  these  parts. 

In  the  above-mentioned  memoir  by  E.  Satow,  on  the  trade 
between  Japan  and  Siam,  we  perceive  how  active  it  was  in  the 
first  three  decades  of  the  17th  century.  In  Ayuthia,  at  that 
time  the  capital  of  Siam,  and  in  Patani,  the  most  important  com- 
mercial point  on  the  Gulf  of  Siam,  there  was  a Japanese  colony, 
which  sometimes  played  a.  part  even  in  politics.  The  first  three 
Shoguns  maintained  direct  friendly  commercial  relations  with  the 
king  of  Siam  for  twenty-four  years.  Both  courts  repeatedly  inter- 
changed letters  and  presents,  these  being  in  several  cases  conveyed 
by  Siamese  embassies.  Iyeyasu  began  these  direct  relations  in 
1606,  sending  to  the  King  of  Siam  a letter,  with  several  swords 
and  suits  of  armour,  and  begging  from  him  a few  muskets  and 
some  fragrant  calambac  ( Santalinum  album , L.).  We  discover 
from  the  correspondence  which  followed  that  the  King  of  Siam 
and  his  first  minister  repeatedly  sent  such  white  sandalwood,  be- 
sides Borneo  camphor,  elephant  tusks,  and  costly  silks,  as  presents 
for  the  Shogun  and  his  chief  dignitaries,  not  to  mention  various 
European  products,  such  as  sarsenet,  calico,  gauze,  and  other 
fabrics,  besides  muskets  and  powder.  The  Japanese  gifts  in  return 
were  in  particular  horses  with  costly  saddles,  weapons  and  suits  of 
mail,  beautiful  screens,  festival  garments  of  wadded  silk,  bleached 
cotton  stuffs,  and  silver. 

With  the  year  1630  this  official  intercourse  suddenly  ceased. 
In  Ayuthia,  Phra-Chao  Phrasa-thong  had  taken  possession  of  the 
throne,  and  when  he  thereupon,  following  the  example  of  his  pre- 
decessor, sent  an  embassy  to  Japan  with  letters  and  presents,  these 
were  refused.  The  same  happened  to  several  other  Siamese  em- 
bassies which  followed.  But  even  after  1636,  when  the  Japanese 

1 The  city  and  island  of  Hirado,  geneially  called  Firado,  Firato,  and  Firando 
in  older  writings,  lie  on  the  west  side  of  Kiushiu,  and  belong  to  the  province  of 
Hizen.  (See  vol.  i.  p.  523.) 


FOREIGN  TRADE  UP  TO  OPENING  OF  COUNTRY.  52: 


were  forbidden  by  law  to  leave  the  country  and  to  trade  with 
foreigners,  commercial  relations  with  Siam  did  not  fully  cease. 
The  Chinese,  to  whom,  with  the  Dutch,  trade  with  Nagasaki  was 
permitted,  became  the  middlemen.  Siamese  junks,  as  Satow 
states,  following  Japanese  authorities,  came  in  six  different  cases, 
viz.,  in  the  years  1680,  1687,  1693,  1716,  1718,  and  1745,  though 
with  what  success  is  not  said.  Before  the  closing  up  of  Japan 
under  the  third  Shdgun  (Iyemitsu)  Siamese  ships  brought  away 
gold  and  silver,  copper  in  small  bars,  goldsmiths’  work,  umbrellas 
and  parasols,  lacquer  wares,  porcelain  and  tea. 

The  various  occurrences  that  led  to  the  closing  up  of  Japan  and 
the  extirpation  of  Christianity  were  dealt  with  in  detail  in  vol.  i. 
of  this  work.  From  the  short  account  here  given  of  the  rela- 
tions of  the  Shdgunate  to  the  Spaniards  in  Manila  and  to  the 
Siamese,  it  is  evident  that  these  measures  are  not  to  be  looked 
upon  as  immediate  consequences  of  the  battle  of  Sekijahara  in  the 
year  1600,  but  that  the  political  and  religious  motives  in  which 
they  originated  were  only  of  gradual  growth.  The  conclusion  of 
commercial  relations  with  the  Dutch  and  English  had  great  in- 
fluence upon  this  change  in  opinion  and  feelings.  These  powers  at 
the  beginning  of  the  17th  century  extended  their  struggles  against 
Catholic  Spain  and  therewith  annexed  Portugal,  even  to  the  dis- 
tant stations  of  the  world’s  market,  and  with  success. 

The  struggles  of  the  Protestant  Dutch  for  their  civil  and  religious 
liberty  had  fostered  in  them  an  irreconcileable  enmity  against  the 
Spaniards  and  Roman  Catholicism,  had  developed  their  courage 
and  enterprise,  and  prepared  them  for  further  deeds  of  prowess. 
Scarcely  had  they  thrown  off  the  Spanish  yoke  when  Dutch  ships, 
impelled  by  commercial  interests,  cruised  through  every  sea.  In 
Amsterdam  the  nautical  school  of  Peter  Plancius  gave  the  incipient 
seafarer  a better  education,  and  the  atlas  of  L.  J.  Waghenaer  of 
Leyden  furnished  him  with  more  reliable  maps.  Thus  the  general 
demand  received  effective  support, — the  demand  to  become  wholly 
independent  of  Spain  even  in  commerce,  now  that  her  power 
was  enlarged  by  the  addition  of  Portugal  and  its  colonies.  Narrow- 
minded decrees  of  Philip  II.  of  Spain  closing  Lisbon,  the  former 
world-market,  to  the  Dutch,  did  the  rest.  The  enterprises  of  the 
Dutch  led  to  important  geographical  discoveries — I mention  only 
those  of  Barents  and  Tasman — as  well  as  to  their  acquisition  of 
most  of  the  Portuguese  possessions,  with  their  Asiatic  trade. 

Upon  the  first  Dutch  circumnavigation  of  the  globe  (in  the  years 
1598-1601)  under  Oliver  van  Noort,  who  followed  the  route  of 
Magelhaes  and  inflicted  heavy  losses  on  the  Spanish  in  a sea  fight 
off  Manila,  there  followed,  in  1602,  the  establishment  of  the 
Dutch  East  India  Company.  Batavia  became  its  chief  point  of 
support  and  of  the  trade  it  carried  on  in  South-eastern  Asia,  while 
Goa,  Malacca,  and  Macao  lost  their  commercial  significance.  In 
April  of  the  year  1600  the  Dutch  flag  appeared  for  the  first  time 


522 


TRADE  AND  COMMERCE. 


on  the  Japanese  coast,  at  Funai,  in  Bungo.  The  ship  that  carried 
it  had,  with  four  others,  formed  a small  commercial  flotilla  of  the 
Dutch  house  van  der  Veek,  which  had  left  the  harbour  of  Texel 
in  June,  1598,  to  carry  on  trade  on  the  Pacific  coast  of  South 
America.  The  expedition  was  sent  out  too  late  in  the  year,  and 
suffered  great  losses  in  consequence  of  bad  steering,  heavy  storms, 
and  hostile  attacks,  so  that  at  last  only  one  ship,  the  Erasmus,  re- 
mained, with  but  a small  crew.  They  directed  her  course  from 
the  Peruvian  coast  to  Japan,  in  the  hope  of  finding  there  a market 
for  her  cargo  of  cloths.  When  they  landed  in  Funai,  only  five  men 
were  fit  for  duty,  among  them  William  Adams,  an  Englishman 
and  first-mate  of  the  Erasmus.  These  and  the  sick  as  well  were 
given  a friendly  reception  by  the  native  population,  though  repre- 
sented as  pirates  by  the  Portuguese.  The  latter  contrived  to  have 
Adams  sent  as  a prisoner  to  Iyeyasu,  who  was  then  in  Osaka. 
Iyeyasu  received  him  kindly,  questioned  him,  and  sent  him  to 
Yedo,  where  he  was  set  at  liberty,  and  lived  for  the  most  part  till 
his  death,  in  1620.  William  Adams  won  a position  of  respect 
among  the  Japanese,  serving  at  first  the  interests  of  the  Dutch,  and 
later  of  the  English  ; and  he  probably  contributed  towards  feeding 
the  feeling  of  envy  towards  the  Catholic  Spaniards  and  Portuguese, 
and  bringing  about  the  well-known  crisis  (see  vol.  i.  p.  330  ff). 

In  June,  1609,  the  Dutch  ship  Roode  Loeuw  (Red  Lion)  ap- 
peared in  the  harbour  of  Hirado,  and  was  hospitably  received  by 
the  Daimid  of  the  island.  In  the  following  year,  Jacques  Spexx 
(Jacob  Spex),  the  commercial  representative  of  the  Dutch  East 
India  Company,  and  M.  Sandvoort,  betook  themselves  to  Suruga, 
to  negotiate  a commercial  treaty  with  Iyeyasu,  and  then  to  Yedo, 
to  treat  with  his  son,  the  Shogun.  William  Adams  acted  as  in- 
terpreter. The  Dutch  obtained  permission  to  erect  a factory  in 
Hirado,  and  to  trade  with  Japan  under  similar  conditions  to  the 
Portuguese  and  Spaniards  in  Nagasaki.  The  latter  had  done  all 
they  could  to  keep  away  the  incoming  heretics,  whom  they  repre- 
sented to  Iyeyasu  as  sea-robbers,  and  rebels  against  their  lord,  the 
King  of  Spain — men  to  whom  he  could  not  possibly  lend  atten- 
tion. But  the  wise  and  mighty  prince  had  no  intention  of  letting 
slip  the  opportunity  of  encouraging  a competing  foreign  influence. 
He  answered,  in  effect,  that  European  affairs  did  not  concern  him, 
and  that  he  was  mindful  only  of  the  peace  and  welfare  of  his  own 
land  and  people.  Every  foreigner  who  obeyed  the  laws  and  would 
trade  honestly,  and  to  the  advantage  of  his  subjects,  was  welcome  ; 
“ yea,  even  if  devils  came  from  hell,  they  should  be  treated  like 
angels  from  heaven,”  as  long  as  they  heartily  submitted  to  the 
rules  he  had  established. 

Induced  by  letters  from  William  Adams,  the  English  East  India 
Company  soon  thereafter  determined  to  enter  into  trade  with 
Japan.  To  this  end  they  sent  three  ships  under  the  command  ot 
Captain  John  Saris,  which  cast  anchor  before  Hirado,  on  the  nth 


FOREIGN  TRADE  UP  TO  OPENING  OF  COUNTRY.  523 


of  June,  1613.  The  old  Daimio  appreciated  the  commercial  ad- 
vantages which  the  foreigners  brought  to  this  little  island,  and 
received  the  English  kindly.  After  Adams  had  joined  them  and 
Captain  Saris  had  rented  a house  to  be  used  as  a factory,  the  latter, 
with  Adams  to  interpret,  and  the  necessary  credentials,  and  pre- 
sents from  King  James  I.,  departed  for  the  court  in  a boat  which 
the  Daimio  placed  at  his  disposal.  The  embassy  was  amicably 
received  both  by  Iyeyasu  in  Sumpu  (Shidzuoka),  and  by  his  son, 
Hidetada,  the  reigning  Shogun  in  Yedo.  After  brief  negotiations, 
conducted  by  Adams,  who  was  favourably  known  at  court,  it 
secured  a general  commercial  privilege.  This  was,  however,  by  an 
amendment  of  the  year  1616,  restricted  to  Hirado,  like  that  of  the 
Dutch.  Richard  Cocks  acted  as  director  of  the  factory,  from  its 
establishment  to  the  dissolution,  which  the  company  ordered  in 
1623.  A competition  of  ten  years  with  the  Dutch  had  cost  it  a 
total  loss  of  over  £40, 000.  But  even  though  the  commercial  enter- 
prises of  the  English  in  Japan  were  unsuccessful,  they  departed 
with  honour  from  a well-contested  field.  They  had  made  the 
attempt  at  a very  unfavourable  time  and  an  unsuitable  place,  a 
small,  non-productive  island,  in  direct  competition  with  the  Dutch, 
and  with  the  Portuguese  and  Spaniards,  who  still  retained  great 
influence  in  Nagasaki.  Their  hope  that  the  Chinese  market  would 
open  to  them  was  not  fulfilled,  and  in  Japan  the  Dutch  possessed 
more  experience  and  practice.  These  scorned  no  means  of  crowd- 
ing the  English  out,  even  selling  many  of  their  wares  below  cost, 
as,  for  example,  cloths  manufactured  in  England.  Their  conduct, 
as  Cocks  in  many  parts  of  his  journal  remarks,  was  unendurable, 
even  when,  by  higher  command,  the  English  took  sides  with 
them  against  Spaniards  and  Portuguese.  For  such  extraordinary 
difficulties  the  intelligence  and  activity  of  the  director  Richard 
Cocks  were  insufficient.  It  is  easily  seen  from  his  tedious  journal 
that  he  was  uneducated,  weak,  and  slow,  though  good-natured  and 
honest  enough  ; and  that  there  must  have  been  great  disorder  in 
his  conduct  of  business.  All  this  we  learn,  too,  from  the  bitter 
censure  with  which  his  “ loving  friends  ” and  superiors  at  Batavia 
recalled  him  in  May,  1623.  Subsequently  the  Dutch  were 
successful  in  frustrating  all  attempts  of  the  English,  as  well  as  of 
other  nations,  to  renew  commercial  relations  with  Japan.  Stories 
about  the  over-crowding  of  the  market  with  imported  goods,  and  a 
fall  in  prices,  remind  one  of  many  an  occurrence  in  the  Japanese 
trade  of  modern  times,  except  that  formerly  it  was  not  customary 
to  sell  at  public  auction.  White  raw-silk  from  China  and  Siam, 
which  used  to  be  sold  in  Nagasaki  and  Hirado  for  500,  400,  and 
300  Ts.  (Taels  at  6 shillings),  were  offered  at  130  Ts.  in  the  year 
1620.  The  market  was  as  much  flooded  via  Patani  with  Siamese 
velvet  and  flowered  silks,  red  and  white  sandal-wood,  deer-skins, 
and  ivory,  as  with  Spanish  cloths,  imported  from  New  Spain 
(Mexico),  and  English,  brought  by  Dutch  and  English  vessels. 


524 


TRADE  AND  COMMERCE. 


Cotton  stuffs  were  less  in  demand,  and  so  were  spices.  In  these 
articles  also,  the  supply  far  exceeded  the  demand,  and  so  it  did  in 
the  case  of  steel,  tin,  and  lead,  mirrors,  Danzig  bottle-glass,  amber, 
patterned  linen,  and  plain  Dutch  linen.  Of  the  rich  exportation  of 
metal  (gold,  silver,  and  copper),  only  a very  modest  share  seems  to 
have  passed  through  English  hands. 

It  is  easy  to  see  from  Cocks’  journal  how  the  difficulties  and 
limitations  of  Japanese  foreign  commerce  grew  with  the  increasing 
hostility  towards  Christianity  during  the  reign  of  the  Shogun 
Hidetada.  The  Shogun  lyemitsu,  the  energetic  grandson  of 
Iyeyasu,  had  scarce  grasped  the  reins  of  government,  in  1623, 
when  the  last  great  outburst  against  foreigners  occurred.  Spaniards 
and  Portuguese  were  banished  from  the  country ; the  Christians 
were  persecuted,  tortured,  and  slain;  Japanese  subjects  were  for- 
bidden on  pain  of  death  to  leave  the  land,  and  commerce  was 
restricted  to  the  Dutch  and  Chinese.  Herewith  begins  a new 
period  in  the  trade  with  Japan,  namely  : 

b.—The  time  of  trade  with  the  Dutch  and  Chinese  in  Nagasaki, 
from  1641-1854. 

When  the  English  had  withdrawn  from  the  Japanese  market, 
and  the  trade  of  the  Iberian  Catholics  had  been  destroyed  with 
those  last  annihilating  blows  at  Christianity  which  were  de- 
scribed in  vol.  i.  pp.  304-3 1 1,  the  Dutch  found  themselves  alone, 
masters  of  the  field  indeed,  but  in  no  enviable  position  among  the 
Japanese.  Obedient  to  the  Shdgun’s  decree  of  May  ir,  1641,  to 
give  up  immediately  their  factory  at  Hirado  and  remove  to  the 
little,  artificial  island  (De-shima)  formerly  intended  for  the  Portu- 
guese, close  to  Nagasaki,  they  made  the  change  ten  days  later. 

It  was  with  unclean  hands  that  the  Dutch  took  possession  of 
De-shima.  Excluding  all  criticism  except  from  their  own  side,  and 
disregarding  the  prejudiced  opinions  of  the  Jesuits,  and  judging 
many  of  their  actions  in  the  spirit  of  that  age,  and  with  an  under- 
standing of  the  mutual  enmity  and  calumniation  between  them 
and  the  Iberian  Catholics — making  all  these  allowances,  one  still 
cannot  acquit  them  of  complicity  in  those  frightful  massacres 
through  which  Christianity  was  extirpated  in  Japan.  Nor  can  we 
refrain  from  the  no  less  heavy  charge  that  they  denied  their  own 
religion  in  Nagasaki  and  sacrificed  their  honour  in  order  to  retain 
a profitable  trade.  They  proclaimed  their  subjection  to  the  will  of 
the  Japanese  and  humbled  themselves  before  them  on  so  many 
occasions,  that  these — accustomed  to  regard  their  own  commercial 
classes  rather  as  a necessary  evil,  and  to  put  them  after  the  farmer 
and  artisan,  like  the  old  Romans — could  not  but  form  a bad  opinion 
of  their  character  and  their  sense  of  honour. 

On  De-shima  lived  sixteen  to  twenty  Dutchmen  in  the  East 
India  Company’s  service,  restricted  in  their  movements,  and 


FOREIGN  TRADE  UP  TO  OPENING  OF  COUNTRY.  525 


watched  like  prisoners.  In  regard  to  their  position,  Kaempfer 
writes  as  follows : 

“ In  this  servile  spirit  we  have  had  to  put  up  with  many  insulting 
restrictions  from  these  haughty  heathens.  We  dare  not  celebrate 
any  Sunday  or  feast-day,  we  dare  not  be  heard  in  hymn  or  prayer, 
nor  name  the  name  of  Christ,  nor  possess  any  representation  of  the 
cross  or  any  other  outward  mark  of  Christianity.  Moreover  we 
have  to  endure  many  other  insolent  assumptions,  against  which  a 
noble  heart  always  rebels.  The  single  reason  that  induces  the 
Dutch  to  endure  all  these  ills  so  patiently  is  merely  love  of  gain 
and  of  the  rich  marrow  of  the  Japanese  mountains.”  1 

Beginning  at  page  97  of  his  work  here  cited,  Kaempfer  gives  a 
detailed  description  of  the  way  in  which  this  trade  in  Nagasaki 
was  regulated,  down  to  the  smallest  minutiae,  and  controlled  by  a 
crowd  of  officials.  Direct  expenditures  did  not  depend  on  these 
rules,  but  presents  to  those  officials  and  to  the  court,  which  the 
Opperhoofd,  or  director  of  the  factory,  had  to  take  every  spring 
at  his  presentation  in  Yedo,  swallowed  up  a great  part  of  their 
profits,  which  were  considerable. 

“No  sooner  had  our  ships  reached  the  harbour  than  they  were 
taken  possession  of  by  the  Japanese  and  surrounded  by  police- 
boats  ; powder,  lead,  swords,  and  all  the  paraphernalia  of  the 
vessel  were  carried  ashore  and  guarded  until  its  departure.  Even 
the  heaviest  cannon  and  the  rudder  itself  had  to  be  taken  out  and 
brought  to  land  ; but  later  they  gave  this  up,  on  account  of  the 
great  and  unnecessary  labour  involved.  At  the  same  time,  im- 
mediately on  arrival  all  persons  on  board  were  carefully  scrutinized, 
according  to  a list  they  had  to  furnish,  and  the  name,  age,  and 
duties  of  each  were  written  down.  Those  who  went  to  the  island 
on  business  were  examined  with  great  exactness,  being  relieved  of 
their  swords  and  all  saleable  objects  by  the  Ottona  ;2  and  without 
permission  and  escort  from  the  Japanese  absolutely  no  one  dared 
approach  or  depart  from  the  ship,  which  usually  lay  at  anchor 
about  300  paces  from  the  island.  The  goods  we  brought  with  us 
were  taken  by  their  servants  to  our  own  warehouses  and  put  away 
under  their  seals.”  Nevertheless  Kaempfer  speaks  in  another  place 
of  a “ hitherto  perfectly  free  trade,”  which  was  not  “ remarkably  re- 
stricted” till  1672.  The  new  limitation  was  that  a specimen  of  every 
kind  of  imported  goods  had  to  be  taken  to  the  governor’s  house  to 
be  inspected  and  taxed  by  experts.  Then  the  merchants  came  and 
selected  what  they  needed.  If  the  Dutchmen  were  not  contented 
with  the  price  fixed  by  the  governor,  they  could  keep  the  goods. 

The  Chinese  enjoyed  much  greater  liberties.  They  were  allowed 
to  live  in  Nagasaki,  were  less  watched  and  hemmed  in  their  move- 
ments, required  no  director  of  trade,  and  did  not  have  to  send 

1 Kaempfer’s  “ Geschichte  von  Japan,”  vol.  ii.  p.  72. 

2 Ottona  means  in  old  writings  the  plenipotentiary,  a sort  of  police  com- 
missary. 


526 


TRADE  AND  COMMERCE. 


embassies  and  presents  to  the  court.  They  paid  no  taxes  either, 
but  were,  like  the  Dutch,  compelled  to  hand  over  their  goods  at  a 
price  fixed  by  the  “ Chamber  of  Commerce  of  the  Shogun.”  They 
brought  much  more  merchandize  than  the  Dutch  ; but  we  have  only 
estimates  of  its  total  value.  Up  to  the  year  1684  there  came, 
according  to  Thunberg,  200  Chinese  junks  annually  to  Nagasaki, 
each  with  a crew  of  50  men.  From  thence,  the  number  fell 
away  to  70  and  the  crews  to  30  men  apiece.  According  to  the 
same  source,  their  imports  had  a total  value  of  only  600,000  Taels 
(=  about  £180,000)  annually.  They  consisted  chiefly  in  raw 
silk  and  silken  cloths,  besides  sugar,  turpentine,  myrrh,  aloe-wood,1 
Baros  camphor,  ginseng,  and  other  drugs,  and  medical  books.  In 
addition  to  these  there  were  various  other  products  of  their  in- 
dustry, such  as  porcelain,  soap-stone,  goat-skins,  and  other  things, 
some  of  which  they  sold  to  the  Dutch.  In  this  list  the  reader  will 
perceive  that  part  of  the  drugs  came  from  tropical  Asia. 

In  the  first  period  of  the  Dutch  trade  with  Japan  (161 1-1641), 
i.e.  as  long  as  its  centre  was  the  factory  at  Hirado,  it  never 
suffered  any  considerable  falling  off,  either  in  the  number  of  ships 
that  arrived,  or  otherwise.  This  was  its  most  flourishing  and 
profitable  era,  despite  the  low  prices  of  many  imported  articles 
occasioned  by  competition.  The  total  value  of  exported  precious 
metals,  copper,  and  camphor,  the  most  profitable  articles  in  those 
thirty  years,  is  estimated  at  £1 5 ,000,000.  This  agrees  with  Thun- 
berg’s  figures,  who  places  the  yearly  export  trade  of  the  Dutch 
at  6,000,000  gulden  (£5 10,000).  Of  this,  4,000,000  fl.  (£590,000) 
are  for  silver  alone.  The  transition  year,  1641,  was  still  very 
favourable  to  the  Dutch  trade.  The  Dutch  sold  wares  worth  80 
tons  of  gold,  besides  exporting  1,400  chests  of  silver,  each  contain- 
ing 1 Pikul  (60  kg.). 

The  Dutch,  and  also  Kaempfer  and  others,  call  the  time  of  their 
monopoly  in  Nagasaki,  1641-1859,  the  second  period.  In  the 
early  part  of  it,  the  Dutch  could  still  regulate  prices,  and  made 
great  profits.  But  in  1672,  that  ceased  to  be  the  case,  as  has  been 
said.  Hence  Kaempfer,  with  much  discrimination,  says  in  refer- 
ence to  this  year  and  the  poor  ones  that  followed  : “ Our  golden 
fleece,  which  we  carried  off  annually  from  this  Colchis,  changed 
into  an  ordinary  skin.”  Nevertheless,  the  profit  on  imported 
wares,  after  deducting  all  costs,  was  still  40-45  per  cent.,  and  that 
on  the  copper  taken  in  exchange  was  just  as  great.  It  formerly 
amounted  to  90-95  per  cent.  The  annual  exportation  of  this 
metal,  which  for  a while  (1637-1646)  was  forbidden,  amounted  to 
20,000  to  25,000  Pikul  (24-30,000  cwt.). 

From  the  year  1640  forward,  coined  gold  was  again  allowed  to 
be  exported.  In  the  course  of  two  years,  100,000  pieces  of  Koban 

1 Aloe-wood,  Jap.  Kiyara,  named  after  a Sanskrit  word,  came  from  India  and 
Siam  ; the  Dutch  and  Portuguese  called  it  Calumbak  and  Kalambak.  It  is  the 
fragrant  wood  of  Aloexylon  A quilaria,  Roxb. 


FOREIGN  TRADE  UP  TO  OPENING  OF  COUNTRY.  527 


were  exported,  on  which  a profit  of  1, 000,000  fl.  was  realised.  In 
1671,  the  exportation  of  silver  was  prohibited,  but  that  did  not 
much  concern  the  Dutch,  as  it  brought  them  little  gain,  and  the 
exportation  of  copper  seemed  all  the  more  considerable.  In  fact 
it  rose  to  30,000  Pikul,  a height  that  it  has  never  reached  again.' 
In  1696,  it  was  limited  to  25,000  Pikul ; but,  as  Meijlan  states, 
they  managed  to  get  6-7,000  Pikul  more  by  bribery.  The 
greatest  part  of  this  copper  was  still  brought  to  India,  as  in  the 
time  of  the  Portuguese. 

The  trade  suffered  further  noteworthy  restrictions  from  the  year 
1700,  in  which  it  was  decreed  that  only  four  or  five  Dutch 
ships  should  come  to  Nagasaki  annually.  In  1714,  the  exporta- 
tion of  copper  was  reduced  to  1,500  Pikul,  and  in  1717  the  entire 
Dutch  trade  was  limited  to  two  ships.  In  1721  the  Japanese  fixed 
the  exportation  of  copper  at  10,000  Pikul,  but  reduced  it  again, 
in  1743,  to  5-6,000  Pikul.  In  this  year  it  was  also  decreed  that 
for  the  future  only  one  ship  should  come  to  Nagasaki  annually, 
though  in  1759  the  law  was  changed,  and  three  ships  annually 
were  allowed. 

According  to  a statement  of  the  Opperhoofd  of  the  year  1 760, 
the  total  yield  of  the  country  in  copper  amounted  to  36-40,000 
Pikul  (44,000  to  48,000  cwt.),  of  which  the  Netherlanders  ex- 
ported 11,000  Pikul,  the  Japanese  governors  and  officials  in 
Nagasaki  received  900  Pikul,  the  Chinese  15,000  Pikul,  and 
10,000  to  13,000  covered  the  domestic  demand.  This  increase  of 
exportation  to  11,000  Pikul,  however,  did  not  take  place  till  1820, 
after  a period  of  ten  years,  during  which  only  an  annual  expor- 
tation of  8,000  Pikul  had  been  allowed.  It  would  lead  us  too  far  to 
mention  here  all  the  other  vicissitudes  and  restrictions  which  the 
Dutch  trade  suffered  in  the  course  of  that  long  period,  or  to  mention 
the  figures  which  represent  its  total  value.  More  interesting,  per- 
haps, will  be,  in  conclusion,  a brief  glance  at  the  various  wares 
with  which  it  was  concerned. 

The  most  notable  import  and  export  articles  of  Japan,  during 
the  great  commercial  movement  in  the  first  decades  of  the  17th 
century  have  been  already  mentioned.  Thunberg’s  lists  refer  to  a 
much  later  period,  namely  the  last  decades  of  the  18th  century.1 
According  to  these,  the  Dutch  imported  to  Nagasaki,  raw  silk, 
silken  and  half-silken  fabrics,  cottons  and  wools,  cordovan,  raw 
sugar,  and  spices,  such  as  ginger,  pepper,  saffron,  cloves,  nutmegs, 
drugs,  especially  turpentine,  Baros  camphor,  musk,  benzoin-gum, 
storax,  myrrh,  catechu,  China-root,2  costus  Arabicus,3  licorice, 

1 “ Resa,”  etc.,  vol.  iii.  pp.  47,  48,  and  vol.  iv.  p.  106. 

2 China-root  ( Smilax  China,  L.),  the  oriental  small-pox,  or  sweat-root,  viz., 
the  rhizoma  of  a scrambling  under-shrub  which  also  grows  wild  in  Japan.  It 
was  brought  from  India,  and  is  also  called  Chinese  Sarsaparilla. 

3 This  is  the  root  of  a composite  from  India,  whose  botanical  name  is 
Aplotaxis  auriculata , D.C. 


TRADE  AND  COMMERCE. 


528 


amber,  calumbak,1  Lignum  colubrinum,2  gum  lac,  sapan-wood, 
saltpetre,  borax,  alum,  ivory,  narwhal  tusks  (of  Monodon  mono- 
ceros,  L.),  buffalo  horns,  ray-skin,  corals,  tortoise-shell,  glass,  glass- 
eyes,  files,  nails,  bar-iron,  lead,  tin,  quicksilver. 

The  silk  came  from  China,  Tonquin,  Siam,  Bengal  and  Persia  ; 
sapan-wood,  buffalo  horns,  and  ray-skins  (shark-skins),  stag  and 
buffalo  skins  were  brought  from  Siam  and  Cambodia ; pepper  and 
sugar  from  India  and  Persia ; most  of  the  spices  from  India  and 
the  Moluccas  ; Cordovan  or  Spanish  leather,  from  India  and  Persia  ; 
the  Baros  camphor  from  Sumatra. 

Besides  the  company’s  trade,  the  captain  and  crew  were  per- 
mitted to  exchange  saffron,  licorice-root,  rattan,  glass-eyes,  looking- 
glasses,  clocks,  tusks,  and  certain  other  articles.  And  through  the 
crew  various  rarities  came  into  the  land,  such  as  living  parrots, 
trained  monkeys,  shells,  etc. 

As  the  most  notable  export  articles,  Thunberg  mentions  copper 
and  camphor,  and  then,  secondarily,  lacquer-wares,  porcelain,  silk 
cloths,  rice,  sake  and  soy.  This  last  was  more  highly  prized  than 
the  Chinese.  It  was  carried  to  Batavia,  the  East  Indies  and 
Europe.  On  the  other  hand,  porcelain  (the  Tsubo  or  covered  jars 
are  here  mostly  meant)  was  in  Thunberg’s  opinion  far  behind  that 
of  China  in  beauty,  being  thick,  awkward  and  not  well-painted. 
The  shining  sticks  of  copper,  of  the  thickness  of  a finger,  were 
packed  in  chests,  each  holding  one  Pikul,  or  60  kg.  Each  ship 
carried  off  6-7,000  of  these  chests. 


4.  Japan  in  the  Commerce  of  the  World. 

The  commercial  monopoly  of  the  Dutch  had  gradually  lost  most 
of  its  former  significance  for  the  parties  concerned,  being  now  as 
much  out  of  date  as  was  the  governmental  system  of  the  Shoguns 
of  the  Tokugawa  house,  a dynasty  founded  on  terror.  It  only 
needed  an  energetic  impulse  from  without  to  put  an  end  to  both 
and  effect  a thorough  change  in  the  state  of  things.  The  United 
States  expedition  under  Commodore  Perry,  in  1854,  brought  this 
impulse.  It  was  the  yeast  which  set  the  educated  class  of  the 
Japanese  nation  fermenting  from  one  end  to  the  other  of  their  long 
string  of  islands — a fermentation  which  culminated  in  the  downfall 
of  the  Shdgunate  and  the  re-establishment  of  the  Mikado’s  power 
in  1868.  How  this  restoration  came  to  pass,  and  what  struggles 
and  rectifications  the  new  rule  had  to  experience  before  it  could  be 
considered  to  be  the  firm  basis  of  a new  era  ip  commercial  and 
social  life,  was  narrated  in  detail  in  pp.  339-382  of  vol.  i.  It  only 

1 Calumbak,  Columbac,  or  Columbak  is  said  to  be  a corruption  of  the  word 
Colombo.  The  name  was  given  to  the  aromatic  eagle-wood  ( Aquilaria 
Agallocha , Roxb. ; vide  note,  p.  526). 

2 Snake-wood  [SUychnos  colubrina , L.). 


JAPAN  IN  THE  COMMERCE  OF  THE  WORLD. 


529 


remains  to  recount  briefly  the  development  of  foreign  commerce 
that  has  taken  place  under  this  new  system. 

According  to  the  “Treaty  of  Kanagawa,”  which  Commodore 
Perry  concluded  with  the  government  of  the  Shogun,  March  31, 
1854,  in  the  name  of  the  United  States  of  America,  and  which 
was  put  in  force  the  following  spring,  the  ports  Shimoda  in  Idzu 
and  Hakodate  on  Yezo,  were  to  be  open  to  trade  with  North 
American  ships.  But  Shimoda  soon  proved  unsuitable,  and 
Hakodate  too  far  from  the  centre  of  national  life  to  serve  the 
chief  purpose  of  the  treaty,  so  that  Consul-General  Harris  insisted 
on  its  revision,  and  at  last  successfully. 

The  American  pioneers  were  soon  followed  by  the  Russians, 
French,  and  English,  and  in  i860  by  Prussians,  Dutch,  and  other 
nations.  They  secured  the  same  rights.  The  treaties  were  con- 
cluded with  the  government  of  the  Shogun  in  Yedo,  at  a time 
when  its  relation  to  the  Mikado  in  Kioto  was  not  clearly  known, 
but  in  1865  they  were  confirmed  by  him.  Their  principal  pro- 
visions are  as  follows  : — 

1.  Diplomatic  agents  of  the  governments  concerned  obtain  the 
right  to  dwell  in  Yedo,  are  under  the  protection  of  the  Shogun, 
and  may  travel  in  the  country  unmolested. 

2.  The  treaty-powers  may  also  establish  consulates  in  the  ports 
open  to  commerce. 

3.  Kanagawa  (Yokohama),  Nagasaki,  and  Hakodate  are  opened 
on  July  1st,  1859,  Niigata,  i860  ; Hiogo  (Kobe)  and  Osaka,  1863. 

4.  In  each  of  these  places  a fixed  territory  is  given  over  to 
foreigners,  upon  which  they  may  build,  after  paying  a regulation 
tax. 

5.  These  districts  remain  under  the  jurisdiction  of  their  own 
consular  officials. 

6.  They  enjoy  freedom  of  religion  and  trade ; the  latter,  how- 
ever, only  with  the  payment  of  a fixed  tariff  of  5 per  cent,  of  the 
value  of  exported  and  imported  goods. 

7.  The  foreigners  have  freedom  of  locomotion  within  a circle  of 
10  Ri  from  the  settlement,  but  must  have  special  permission 
(which  was  always  most  willingly  accorded  for  scientific  and 
sanitary  purposes)  to  cross  the  treaty-limits. 

Kanagawa,  after  which  the  treaties  were  named,  and  whose 
name  still  appears  in  English  consular  reports,  was  soon  exchanged 
for  Yokohama,  hard  by.  Here  the  deep,  spacious,  and  accessible 
bay,  with  its  good  anchorage,  offered  far  more  favourable  conditions 
for  shipping,  while  the  nearness  of  the  capital,  Tokio,  and  of  the 
principal  silk  and  tea  districts,  afford  greater  advantages  to  com- 
merce than  any  of  the  other  harbours.  Under  these  circumstances 
the  fishing  village  Yokohama  developed  rapidly  into  a large  city, 
numbering  now  about  80,000  inhabitants.  The  foreign  colony  at 
its  side,  a city  by  itself,  with  gas  and  all  other  European  comforts, 
contained  4,000  souls  in  1883,  including  2,681  Chinese,  with  180 

II.  M M 


53° 


TRADE  AND  COMMERCE. 


firms;  595  English,  with  55  firms;  253  North  Americans,  with 
27  firms;  160  Germans,  with  22  firms;  and  109  French,  with  15 
firms.  In  that  year  there  arrived  313  foreign  vessels,  with  556,024 
tons  of  cargo;  and  319  vessels  sailed  with  560,756  tons.  Since 
that  summer  the  German  mail  steamers  of  the  Bremen  Lloyd  have 
been  running,  in  addition  to  the  English,  French,  and  North 
American  mail  steamers,  which  have  long  been  in  regular  service 
with  Yokohama  from  Southampton,  Marseilles,  and  San  Francisco, 
contributing  largely  to  the  advancement  of  commerce  with  their 
respective  countries.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  in  the  case  of  the 
German  line  the  saying  of  the  well-known  Englishman,  Forster, 
may  prove  true  : “Trade  always  follows  the  flag.” 

The  business  of  Yokohama  has  increased  continuously,  if  not 


steadily. 

It  amounted  to  : — 

Vessels.  Tons. 

Exports.1 

Imports. 

1865. 

168 

74,088 

17,467,728  yen. 

5,443-594  yen. 

1875. 

330 

43S,6i3 

12,466,730  „ 

21,953,909  ,, 

1885. 

364 

495>772 

23,850,398  ,, 

18,630,379  „ 

From  Table  I.  it  is  seen  that  during  the  last  five  years  (1881  to 
1885)  the  foreign  commerce  in  the  four  treaty-ports  which  are 
there  taken  account  of  is  divided  as  follows,  in  per-centage : — ■ 

Yokohama.  Kobe-6saka.  Nagasaki.  Hakodate. 

Exports  69  per  cent  20  per  cent.  97  percent.  17  percent. 

Imports  67-5  „ 28-8  „ 3-4  „ 0-3  „ 

Yokohama  exports  almost  all  the  silk,  the  greater  part  of  the 
tea,  next  to  Kobe  the  most  copper,  a considerable  part  of  the 
fishery  products,  and  most  of  the  works  of  industrial  art. 

Kobe-Osaka.- — Ki6to  was  for  over  1050  years  the  heart  of 
Japan,  whence  proceeded  the  pulsations  of  national  life.  Osaka, 
however,  was  a great  antechamber,  at  least  for  the  material  side 
of  this  life.  The  establishment  by  the  Tokugawa  of  a second 
business  centre  in  Yedo  did  little  to  change  this  relation.  By  its 
central  position,  its  proximity  to  Kidto,  its  accessibility  by  land 
and  water,  Osaka  was  peculiarly  adapted  to  be  an  emporium  of  the 
domestic  trade  of  Japan.  Indeed  it  still  plays  this  part  to  a certain 
extent,  especially  in  the  rice  business,  although,  since  the  opening 
of  the  country,  the  overthrow  of  the  feudal  system,  and  the  re- 
moval of  the  imperial  residence  to  Tokio  (Yedo),  it  has  lost  con- 
siderably. Most  of  the  Toiyas,  or  wholesale  dealers,  often  with 
great  businesses  and  store-houses,  were  at  Osaka.  Here  each  Daimio 
had  his  Kura-yashiki,  or  official  business-house,  which  represented 
him  and  attended  to  his  business.  The  same  was  the  case  in  Kioto. 

1 The  large  sum  for  exports  in  1865,  in  connection  with  the  small  tonnage,  is 
explained  by  the  enormously  advanced  price  of  silk  at  that  time. 


JAPAN  IN  THE  COMMERCE  OF  THE  WORLD. 


53i 


With  business  proper  there  developed  a lively  money-business,  or 
banking.  Osaka  possessed  not  only  the  greatest  and  richest 
dealers  in  rice,  tea,  and  silk,  but  also  the  most  banking-houses. 
On  account  of  the  shallowness  of  its  harbour,  it  is  almost  as  ill- 
suited  for  direct  foreign  commerce  as  Tokio.  Just  as  Yokohama, 
with  its  excellent  harbour,  is  reached  from  Tdkio  by  one  hour’s 
railway  journey,  so  Kiota  and  Osaka  have  near  them  Kobe  (Hiogo) 
for  their  foreign  commerce  by  water  and  rail — a place  whose  foreign 
business  has  largely  increased. 

The  exchanges  of  Osaka  in  direct  trade  with  foreign  countries 
are  about  one-seventh  as  much  as  those  of  Kobe,  and  are  made 
mostly  in  native  and  Chinese  junks.  Kobe  is  the  foreign  settle- 
ment, a new  city,  close  to  Hiogo,  beautifully  situated  on  the 
Inland  Sea.  Its  harbour  is  commodious,  like  that  of  Yokohama, 
and  accessible  to  all  ships.  In  consular  reports  Hiogo,  the  older 
town,  is  always  named  in  its  stead ; not  so  in  the  yearly  reports 
of  the  Japanese  custom-house. 

The  trade  of  Kobe,  indeed,  is  far  behind  that  of  Yokohama, 
but  it  exceeds  by  more  than  threefold  that  of  Nagasaki,  and  will 
probably  increase  considerably  through  the  new  railway  connec- 
tions with  the  interior  via  Kioto.  Kobe  exports  most  of  the 
copper,  sUmach-tallow,  and  camphor,  as  well  as  rice.  In  its  ship- 
ments of  tea  it  comes  next  to  Yokohama.  Among  its  principal 
imports  are  gold  and  silver  bars  for  the  mint  in  Osaka,  besides 
cotton  and  woollen  goods,  sugar,  and  petroleum.  The  tax-reports 
for  the  commerce  of  Kobe-Osaka  for  each  of  the  last  nine  years 
show  a marked  deficiency  of  exports  as  compared  with  imports, 
since  the  latter  always  far  exceeded  the  former  in  value.  Accord- 
ingly, during  the  last  five  years,  28'8  per  cent,  of  Japan’s  total 
imports  came  through  Kobe-Osaka,  while  only  20  per  cent,  of  its 
exports  were  shipped  thence. 

The  foreign  population  of  Kobe  was  composed,  in  1883,  of  610 
Chinese,  232  British  subjects,  48  Germans,  33  North  Americans, 
17  Portuguese,  14  French,  12  Dutch,  6 Scandinavians,  5 Danes, 
1 Swiss,  and  1 Austrian.  There  were  84  business  firms,  namely, 
33  Chinese,  30  British,  11  German,  9 American,  and  1 Portuguese. 

Nagasaki. — The  relation  between  imports  and  exports  of  this 
place  is  the  reverse  of  that  at  Kobe.  It  has  not  populous  cities 
behind  it  as  purchasers,  while  its  exports  have  increased  notably, 
owing  to  several  favourable  circumstances.  One  of  these  is  the 
greater  proximity  of  the  continent  of  Asia.  Another  is  the  regular 
steamer  service  with  Shanghai,  Fusan,  and  Wonsan  (Gensan)  in 
Corea,  and  Wladiwostok ; another  the  increasing  output  of  the 
neighbouring  coal-mines,  especially  those  of  Takashima.  Coal, 
dried  marine  animals,  rice,  camphor,  tea,  and  sumach-tallow,  are 
the  chief  articles  of  export ; while  tobacco  is  now  shipped  in  greater 
quantities  via  Yokohama  and  Kobe. 

As  in  the  other  treaty-ports,  the  clean  and  spacious  European 


532 


TRADE  AND  COMMERCE. 


quarter  lies  along  the  harbour,  while  the  Chinese  live  in  the 
back-ground.  In  1883  there  were  altogether  892  foreigners,  of 
whom  642  were  Chinese,  95  British  subjects,  42  North  Americans, 
34  French,  19  Austrians,  17  Germans,  and  41  persons  of  other 
nationalities.  There  were  19  Chinese  business  firms,  7 British, 
4 German,  3 American,  2 French,  1 Austrian,  but  no  Dutch. 

Hakodate. — The  foreign  trade  of  this  well-known  port  on  the 
island  of  Yezo  has  not  acquired  large  dimensions.  The  direct 
importation  of  foreign  wares  is  especially  small,  as  is  seen  in 
Table  I.  The  exportation  there  given  according  to  value  embraces 
principally  algae  and  various  marine  animals,  besides  wood,  sulphur, 
deer-skins  and  antlers.  The  marine  products  go  mostly  to  China, 
likewise  the  wood  ; the  others  to  North  America  and  England.  The 
foreign  trade  of  Hakodate  was  carried  on  in  1883  by  two  English 
firms  and  one  Danish.  Among  its  93  foreigners  were  39  Chinese, 
15  English,  8 Americans,  8 Frenchmen,  2 Danes,  and  1 German. 

The  commerce  between  Hakodate  and  several  smaller  ports  on 
the  island  of  Yezo,  with  Hondo  and  other  Japanese  islands,  is 
much  more  important.  According  to  the  English  consular  report 
of  the  year  1883,  the  two  government  districts,  Hakodate  and 
Sapporo  (there  are  no  returns  for  Nemuro,  the  third),  in  1882 
exported  products  worth  5,072,635  yen,  and  imported  others  worth 
7, 918,936  yen.  Among  the  exports  we  find  1,735,853  yen-worth 
of  fish,  especially  salmon  and  herring,  besides  algae  and  inferior 
marine  animals,  and  2,588,483  yen  worth  of  fish-guano,  i.e.  more 
than  half  the  total  exportation  of  Yezo.  The  principal  articles  of 
import  are  rice,  sake,  and  cotton  goods. 

Niigata,  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Echigo,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Shinano-gawa,  shortly  before  its  union  with  the  Japan  Sea, 
has  been  already  described  in  vol.  i.  p.  502,  as  a treaty-port  that 
has  by  no  means  met  the  expectations  of  foreigners.  The  bar 
before  the  river  mouth  is  covered  at  low  tide  by  only  two  meters 
of  water.  Moreover,  the  coast  forms  an  open  roadstead  without 
protection  from  the  heavy  northerly  winds  in  the  long  winter.  At 
that  season,  therefore,  navigation  comes  for  the  most  part  to  a 
standstill.  The  chief  exports  are  rice  and  tea  ; the  direct  imports 
are  scarcely  worth  mentioning,  since  the  few  foreign  merchants, 
like  the  natives,  supply  their  needs  through  business  friends  at 
Yokohama.  For  these  reasons  the  port  of  Niigata  is  no  longer 
mentioned  in  commercial  reports  from  Japan.  It  finds  no  place, 
therefore,  in  the  business  statistics  given  as  a supplement  to  this 
chapter. 

Figures  demonstrate.  I took  them  partly  from  the  publications 
of  the  Japanese  customs  department,  partly  from  the  English  con- 
sular reports,  and  arranged  them  in  the  different  tables,  so  that 
a comprehensive  picture  of  the  total  foreign  commerce  of  Japan 
could  be  obtained.  These  statistics  are  made  in  yen,  the  cus- 
tomary coin  of  the  realm,  and  embrace  : — 


JAPAN  IN  THE  COMMERCE  OF  THE  WORLD. 


533 


I.  Value  of  exports  and  imports  of  Japan  from  1868-1885 
through  the  several  treaty  ports. 

II.  Foreign  commerce  of  Japan  during  the  last  five  years,  ar- 
ranged by  countries. 

III.  Survey  of  the  principal  articles  of  export  since  1868,  ac- 
cording to  groups  and  value. 

IV.  Principal  articles  of  export  with  their  values  during  the 
years  1881-1885. 

V.  Review  of  exportation  in  1885,  according  to  articles,  coun- 
tries, and  value. 

VI.  Comparative  table  of  the  importation  and  exportation  of 
gold  and  silver  in  coins  and  bars. 

VII.  Review  of  the  principal  articles  of  import  since  1868,  and 
of  their  value. 

VIII.  Importation  of  prominent  articles  in  1885,  according  to 
countries  and  value. 

Trade  reports  during  the  transition  period  from  the  conclusion 
of  the  first  treaties  till  1868  are  incomplete,  and  had  to  be  left  out. 
Those  of  the  first  five  years  Meiji  {1868-1872)  are  inaccurate.  But 
that  is  not  to  say  that  the  later  customs  registers  agree  every- 
where. In  general  there  is  a notable  increase  of  exportation  and 
importation,  though  without  steadiness,  which  was  not  to  be  ex- 
pected, since  the  same  general  causes  here  as  elsewhere  caused 
great  fluctuations  in  trade. 

Large  purchases,  whatever  their  causes,  always  occasion  an 
unnatural  swelling  of  the  import  figures,  and  are  generally  soon 
followed  by  a reaction,  just  as  extraordinary  advances  in  prices  for 
any  article  are  as  a rule  only  transitory.  War  and  preparations 
for  war  raise  the  price  of  war  materials  and  the  necessaries  of  life. 
Rich  harvests,  which  greatly  increase  exportation,  raise  the  import 
figures  for  clothing  stuff  and  other  comforts  and  necessities  of  life. 
All  these  phenomena  are  seen  in  the  commercial  statistics  of  Japan. 
But  as  the  consular  reports  dwell  upon  them  sufficiently,  I prefer 
to  emphasize  certain  other  points. 

Raw  silk  with  its  by-products  has  stood  far  in  advance  of  the 
other  articles  of  export  in  value,  ever  since  the  country  was  opened. 
It  is  likely,  moreover,  to  maintain  this  supremacy.  When  its 
exportation  began,  in  1859,  and  for  the  next  ten  years,  the  silk- 
worm disease  in  Europe  made  the  greatest  depredations  on  Euro- 
pean sericulture,  so  that  the  demand  for  oriental  silk  advanced 
enormously,  and  consequently  the  price  also.  A further  increase  of 
price  was  occasioned  by  the  high  cost  of  cotton  during  the  Ameri- 
can civil  war.  On  account  of  both  these  causes  raw  silk  reached 
in  1865  more  than  double  its  price  in  1863  ; and  the  exportation  of 
silk  from  Yokohama  amounted  to  17,467,728  yen,  despite  a small 
falling  off  in  quantity,  whereas  in  1863  it  was  only  8,997,484  yen. 
Considerable  transient  advances  in  the  price  of  silk  have  occurred 
several  times  since,  as  in  the  spring  of  1876  and  1S79,  though  none 


534 


TRADE  AND  COMMERCE. 


to  equal  those  earlier  rises.  The  raw  silk  is  exported  in  bales  of 
80  Catties  or  four-fifths  Pikul  (about  ioo  English  pounds).  The 
largest  quantity,  56,432  Pikul,  was  shipped  in  1883 — but  in  this 
figure  the  refuse  is  included.  In  1882  the  shipments  of  all  the 
products  of  silk  culture  reached  the  largest  sum,  19,146,223  yen. 
The  highest  price  for  the  best  Mayebashi  silk  was  paid  in  1868-69, 
when  the  Pikul  was  worth  900-1070  yen.  Since  then  prices  have 
much  sunk  ; and  yet  increased  production  has  sufficed  to  cover  not 
only  this  fall  in  price,  but  also  the  decrease  in  sales  of  silkworm 
eggs.  The  products  of  silk-culture  were  4571  percent,  of  the  total 
exports  in  the  last  five  years,  as  opposed  to  4646  per  cent,  in  the 
period  1871-1875,  although  then  9x33  per  cent,  stood  for  silkworm 
eggs.  This  branch  of  the  business,  which  in  1868  reached  a value 
for  exports  of  3,700,00x3  yen,  is  now  nearly  extinct. 

Some  information  as  to  tea,  the  second  export  article,  which 
reached  its  highest  value  in  1874,  is  to  be  found  in  the  map  at  the 
end  of  this  book.  The  exportation  of  coal,  given  in  Table  III  A, 
embraces  also  the  supplies  to  foreign  ships.  The  exportation  of 
rice  is,  of  course,  subject  to  great  fluctuations.  Considerable 
advance  is  shown  in  the  exportation  of  industrial  art  products. 
Under  this  title  all  art  products  are  not  included,  but  only  lacquer- 
wares,  clay-wares,  wall-screens,  fans,  bamboo-wares,  bronze,  and 
enamelled  articles. 

Especially  interesting  is  the  exportation  of  mushrooms  and 
marine  products,  7^82  per  cent,  of  the  total  export  of  objects  that 
go  almost  exclusively  to  China,  forming  nowhere  else  such  a con- 
siderable factor  in  trade.  Moreover,  this  line  of  exports  is  con- 
tinually increasing.  The  following  may  serve  as  supplementary 
matter  to  what  has  been  already  said  on  pp.  77-82,  and  pp.  109,  no 
and  532 

Under  the  term  Kai-san-rui,  i.e.  marine  products,  the  Japanese 
customs-register  embraces  algae  and  marine  animals.  The  ship- 
ments of  Kanten — according  to  Table  IV.  averaging  about  300,000 
yen  annually — take  place  mostly  from  Kobe  and  Osaka  ; those  of 
dried  algae  largely  from  Hakodate.  The  cold  waters  of  the  coast 
of  Yezo  are  the  home  of  the  kelp-weeds,  so  much  in  request  with 
the  Chinese,  and  among  which  Konbu  (pronounced  Kombu),  the 
sweet  tangle  (. Laminaria  saccharina),  ranks  highest.  It  is  shipped 
in  two  forms — as  Ha-kombu  in  whole  leaves,  and  as  Kisami-kombu 
or  cut  Kombu.  The  average  export  from  Hakodate  to  China 
during  the  last  five  years  amounted  to  375,401  yen  of  Ha-kombu 
and  26,193  yen  of  Kisami-kombu,  or  both  together  401,596  yen. 
Besides  this,  considerable  quantities  of  this  article  came  directly 
from  Yezo,  via  Yokohama,  Kobe,  and  Osaka,  to  the  Chinese.  The 
average  exportation  of  alga;  from  Japan  (not  including  Kanten) 
had  reached  lately  a value  of  546,396  yen. 

The  various  sea  animals  which  constitute  valuable  articles  of 
export  to  China  deserve  especial  mention.  The  English  consular 


JAPAN  IN  THE  COMMERCE  OF  THE  WORLD. 


535 


reports  frequently  include  them  all  under  the  title  “ dried  fish.” 
Following  their  order  in  the  Japanese  customs-register,  where  they 
are  usually  designated  with  the  epithet  Hoshi,  “dried,”  we  find 
first : — 

(a)  Iriko,  Trepang,1  sea-cucumber,  sea-slug.  Beche  de  Mer  ( Holo - 
thuria  edulis ).  English  consular  reports  mention  this  article  either 
by  its  Japanese  or  French  name.  Iriko  is  found  on  all  Japanese 
coasts.  The  value  of  the  yearly  exportation  during  the  last  five 
years  averaged  216,973  yen. 

(b)  Surume  ( Onychoteuthis  Banksii).  All  cephalopods  which 
are  used  in  Japan  and  China  for  food  are  embraced  in  trade  lists 
under  the  name  ink-fish,  Jap.  Ika,  and  cuttlefish,  Jap.  Tako  ( Octo- 
pus).  Surume  heads  the  list  in  Japan  ; Ika-surume  ( Ommastrephes ), 
Tako,  Shi-dako  ( Eledone ),  and  Tachi-ika  ( Loligo  and  Loligopsis) 
are  much  used.  Most  of  these  creatures  move  about  in  shoals, 
coming  and  going  often  with  arrow-like  rapidity,  and  in  some  years 
appearing  frequently  on  certain  coasts,  in  others  only  in  small 
numbers,  changing  their  course,  like  other  wandering  marine 
animals.  The  average  value  of  the  shipments  of  these  cephalo- 
pods from  all  Japanese  ports  during  £881-1885  was  705,110  yen. 
Besides  these,  quantities  are  eaten  in  the  country  itself. 

(c)  Hoshi- Awabi,  dried  mussel  of  the  ear-shell  (Haliotis  gigantea 
and  H.  japonica).  The  annual  value  of  exports  of  these  the  most 
important  Japanese  mussels,  amounts  to  378,000  yen.  To  this  must 
be  added  shells  that  bear  mother  of  pearl,  with  a value  of  18,000 
to  20,000  yen.  By  far  the  greatest  amount  of  Hoshi- Awabi  is 
shipped  from  Yokohama.  All  other  mussels  that  are  exported  are 
usually  embraced  in  the  term  Hoshi-gai-rui,  dried  mussels.  To 
these  belong  Hamaguri  ( Cytherea  meretrix , Lin.,  C.  lusoria,  Chann.), 
Kaibashi-rui  (species  of  arks),  Aka-gai  ( Scapharca  inflate/, , Reeve), 
and  many  others. 

(d)  Hoshi-ebi,  dried  crabs.  The  English  consular  reports 
mention  this  article  by  the  name  of  shrimps  (Jap.  Shiba-ebi)  ; but 
there  are  many  varieties.  The  amount  exported  annually  is  con- 
siderable (see  Table  IV.). 

( e ) Fuka-no-hire,  shark’s-fins,  a well-known  delicacy  of  the 
Chinese.  The  mean  value  of  the  annual  exportation  of  1881-1885 
was  57,107  yen. 

(fl)  Shiwo-shake,  salted  salmon,  chiefly  from  Yezo,  where  the 
Shake  ( Oncorhynchus  Haberi , Hlgd.)  and  the  Masu  ( 0 . Perryi, 
Brevoort)  occur  in  great  numbers,  especially  in  the  lower  Ishi- 
kari. 

1 The  edible  Holothuria,  known  by  the  Chinese  name  Trepang,  are  also 
gathered  on  the  shores  of  the  Malay  Archipelago,  and  of  many  South  Sea 
Islands,  where  they  lie  apparently  motionless  on  sandy  ground.  Out  of  water, 
they  die  immediately  and  become  a slimy  mass.  They  must  therefore  be  cut 
up  at  once,  the  digestive  canal  being  taken  out,  and  then  they  are  dipped  in  boil- 
ing water  and  dried  in  the  air. 


536 


TRADE  AND  COMMERCE. 


( g ) Shiwo-tara,  salted  haddock  ( Gadiis  Brandtii , Hilgdf.)  from 
Yezo. 

Numberless  varieties  of  the  herring  family  furnish  fish-oil,  Gioto 
or  Uwo-no-abura,  of  which  for  about  146,000  yen  goes  annually 
to  foreign  countries,  and  the  highly  prized  fish-guano,  Jap.  Ko- 
washi,  also  called  Shime-kasu,  i.e.  pressed  refuse. 

The  outward  trade  of  Japan  is  for  the  most  part  in  foreign  hands. 
Of  its  total  exchanges  in  1885,  with  a value,  in  round  numbers,  of 
6 4I  million  yen,  only  574  million,  i.e.  about  one-eleventh,  passed 
through  Japanese  houses,  and  this  small  fraction  refers  almost 
wholly  to  the  trade  with  China  and  Corea. 

In  steamer  communication  with  Japan,  as  in  shipping  generally, 
England  stands  far  ahead  of  all  other  countries.  It  is  followed  by 
France,  Germany,  and  the  United  States. 

As  may  be  seen  from  Table  II.,  the  United  States,  France,  and 
China  consume  more  of  the  chief  export  articles  than  the  British 
Empire.  Germany  ranks  only  sixth,  but  in  importation  has  lately 
passed  France  and  reached  the  fifth  place.  Table  V.  furnishes  a 
view  of  the  division  of  the  chief  export  articles  according  to  coun- 
tries. The  value  of  the  foremost  purchaser  of  each  article  is  printed 
in  italics.  The  same  has  been  done  concerning  importation,  as  re- 
presented in  Table  VIII.  The  lion’s  share  here  falls  to  England. 
Together  with  India  (Bombay)  it  furnishes  in  the  first  instance  the 
vast  quantity  of  cotton  yarn  which  Japan  takes  for  weaving,  as  well 
as  cotton  fabrics  themselves.  It  also  far  precedes  all  other 
countries  in  woollen  cloths  and  blankets,  and  half- wool  Italian  cloth. 
Its  competitor  in  woollen  stuffs,  Germany,  furnishes  the  most 
flannel  and  half-silk  stuffs.  One  of  the  favourite  woollen  articles, 
for  women’s  chemises,  is  cochineal-red  muslin.  France  sends  most 
of  this,  from  Rouen.  Germany  follows  as  a good  second.  Metal 
importation  is  mostly  from  England.  China  provides  sugar,  from 
Canton,  Swatau,  Amoy,  and  Formosa.  Petroleum  comes  from 
North  America.  After  insufficient  harvests,  India  and  Siam 
supply  most  of  the  demand  for  rice  ; and  great  part  of  the  tortoise- 
shell is  sent  by  them,  via  Singapore.  That  the  United  States 
furnish  the  most  leather,  France  the  most  wine,  Belgium  the  most 
glass  and  glass-ware,  Switzerland  the  largest  number  of  watches, 
Italy  the  coral,  is  likewise  to  be  seen  from  Table  VIII.  Of  drugs 
and  dye-stuffs  England  furnishes  more  than  China  and  Germany, 
although  the  latter  ships  aniline  dyes  of  the  value  of  93,000  yen  to 
Japan.  Spain  is  first  in  quicksilver  and  saffron  ; Australia  sends 
the  wool  which  has  been  worked  up  since  October,  1879,  when  the 
first  cloth  manufactory  was  established.  It  is  situated  at  Senju 
near  Tokio,  haviag  been  set  up  by  the  Hartmann  machine  factory 
of  Chemnitz  at  the  instance  of  the  government.  It  is  under 
German  management. 

When  Japan  was  opened  to  foreign  commerce,  people  in  Christ- 
ian, industrial  and  commercial  states  indulged  in  golden  ex- 


JAPAN  IN  THE  COMMERCE  OF  THE  WORLD. 


53  7 


pectations  about  this  new  field.  They  hoped  that  the  efforts  of  the 
Japanese  to  appropriate  occidental  means  of  education,  intercourse, 
and  defence  would  soon  extend  to  their  manner  of  life,  house- 
keeping, and  clothing.  In  this  confidence  they  ventured  upon 
daring  speculations,  without  remembering  that  the  multitude 
possessed  neither  inclination  nor  means  to  forsake  their  old  cus- 
toms. Side  by  side  with  highly  respectable  houses,  in  the  treaty 
ports,  many  persons  without  resources  or  experience,  or  with 
elastic  consciences,  established  themselves.  As  agents,  they  received, 
held,  and  stored  all  sorts  of  European  and  American  manufactures 
on  commission,  with  very  little  prospect  of  speedy  sale.  The 
storage  charges  grew  to  be  enormous ; the  manufacturer  pressed 
them  to  sell ; and  consequently  the  goods  were  often  disposed  of 
at  public  auction,  with  scarcely  enough  profit  to  cover  their  cost. 
In  consequence  of  these  unsound  relations,  many  things,  such  as 
umbrellas,  hats,  and  flannels,  could  be  purchased  cheaper  from 
Japanese  shopkeepers  than  in  the  land  of  their  production.  And 
it  often  happened,  too,  that  the  worst  sort  of  goods  came  in  this 
way  into  Japan,  e.g.  wretched  shoes,  which  went  to  pieces  after 
being  worn  a few  times.  These  and  various  other  obstacles  long 
stood  in  the  way  of  a healthy  development  of  the  import  trade. 
And  to  exportation  also  there  were  many  hindrances. 

In  its  foreign  commerce  Japan  appears  like  a young  colony 
going  through  a rapid  transition  in  its  economics.  In  the  three 
decades  of  its  freer  development  it  has  conquered  many  extra- 
ordinary difficulties  in  a most  surprising  manner,  and  has  ex- 
hibited a vitality  that  is  astounding.  On  several  occasions  there 
was  cause  to  fear  political  and  economical  bankruptcy.  Instead  of 
this,  the  body  politic  has  grown  stronger  and  healthier,  and  the 
prospects  of  a flourishing  development  of  intellectual  and  material 
life  are  greater  than  ever  before.  The  financial  difficulties  culmi- 
nated at  the  time  of  the  Satsuma  rebellion  (1877),  when  the 
national  treasury  was  empty,  and  the  negative  exchanges  of  many 
years  had  caused  a dangerous  scarcity  of  cash.  The  government 
was  compelled  to  issue  a large  amount  of  paper  money,  or  Kin- 
satsu.  This,  in  consequence  of  its  incalculable  sudden  fluctuations, 
became  a universal  obstacle  to  trade.  Cash  had  become  so  scarce 
that,  for  example,  Enslie,  the  English  consul  at  Niigata,  expressed 
the  opinion,  in  his  report  for  October,  1878,  that  there  were  not 
twenty-five  gold  and  silver  yen  pieces  in  circulation  in  the  great 
Niigata-ken,  with  a population  of  1^  millions.1 

Kinsatsu  formerly  stood  at  par— -nay,  was  in  the  home  trade 
even  preferred  to  real  money.  Now  its  worth  sank  so  much  that 
one  had  to  allow  for  the  constant  fluctuation  of  a considerable  agio, 
which  occasionally  amounted  to  180  per  cent.  Not  until  of  late 

1 “ The  only  currency  used  here  is  paper  money,  gold  and  silver  are  never 
met  with  nowadays,  and  I think  I may  safely  say  that  there  are  not  twenty-five 
gold  and  silver  yen  in  circulation  throughout  the  whole  Ken.:> 


538 


TRADE  AND  COMMERCE , 


years  has  the  government  succeeded  in  raising  its  credit  again 
and  making  an  end  of  this  great  burden  to  commerce.  The  most 
successful  of  the  means  employed  lay  near  at  hand,  and  consisted 
in  putting  a stop  to  the  negative  balances.  The  government  had 
this  in  its  own  hands,  in  so  far  as  it  diminished  its  requirements, 
and  therewith  did  away  with  a considerable  part  of  the  importation 
necessary  to  meet  them. 

Those  who,  in  reports  from  Japan,  condemned  the  government 
for  endeavouring  to  prevent  the  excess  of  importation  over  ex- 
portation, and  pointed  to  England  and  other  European  countries, 
showed  ignorance  of  the  circumstances.  It  is  true  that  under- 
balances are  the  rule  in  England,  without  causing  disturbances 
and  apprehension.  But  in  her  case  the  balances  are  made  up  by 
immense  investments  of  capital  in  other  countries,  as  can  be  seen 
in  the  statistics  of  commerce.  For  a country  like  Japan,  on  the 
contrary,  where  this  is  not  the  case,  the  relation  of  imports  to 
exports  furnishes  the  best  measure  of  economic  prosperity. 
Negative  balances  must  here  be  covered  by  exportations  of  cash 
or  by  loans  ; and  if  they  continue  to  occur,  must  be  regarded  as  a 
sign  of  impoverishment  and  decreasing  productiveness. 

In  the  Table  I.  D,  the  under-balances  are  given  with  — , the 
positive  annual  balances  with  +.  It  is  to  be  observed  in  this  list 
that  in  the  eighteen  years  of  Meiji  (peace,  the  designation  of  the 
very  remarkable  reign  of  Tenn6  Mutsu  Hito)  the  sum  of  negative 
balances  was  87,719,877  yen,  but  of  positive  only  36,370,757  yen. 
Of  the  latter,  27,763,507  yen  fall  to  the  last  four  years.  To  these 
favourable  balances  since  1882  corresponds  the  balance  between 
the  importation  and  exportation  of  precious  metals,  as  given  in 
Table  VI.,  where  it  is  shown  that  in  the  same  period,  1882-1885, 
there  was  an  excess  of  7,822,545  yen  of  importation  over  ex- 
portation. It  consisted  chiefly  in  the  importation  of  silver  dollars, 
and  served  in  part  to  equalize  the  excess  of  exported  over  im- 
ported goods. 

The  foreign  trade  of  Japan  had  become  more  and  more  obstructed 
under  the  Tokugawa  Shdgunate,  so  that  the  country’s  resources 
could  not  be  symmetrically  and  vigorously  developed.  Since  the 
restoration  of  Mikado  rule,  the  country  has  become  astonishingly 
more  productive,  and  consequently  consumes  more,  although  the 
mining  of  gold  and  silver — formerly  the  principal  source  of 
business  with  foreign  lands — yields  but  light  returns.  In  the 
period  of  five  years  1871-1875  (see  Table  III.  B),  the  average 
annual  value  of  exports  was  18,577,056  yen.  Ten  years  later, 
in  the  same  interval,  between  1880  and  1886,  it  had  risen  to 
34,454,812  yen,  almost  double  what  it  was  before. 

Countries  which  export  one  article  almost  exclusively  are  placed 
in  a bad  position  when  this  fails  or  sinks  in  value,  as  has  been 
abundantly  proved  recently  by  Nevada  with  its  mining,  the  Canary 
Islands  with  their  cochineal-raising,  and  many  tropical  colonies 


JAPAN  IN  THE  COMMERCE  OF  THE  WORLD. 


539 


with  their  chief  product,  raw  sugar.  In  Japan,  the  products  of 
silk-culture  and  tea-raising  in  the  five  years  1871-1875  furnished 
not  less  than  77' 90  per  cent,  in  value,  that  is,  over  three-fourths  of 
the  total  exportation;  but  in  the  period  1881-1885,  despite  an 
absolute  increase,  only  64'66  per  cent.  This  proportionate  decrease, 
as  compared  with  the  almost  doubled  total,  falls  to  tea.  Japanese 
tea  has  only  one  purchaser,  so  that  it  would  be  altogether  market- 
less in  case  of  a change  in  the  American  taste.  The  decrease, 
from  3 1 ’44  per  cent,  to  i8-c>5  per  cent,  in  its  share  of  the  total  ex- 
portation, and  the  corresponding  increase  on  the  part  of  other 
articles,  are  therefore  favourable  signs. 

Further  increase  and  strengthening  of  Japan’s  exporting  capa- 
bility may  be  expected  from  the  improvement  of  waste  lands 
and  forests  by  good  farming  and  greater  transportation  facilities, 
as  well  as  from  the  continued  development  of  industrial  art  and 
branches  of  labour.  Many  obstacles  remain  yet  to  be  surmounted  ; 
but  a government  which  works  together  with  the  people  for  an 
acknowledged  end,  and  has  already  overcome  greater  difficulties, 
will  gain  its  purpose  here  also. 

During  recent  years  the  hope  has  often  been  expressed  in 
mercantile  circles  that  the  opening  of  new  ports  and  the  repeal 
of  existing  restraints  to  intercourse  would  bring  about  a new 
revival  of  the  foreign  trade  of  Japan  ; but  I do  not  at  all  agree  with 
this.  The  country  does  not  possess  an  unknown  background  with 
concealed  treasures,  for  raising  which  the  advent  of  foreign  mer- 
chants are  alone  necessary;  nor  a population  which  does  not  buy 
imported  articles  simply  because  of  its  distance  from  the  treaty 
ports.  Goods  go  easily  and  cheaply,  by  means  of  Japanese 
steamers,  to  all  ports,  and  from  them  to  the  interior,  wherever  they 
are  in  demand. 

As  was  pointed  out  in  vol.  i.,  the  question  of  completely 
opening  Japan  has  often  been  weighed  by  the  representatives  of 
foreign  powers  and  the  Mikado’s  government.  Political  and 
material  considerations  of  an  important  character  which  are  con- 
nected with  the  work  of  consular  jurisdiction  have  hitherto  stood 
in  the  way.  The  Japanese  government  demands,  first  of  all,  the 
abolition  of  this  system  and  the  subjection  of  foreigners  to  the 
laws  of  the  country.  Not  only  judiciousness,  but  also  its  dignity 
and  self-respect,  demand  that  this  point  be  insisted  upon ; and 
there  is  scarcely  any  doubt  but  that  this  view  will  be  universally 
recognised  and  admitted  in  the  approaching  revision  of  the 
treaties. 


STATISTICS. 


54: 


STATISTICS. 


I.  Value  of  the  Exports  and  Imports  of  Japan, 


Exports. 

| 

IM- 

Year. 

Yokohama. 

Kobe-Osaka. 

Nagasaki. 

Hakodate. 

Yokohama. 

Kobe-Osaka. 

Yen. 

Yen. 

Yen. 

Yen. 

Yen. 

Yen. 

1868 

17,698,406 

388,096 

1,988,190 

360,441 

12,397,149 

821,964 

2,087,052 

1869 

9,083,302 

815,674 

1,323,268 

263,401 

12,617,174 

23,428,965 

1870 

11,331,482 

2,399,567 

1,325,539 

86,658 

5,133,605 

1871 

14,431,486 

2,081,790 

5,678,224 

2,379,946 

29L583 

14,445,231 

1,739,342 

1872 

15,095,218 

2,742,786 

416,717 

20,063,125 

4,246,779 

1873 

15,335,249 

3,355,776 

2,002,815 

447,610 

278,874 

19,387,052 

6,263,129 

1874 

13,062,984 

3,621,889 

1,816,276 

16,390,822 

4,958,433 

1875 

12,466,654 

2,987,378 

2,117,487 

1,824,711 

395,997 

22,035,450 

5,870,307 

1876 

21,431,741 

3,492,305 

476,401 

18,537,643 

4,136,663 

1877 

15,628,337 

4,786,171 

2,054,925 

483,047 

20,754.757 

4,727,512 

1878 

15,226,592 

6,594,048 

2,398,503 

721,542 

692,524 

24,619,142 

6,448,624 

1879 

18,870,273 

5,801,594 

1,976,766 

23,226,010 

7,571,494 

1880 

18,573,577 

5,79L792 

2,298,467 

749,262 

25,940,356 

8,736,292 

1881 

21,135,376 

5,876,047 

2,381,605 

826,374 

21,291,958 

8,393,185 

1882 

26,659,807 

6,757,624 

3,313,390 

504,953 

20,1 19,061 

7,884,481 

1883 

25,685,064 

6,464,835 

3,106,767 

436,750 

18,844,810 

8,255,327 

8,841,126 

1884 

21,416,961 

7.325,491 

3,772,513 

378,913 

19.039,991 

1885 

23,850,398 

8,059,091 

3,496,261 

681,294 

18,630,379 

8,525,147 

II.  The  Foreign  Trade  of  Japan 


A.  Exports  to 


1881. 

1882. 

1883. 

1884. 

1885. 

Total. 

Average. 

Yen. 

Yen. 

Yen. 

Yen. 

Yen. 

Yen. 

Yen. 

United  States 

11,056,465 

14,253,292 

13,247,840 

13,107,233 

15,613,869 

67,278,339 

13,455,668 

France  . . 

8,332,562 

10,313,970 

9,7x3,222 

6,778,097 

6,735,912 

4L974,44l 

8,394,888 

China . . . 

5,558,483 

5,301,399 

5,482,936 

6,045,357 

7,655,469 

30,043,644, 

6,008,729 

England . . 

India  and 

3,5H,477 

4,981,546 

4,832,008 

3,801,731 

2,411,979 

19,541,741 

3,908,348 

Siam  . . 

122,971 

360,291 

410,263 

527,681 

482,084 

1,913,290 

382,658 

Germany 

177.407 

458,627 

245,765 

511,565 

463,933 

1,857,297 

371,459 

Australia.  . 

148,933 

160,333 

434,618 

245,185] 

65,740 

284,236 

L 273, 3°5 

254,661 

Italy  . . . 

403U38 

35U7I3 

140,558 

120,594 

1,081,743 

216,349 

Russia  . . 

73,835 

99,492 

169,226 

144,557 

246,292 

733,786 

146,757 

Corea . . . 

126,981 

64,085 

47,369 

174,452 

229,600 

640,397 

!2S,o97 

Austria  . . 

96,080 

121,049 

23,767 

76,129 

21,607 

338,632 

67,726 

Belgium  . . 

3,8o6 

793 

6,950 

3,362 

68,270 

83,lSl 

16,636 

Switzerland . 

729 

21,708 

1,914 

44,060 

68,411 

13,682 

Holland  . . 

5,837 

8,985 

3,434 

2,409 

42,526 

63,191 

12,638 

Other  Exports 

597,829 

738,513 

913,653 

1,532,932 

1,688,450 

5,471,377 

1,094,275 

Total  . . 

30,219,443 

37,235,776! 

35>693,523 

33,016,430 

36,108,886 

172,162,775 

34,472,555 

STATISTICS. 


543 


FROM  1868-1885,  AT  THE  SEPARATE  TREATY  PORTS. 


PORTS. 

Total  Value  of 

Difference  between 
Imports  and 
Exports. 

Nagasaki. 

Hakodate. 

Exports. 

Imports. 

Trade. 

Yen. 

Yen. 

Yen. 

Yen. 

Yen. 

Yen. 

1,774,998 

6,320 

*5,553,473 

10,693,072 

26,246,545 

+ 

4,860,401 

2,609,465 

4,324 

12,908,978 

20,783,633 

33,692,61 1 

— 

7,874,655 

2,499,857 

58,214 

14,543,01 3 

33,741,637 

48,284,650 

— 

19,198,625 

L545,432 

1 5,600 

17,968,609 

21,916,728 

39,885,337 

— 

3,948,119 

*,856,549 

24,988 

■ 17,026,647 

26,174,815 

43,201,462 

— 

9,148,168 

1,927,761 

32,247 

21,142,015 

27,617,264 

48,759,279 

— 

6,475,249 

1,550,063 

16,419 

18,780,079 

22,924,587 

41,704,666 

— 

4,144,508 

1,368,569 

37,762 

17,967,930 

29,332,447 

47,300,377 

— 

11,364,517 

782,444 

20,088 

27,225,157 

23,478,308 

50,703,465 

+ 

3,746,849 

1,565,838 

14,628 

22,976,416 

27,062,797 

50,039,213 

— 

4,086,381 

*,474,954 

*3,334 

25,524,571 

32,563,265 

58,087,836 

— 

7,039,294 

1,706,078 

4,187 

27,388,961 

32,508,369 

59,897,330 

— 

5,119,408 

i,277>396 

. 221,704 

27,413,160 

36,176,087 

63,589,247 

— 

8,762,926 

983,164 

128,273 

30,219,443 

30,797,470 

61,016,913 

— 

578,027 

1,156,782 

7,417 

37,235,776 

29,168,041 

66,403,817 

+ 

8,067,735 

867,617 

4,378 

35,693,523 

27,973,532 

63,667,055 

+ 

7,719,991 

855,742 

5,°°4 

33,016,430 

28,821,027 

61,837,457 

+ 

4,195,402 

1,139,324 

6,765 

36,108,886 

28,328,508 

64,437,394 

+ 

7,780,379 

DURING  THE  LAST  FIVE  YEARS. 


B.  Imports  from 


1881. 

1882. 

1883. 

1884. 

1885. 

Total.  I 

Average. 

Yen. 

Yen. 

Yen. 

Yen. 

Yen. 

Yen. 

Yen. 

England . . 

16,364,741 

13,956,049 

12,744,944 

12,729,853 

12,415,422 

5,763,050 

68,211,009 

13,642,202 

China . . . 

5,205,584 

6,350,381 

5,425,440 

6,517,742 

29,262,197 

5,852,439 

United  States 
India  and 

1,785,108 

3,106,758 

3,i87,H4 

2,466,279 

2,726,185 

13,271,444 

2,654,289 

Siam  . . 

2,209,158 

2,304,506 

1,461,085 

2,453,283 

2,342,427 

3,396,965 

12,706,339 

2,581,268 

France  . . 

3,191,050 

1,865,665 

1,564,480 

1,329,866 

1,665,653 

9,412,146 

1,882,429 

1,488,756 

Germany.  . 

857,731 

1,193,395 

1,416,510 

2,310,492 

7,443,781 

Switzerland . 

376,590 

321,981 

253,023 

287,772 

306,255 

1,545,621 

309,124 

Corea . . . 

225,325 

514,652 

189,281 

244,787 

239,515 

1,413,560 

282,712 

Belgium  . . 

389,588 

128,932 

268,913 

202,653 

317,683 

1,3P7,779 

261,554 

Italy  . . . 

176,933 

111,785 

155,405 

88,879 

95,998 

629,000 

125,800 

Australia.  . 

7L327 

74,302 

87,170 

25,589 

71,322 

329,710 

65,942 

Spain . . . 

*7,079 

1 8,063 

17,385 

17,705 

29,901 

100,133 

78,313 

20,027 

Denmark  . 

10,814 

13,408 

14,844 

15,961 

23,286 

15,663 

Holland  . . 
Other  coun- 

8,468 

12,415 

15,056 

17,397 

20,105 

73,441 

14,688 

tries  . . 

133,299 

114,981 

68,780 

233,898 

166,817 

717,775 

143,555 

Total . . 

31,022,795 

29,682,693 

28,162,813 

29,065,814 

28,568,023 

146,502, 1 38  29,340,448 

544 


STATISTICS. 


III.  a.  Summary  of  the  most  Important  Articles  of 


Year. 

Raw  Silk. 

Silk  Refuse 
of  all 
Kinds. 

Silkworms’ 

Eggs. 

Total  Silk 
Industry. 

Tea. 

Copper. 

Coals. 

Yen. 

Yen. 

Yen. 

Yen. 

Yen. 

Yen. 

Yen. 

1885 

13,033,872 

1,393,577 

33,331 

14,460,780 

6,815,295 

1,825,065 

1,386,799 

2,000,000 

1,828,264 

1884 

11,007,172 

16,183,550 

2,216,323 

40,708 

13,264,203 

5,794,159 

1883 

2,285,325 

55,287 

122,485 

18,524,162 

19,146,223 

6,074,312 

724,819 

1,373, 57°' 

1882 

16,232,148 

10,647,310 

2,791,590 

6,983,920 

827,181 

1,197,053 

1,084,345 

1881 

2,456,904 

311,140 

13,415,354 

7,020,859 

709,846 

1880 

8,606,866 

1,467,277 

991,021 

11,065,164 

7,497,922 

853,717 

1,085,537 

1879 

9.734,534 

1,411,856 

896,458 

582,623 

11,729,013 

9,436,005 

7,445,489 

508,842 

754,669 

1878 

7,889,446 

650,101 

4,248,173 

852,157 

833,516 

1877 

9,626,331 

423,107 

346,998 

10,396,506 

4,409,320 

828,111 

289,708 

717,819 

1876 

13,257,742 

Li”, 559 
563,264 

1,902,271 

16,271,372 

5,427,218 

6,915,692 

765,726 

i875 

5,424,916 

474,921 

6,463,101 

425,160 

87L795 

1874 

5,301,755 

318,560 

73L275 

6,351,590 

7,7  92,244 
4,398,7” 

559,397 

55L360 

489,278 

1873 

7,150,605 

362,438 

3,032,460 

10,545,503 

765,815 

1872 

7,227,287 

9n,856 

1,963,159 

9,152,302 

10,642,328 

5,445,438 

1,353,545 

324,000 

1871 

8,168,735 

288,905 

2,184,688 

4,651,292 

1,088,863 

416,630 

470,600 

1870 

4,929,800 

388,573 

3,473,150 

8,59L523 

6,687,717 

461,093 

144,860 

1869 

4,603,510 

65,077 

2,019,130 

2,019,130 

168,202 

79,610 

1868 

6,253,472 

407,590 

3,712,351 

10,373,413 

3,084,580 

28,226 

84,279 

III.  b.  (a.)  Totals, 

( b .)  Average  Value  and  (c.)  Percentage  of 
the  Five-year  Periods  1871-75  and  1881-85, 

a. 

1881—85 

67,104,052 

”,143,719 

573,521 

78,810,722 

32,688,545 

5,473,710 

7,483,232 

1871— 75 

33,323,298 

2,445,023 

8,386,503 

43,154,824 

29,203,1 77 

3,520,547 

2,7°7,°33 

1881—85 

13,420,810 

2,228,745 

489,005 

114,650 

15,762,144 

8,630,965 

6,537,709 

1,094,742 

1,496,646 

1871— 75 

6,664,659 

1,677,301 

5,840,635 

704,109 

541,407 

C*  1881—85 

38-91  % 

6-46  % 

0-33  % 

4571  % 

i8-95  % 

3-29  % 

4’34  % 

1871— 75 

35-88  % 

2-63  % 

9-03  % 

46-46  % 

31-44  % 

3-79  % 

2-91  % 

STATISTICS. 


545 


Export  since  1868 — according  to  Class  and  Value. 


Tobacco 

Vegetable 

Tallow. 

Camphor. 

Rice. 

Mush- 

rooms. 

Algae  and 
Kanten. 

Sea 

Animals. 

Objects  of  Art 
Industry. 

Yen. 

Yen. 

Yen. 

Yen. 

Yen. 

Yen. 

Yen. 

Yen. 

389,287 

371,878 

5 58,646 

766,759 

334,292 

998,507 

2,070,777 

1,706,680 

239.306 

136,633 

549,503 

2,169,942 

321,245 

672,518 

1,436,821 

1,769,044 

121,988 

39,089 

707,993 

1,000,941 

1,652,040 

337,797 

588,160 

1,556,323 

1,566,285 

76,217 

326,364 

869,126 

332,103 

74L389 

1,441,504 

607,529 

237,616 

301,148 

706,135 

261,735 

381,468 

1,172,899 

1,104,438 

1,358,186 

1,918,678 

204,168 

245,968 

596,628 

210,405 

340,700 

802,47s 

1,427,287 

141,653 

329,974 

455,289 

375,943 

245,581 

483,934 

1,194,650 

1,097,724 

106,538 

99,909 

390,044 

4,644,280 

194,506 

685,381 

1,062,695 

857,811 

470,317 

229,288 

164,977 

240,065 

2,260,936 

337,061 

64L336 

476,937 

83,496 

177,398 

182,477 

136,073 

810,760 

343,231 

977,699 

952,975 

328,811 

201,148 

259,687 

186,244 

215,642 

17,031 

222,700 

536,373 

683,007 

558,422 

119,812 

839,619 

226,937 

449,233 

903,773 

445,224 

274,529 

377,670 

71,026 

152,879 

521,709 

141,250 

727,472 

770,581 

608,782 

669,340 

347,542 

3,122,931 

82,030 

447,391 

625,778 

5 1 7,923 

269,359 

161,834 

138,575 

— 

149,544 

510,200 

332,215 

79,590 

94,112 

64,190 

228,889 

— 

185,123 

34L320 

405,027 

uncertain 

21,806 

98,402 

168,202 

— 

131,556 

426,176 

276,979 

183,941 

„ 

4L357 

308,468 

77,097 

116,017 

280,491 

” 

the  Export  of  above  Articles  on  the  Total  Export  of 
and  Calculated  from  above  Statements. 

1,064,414 

1,175,112 

3,39L403 

5,85L4i7 

1,706,905 

4,173,473 

7,609,863 

7,568,216 

2,574,063 

1,288,932 

618,365 

4,501,290 

832,461 

2,670,659 

3,315,354 

2,209,941 

212,883 

514,813 

235,022 

678,281 

1,170,283 

341,381 

834,695 

L52I,973 

1,513,643 

257,786 

123,673 

900,258 

164,492 

534,132 

663,071 

441,988 

0-62  % 

o-68  % 

l'97  % 

3'39  % 

o'99  % 

2'42  % 

4'4i  % 

4'39  % 

277  % 

1 '39  % 

o-6 7 % 

4'85  % 

0-89  % 

2-87% 

3*57  % 

2-38  % 

11. 


N N 


546 


STATISTICS. 


Chief  Articles  of  Export,  and  their  Value,  during  the 
Years  1881-85. 


Articles. 

1885. 

1884. 

1883. 

1882. 

1881. 

Yen. 

Yen. 

Yen. 

Yen. 

Yen. 

Silk 

14,427,449 

13,223,495 

18,468,875 

19,023,738 

13,104,214 

Silkworms’  Eggs  . . . 

33,331 

40,708 

55,287 

122,485 

311,140 

7,020,859 

Tea  . . 

6,815,295 

1,825,065 

5,794,159 

6,074,312 

6,983,902 

Copper  

L386,799 

724,819 

827,181 

t 709,846 

Antimony 

l83,2qo 

73,847 

140,245 

101,110 

48,842 

Sulphur 

137,932 

66,645 

119,765 

31,224 

65,931 

Sulphuric  Acid  . . . 

66,306 

65,969 

25,474 

40,359 

1 1 1,391 
1,084,345 

Coals' 

2,000,000 

1,828,264 

48,003 

1,373,57° 

1,197,053 

Wood 

86,483 

72,737 

195,396 

127,660 

Tobacco 

389,287 

239,306 

121,988 

39,089 

76,217 

237,616 

Vegetable  Tallow . . . 

371,878 

136,633 

326,364 

301,148 

Camphor 

558,646 

549, 5°3 

707,993 

869,126 

706,135 

Ginseng  

94,661 

66,318 

87,069 

94,909 

36,558 

Rice 

766,759 

2,169,942 

1,000,941 

1,652,040 

261,735 

6,097 

Wheat  and  Flour  . . . 

356,391 

246,245 

593,611 

54,576 

Mushrooms 

6sS§ 

321,245 

337,797 

332,103 

381,468 

Algae 

363,434 

345,755 

530,154 

839,852 

Kanten 

345,720 

309,084 

242,405 

211,235 

333,047 

Cuttle-fish 

903,742 

789,103 

802,986 

648,681 

381,037 

Molluscs 

387,731 

369,293 

300,578 

285,920 

235,523 

Trepang  

177,286 

x 50,048 

205,199 

271,883 

280,448 

Prawns 

73,967 

44,760 

39,124 

35,052 

15,951 

Fish 

84,633 

84,893 

59,49i 

48,865 

39,219 

50,184 

Shark’s-fins 

63,284 

70,052 

50,063 

51,972 

Fish  Oil 

99,667 

312,984 

153,782 

105,782 

58,354 

Skins  and  Furs  . . . 

220,142 

134,656 

48,676 

uncertain 

uncertain 

Rags 

243,077 

192,374 

40,682 

22,606 

6,089 

Cotton  Goods  .... 

176,814 

104,617 

61,910 

32,002 

30,458 

Silk  Goods 

54,547 

24,02 1 

22,727 

543,763 

68,560 

81,909 

Clay-wares 

695,269 

525,927 

578,636  : 

772,127 

525,382 

Lacquered  Goods  . . . 

467,521 

451,662 

519,720 

555,299 

156,854 

Fans 

107,945 

94,992 

89,060 

267,433 

Screens  

148,640 

143,496 

102,216 

87,463 

100,979 

Paper 

102,329 

130,372 

235,935 

1 73,329 

126,276 

Bronze 

125,535 

129,163 

78,352 

99,254 

87U57 

92,903 

Bamboo-wares  .... 

105,986 

126,816 

82,369 

1 80;  227 

1 Export  and  Supply  of  Foreign  Vessels  included. 

Summary  of  the  Exports  for  1885,  according  to  Goods,  Countries,  and  Value  in  Yen. 


STATISTICS. 


547 


Italy. 

S3 

> 

rv  O n O ON 

CO^O  10  1-0  co  On  co  cooo  ON  O 

1 MM  H ! 1 It  1 1 i 1 2-1  H 1 M 1 ■ *§ 

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ON 

O 

Corea. 

S3 

> 

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n a ro  °o 

8 

vO 

ON 

N 

Australia.  Russia. 

1 

£ 

CN.OO  NOO  M N NM  ON  0 NO  CO  loOO  VO  O N N CO 

O N NONN  OnOlo^  0 >-  W LONG  to  10  CO 

1 1 MS* ” 1 1 1 55  11  1 M 1 1 1 1 1 1 " 1 1 % 

00  O CO 

ON 

no' 

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> 

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Germany. 

6 

£ 

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India  and 
Siam. 

> 

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England. 

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'Sm 

On 

France. 

S3 

> 

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n 1^1  't  lJ'oo  ct  no  c>co0i^'0r^.'^‘0>r^ 

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China. 

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£ 

IN-  Ost^O  N On  On  On  W-n  V,  Tj-Pr.O°OV  S <5  (N.  O O' 

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United 

States. 

> 

S-  O 11  s NO  0 w ISM  rJ-NONO  On  O.  MOO  ON  °0  « O t~N 

5.  §£^£5  3 <2  S'  3 SoffSS;  «« 

a 1 II  II  ^ 1 1 i **  1 1 3*  1 «$  ll  SWRn  1 

*Q  N Is-  h mm  '=!• 

rC  no' 

°0 

Jn 

NO 

!? 

Goods. 

Total  value  . . . 

Raw  Silk  and  Silk  waste 
Silkworms’  eggs . . . 

Silk  goods  .... 
Cotton  goods.  . . . 
Paper  and  Leather-paper 

Tea 

Vegetable  Tallow  . . 

Camphor 

Ginseng  

Tobacco  

Rice ....... 

Wheat  and  Flour  . . 

Mushrooms  .... 

Kanten . . ... 

Algae  . . ... 

Fish.  . . ... 

Shark’s-fins  , . . 

Fish  oil  ... 

Cuttle  fish . ... 

Molluscs  ..... 

Trepang  

Copper 

Antimony 

Coals 

Sulphur 

Sulphuric  acid  . . . 

Bronze  

Clay-wares  .... 
Lacquered  goods  . . 

Bamboo-ware  . . . 

Fans 

Screens 

Wood 

Hides 

Other  Articles  . . . 

548 


STATISTICS. 


Comparative  Table  of  the  Import  and  Export  of  Gold 
and  Silver  in  Coin  and  Bars. 


Export. 

Import. 

Balance. 

Year. 

Gold. 

Silver. 

Total. 

Gold. 

Silver. 

Total. 

— - Export. 

+ Import. 

1872 

1873 

1874 

1875 

1876 

1877 

1878 

1879 

1880 

1881 

1882 

1883 

1884 

1885 

2,684,786 
2,614,055 
8,126,290 
10,603,345 
5,872,356 
6,221,777 
4,601,083 
4,749,635 
5,888,174 
2,246,889 
1,251,035 
1,009,570 
1,423,654 
• 492,636 

1,796,109 

2,508,872 

5,868,912 

4,060,626 

4,803,345 

3,219,494 

3,727,570 

8,029,229 

7,334,819 

5,243,658 

3,179,162 

2,146,995 

3,58i,4i8 

3,763,809 

4,480,896 

5,122,927 

13,995,202 

14,663,971 
10,675,701 
9,441,271 
8,328,653 
12,778,864 
13,222,993 
7,49°, 547 
4,430,198 

3,156,565 

5,005,072 

4,256,446 

2,013,907 

2,700 

26,515 

721,465 

162,281 

243 

731,666 

20,618 

150 

500 

559 

299,202 

608,813 

3,691,510 
1,066,635 
1,069,031 
271,807 
7,545,776 
2,01 1,218 
2,188,858 
2,403,138 
3,617,612 
1,855,997 
6,160,224 
5,450,942 
5,312,557 
6,938,028 

3,69U5lO 

3,080,542 

I,07U73I 

298,322 

8,267,241 

2,173,499 

2,189,101 

3,134,804 

3,638,230 

1,856,147 

6,160,724 

5,451,501 

5,6u,759 

7,546,841 

— 798,386 

— 2,042,386 

— 12,923,471 

— 14,365,649 

— 2,408,460 

— 7,267,772 

— 6,139,551 

— 9,644,060 

— 9,584,763 

— 5,634,401 

+ 1,730,527 
+ 2,294,935 
+ 606,687 

+ 3,290,396 

Total 

57,785,285 

59,264,018 

177,049,306 

4,588,619 

49,583,333 

54,171,952 

— 62,886,454 

Average 

4,127,520 

4,233,M4 

8,360,665 

327,758 

3,541,667 

3,869,425 

— 4,491,890 

Summary  of  the  most  Important  Articles  of  Import  since  i868, 

AND  THEIR  VALUE  IN  YEN. 


Year. 

Cotton 
Yarn  and 
Stuffs. 

Half- 

Woollen 

Goods. 

Woollen 

Goods. 

Metals. 

Arms 

and 

Ammuni- 

tion. 

Petro- 

leum. 

Sugar. 

Various 

European 

and 

American 

Goods. 

Various 

Asiatic 

Goods. 

Yen. 

Yen. 

Yen. 

Yen. 

Yen. 

Yen. 

Yen. 

Yen. 

Yen. 

1868 

1869 

1870 

1871 

1872 

1873 

1874 

1875 

1876 
18  77 

1878 

1879 

1880 

1881 

1882 

1883 

1884 

1885 

4,722,583 

5,25L324 

7,274,453 

8,011,478 

10,065,155 

9,793,488 

9,108,750 

8,974,037 

9,052,708 

8,353,675 

12,739,219 

12,111,886 

13,443,808 

12,511,287 

10,852,742 

9,037,504 

8,200,745 

8,881,706 

1,237,166 
2,425,867 
1,730,525 
2,026,532 
840,561 
1,302,923 
1,156,906 
1,307,478 
1,881,770 
1,237,921 
r, ox  1,225 
1,086,480 
534,3 11 
954,536 

2,610,838 

2,010,553 

1,995,364 

2.056.789 
6,335,014 
4,879,140 
1,588,896 
3,846,636 
3,444,494 
4,071,155 
4,636,752 
4,172,513 

4,212,377 

3.344.790 
1,838,588 
2,478,306 
2,966,706 
2,023,612 

693,780 

632,255 

320,681 

536,291 

416,642 

451,202 

1,131,185 

1,043,382 

948,652 

1,620,712 

1,888,006 

1,644,307 

2,153,872 

2,042,424 

1,949,903 

2,033,263 

2,054,689 

2,628,449 

2,730,651 
1, 857, -635 
206,908 
293,120 
83,617 
577,645 
20,885 
44,576 
51,959 
461,729 
296,878 
45,494 
I9L378 
50,659 
178,660 
97,020 

201,749 

357,444 

89,694 

323,374 

292,646 

590,032 

455,792 

602,725 

1,856,881 

2,185,223 

1,400,378 

978,933 

2,330,905 

2,456,261 

1,773,361 

1,667,722 

345,267 

1,597,944 

2,482,293 

3,308,549 

2,266,880 

2,108,855 

2,579,406 

3,482,588 

2,743,820 

2,872,148 

3,o73,242i 

3,422,051 

3,619,001 

3,816,807 

4,529,639 

4,381,303 

5,953,466 

4,654,168 

1,491,045 

1,776,690 

3,231,007 

2,398,433 

1,600,233 

5,332,115 

3,642,626 

4,44U537 

4,021,959 

4,698,436 

6,144,012 

5,958,610 

3,787,162 

4,900,291 

6,146,332 

4,803,271 

5,330,o67| 

2,75  L476 
5,828,485 
2,083,460 

312,415 

1,026,666 

574,226 

!i,i55,656 

I 999,903 
; 947,953 
| 846,722 
| 759,049 
1,400,296 
5,638,017 
1,764,700 
954,248 
1,764,700  ; 
971,587 
> 

VIII.  Imports  of  the  most  important  goods,  according  to  Countries  and  value  in  Yen, 

DURING  THE  YEAR  1885. 


STATISTICS. 


549 


All  other 
Countries 

co  n m rj-  00  0 oi  n w 00  ' *■*  in  m coo  O 01 

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Corea. 

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CO 

N 

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Switzer- 

land. 

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t 

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Belgium 

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In 

France. 

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Raw  Cotton 

Cotton  Yarn 

Shirting 

Other  Cotton  Goods  . . . 

Italian  Cloth 

Woollen  Cloth 

Muslin 

Flannel 

Woollen  Blankets  . . . . 
Half-silk  Fabrics  .... 
Articles  of  Clothing  . . . 

Sugar  

Rice 

Wine 

Beer 

Other  Provisions  .... 

Iron 

Steel 

Other  Metals 

Arms  and  Ammunition  . . 

Instruments 

Machines 

Clocks 

Watches 

Books  and  Writing  Material 
Glass  and  Glass  Goods  . . 

Leather 

Tortoise-shell  and  Coral  . . 

Drugs 

Dye  Stuffs 

Petroleum 

Other  Imports 

Total  Import ..;... 

Percentage  of  Total  Import . 

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•-;-1 

I.— ENGLISH  AND  LATIN  INDEX. 


Abies  Alcockiana,  235. 
bicolor,  235. 
firma,  214,  235. 
Jesoensis,  236. 
Menziesii,  236. 
polita,  235. 

Tsuga,  214. 

Veitchii,  235. 
Abietinese,  235-238. 
Acanthopax  ricinifolia,  248. 
Acclimatisation,  274. 

Acer  crattegifolium,  285. 
japonicum,  252. 
palmatum,  251. 
polymorphum,  45,  272. 
Acerineae,  251. 

Aconitum  Fischeri,  135. 
Actinidia,  257. 

arguta,  92,  258. 
polygama,  92,  258. 
volubilis,  217,  258,  336. 
Actinodaphne  lancifolia,  245. 
iErugo  nobilis,  441. 

Aisculus  turbinata,  179,  218, 
252,  285. 

Agalmatolith,  426. 
Agar-Agar,  81,  109. 
Agaricus,  78. 

Agate,  314. 

Ailanthus  glandulifera,  254. 

glandulosa,  160. 

Akebia  lobata,  91. 

quinata,  91. 

Alaria  esculenta,  81. 

Albizzia  Julibrissin,  250. 
Alder,  239,  335. 

Aleurites  cordata,  156,  244. 
Algae,  77,  80-82. 

9. 


Alimenta  composita,  94. 

Allium  ascalonicum,  77. 
cepa,  76. 
porrum;  77. 
sativum,  76. 

Almandin,  425. 

Alnus  firma,  336. 
incana,  336. 
japonica,  239. 
maritima,  239. 


Alocasia  macrorrhiza,  67. 

Aloe  wood,  526. 

Aloexylon  aquilaria,  526. 

Alum,  312. 

Amaksa  stone,  312,  473, 
474,  485- 

Amethyst,  425. 

Amygdalus  Persica,  85, 
265. 

Anacardiaceae,  251. 

Analyses  of  : Ame,  105  ; 
bronze,  450,  451  ; 

coals,  309  ; lac,  347  ; 
Mirin,  102 ; Miso,  107 ; 
oil  seeds,  157,  162; 
pulse,  63 ; raw  ma- 
terials of  the  porce- 
lain industry,  484- 
488  ; Sake,  102  ; 
Shochu,  102 ; Shoyu 
(soy),  105  ; tea,  130. 

Angel,  446. 

Angelica  anomala,  135. 
refracta,  135. 

Animals,  fabulous,  323. 
of  good  fortune,  423. 

Anise,  72. 

Annuali,  192. 

Antherea  Yama-mai,  205, 
206,  209. 

Anthistiria  arguens,  272. 

Antimonite,  305. 
grey,  305. 

Antimony,  305. 

Anvil,  427. 

Ape,  the,  185. 

Aphananthe  aspera,  243, 
297- 

Aphis  chinense,  180. 

Apios  Fortunei,  64. 

Apiurn  graveolens,  72. 

Apple,  apple  tree,  84. 

Arabesques,  321,  369. 

Arable  land,  212. 

Aracese,  67. 

Arachis  hypogsea,  56,  1 53. 

Aralia  cordata,  73. 

japonica,  273,  284. 

Araliacese,  248. 

Arks, 535. 

SSI 


Architecture,  318. 
Arita-Porcelain,  469,  473. 
Armorial  animals,  323. 
Armour,  432. 

Armourer,  430. 

Arrow-head,  64. 

Arsenal,  511. 

Artemisia  vulgaris,  135. 
Artisan,  7. 

Arum  esculentum,  67. 
Arundinaria  japonica,  228. 
Arundo  Bambos,  227. 
Asbolan,  304,  498. 
Astragalus  lotoides,  42. 
Aucuba  japonica,  282-284. 
Autumn  plants,  the  seven, 
272. 

Avena  sativa,  50. 

Aventurine  lacquer,  368. 
Avenue  trees  (umbrageous), 
273- 

Ayuthia,  520. 

Azalea  indica,  263,  270. 


Bamboo  cane,  77,  172,  227, 
231,  356- 
mats,  171. 
uses  of,  230. 
grass,  218. 
groves,  216. 
square,  228. 

Bambusa  agrestis,  227. 
arundinacea,  227. 
aurea,  288. 

Fortunei,  2 88. 
Kumasasa,  288. 
nigra,  288. 
puberula,  228. 
pygmsea,  288. 
quadrangularis,  228. 
spinosa,  227. 
viridis,  288. 

Bambusacese,  227. 

Banana,  168. 
fabric,  378. 

Bark  paper,  352,  356. 
manufacture  of,  399- 
peeler,  343. 
silk,  203. 


552 


ENGLISH  AND  LATIN  INDEX. 


Barley,  6,  37,  50. 
malt,  104. 
naked,  37. 

Baros  camphor,  145. 

Basins,  468. 

Batata  (sweet  potato),  65. 
Batavia,  521. 

Bean,  common,  61. 
curd,  107. 

Egyptian,  271. 
Pythagoras,  271. 
sauce  (soy),  105. 

Bear,  185. 

Beating  metal,  428. 

Beche  de  mer,  5.35. 

Beech  tree,  242. 

oil,  157. 

Beet  root,  75. 

Bellows,  box,  295,  428. 
Bells,  436,  446. 

temple,  436. 

Benni-seed,  154. 

Benzoin  sericeum,  245. 

Thunbergii,  245. 
Berries,  88. 

Beta  vulgaris,  75. 

Betula  alba,  239. 

ulmifolia,  239. 
Betulacese,  239. 

Bignonia  catalpa,  246. 

tomentosa,  245. 

Biota  orientalis,  232. 

Birch,  239. 

Birds,  185. 

Biscuit,  543. 

Bivoltini,  192. 

Blaze,  203. 

Bletia  hyacinthina,  588. 
Boehmeria  nivea,  167,  378, 

395-  . 

tenacissima,  167, 

Bowl,  468,  472. 

Bombyx  mori,  186,  190. 
Bonbonniere,  468. 

Bonin  islands,  14. 

Borax,  494,  499. 

Borneo  camphor,  145. 
Bottles,  468. 

Bourre,  198. 

Brake  fern,  68,  77. 

Branch  lac,  344. 

Brasenia  peltata,  70. 

Brass,  439. 

Brassica  chinensis,  70,  152. 
oleracea,  70. 
rapa,  70. 

Braziers,  444. 

Bread,  36. 

Breakfast,  47. 

Breastplate,  432. 

Bricks,  454. 

Brocade,  379,  381,  386,  388. 

banner,  386. 

Bronze,  440. 


Broussonetia  papyrifera,  165, 
393,  401. 
paper,  401,  403. 

Brush,  354,  416. 

Buckwheat,  37,  55. 

Buddhas,  444. 

Buhl  work,  422. 

Burin,  427. 

Buxacese,  244. 

Buxus  japonica,  225,  244, 
399- 

sempervirens,  244. 

Cabinet  work,  335,  336.' 
Caesalpinia  Sappan,  177. 
Cakes,  36. 

Calabash,  or  flask  melon, 
72. 

Caladium,  61. 

Calamagrostis  Hakonensis, 
179,  437,  442. 
Caligula  japonica,  210. 
Calopanax  ricinifolia,  248. 
Calumbak,  526. 

Camellia  japonica,  152,  225, 
256,  273,  276,  277, 
279,  337- 
charcoal,  454. 
in  Europe,  278. 
oil,  152. 

Sasanqua,  153,  256. 
theifera,  111,  257. 
Camphor,  1 43-150. 
laurel,  225. 

manner  of  extraction  of, 
147- 

tree,  225. 

Canavalia  incurva,  D.  C.,  61. 

lineata,  D.  C.,  61. 
Cannabis  sativa,  75,  165, 
166. 

Cantharellus  cibarius,  79. 
Capacity,  Measures  of,  9, 
5°7- 

Capea  elongata,  81. 

flabelliformis,  81. 
Caprifoliacete,  247. 

Capsicum  annuum,  74- 
Carpinus  japonica,  240. 
Carriages,  509. 

Carrot,  73. 

Carthamin,  177,  182,  354. 
Carthamus  tinctorius,  1 76. 
Castanea  vulgaris,  93,  179, 
210,  215,  241,  467. 
Casting,  metal,  428. 

Catalpa  Kaempferi,  246. 
Cathay,  515. 

Cats,  185. 

Cattle,  184. 

raising,  183. 

Catty,  50S. 

Cedrela  chinensis,  254. 
Celastrinese,  253. 


Celastrus  articulata,"  253. 
orixa,  255. 

Celery,  72. 

Celtia  cantans,  268. 

Celtis  sinensis,  243. 

Cement  (putty,  lute),  357. 

Cephalopods,  535. 

Cephalotaxusdrupeacea,  157, 

231. 

Cera  japonica,  158. 

Ceramics,  452-488. 

Cercidiphyllum  japonicum, 
260,  285,  356. 

Cereals,  37. 

Cervus  Sika,  185. 

Chain  armour,  432. 

Chalk  powder,  405. 

Chamaecyparis  obtusa,  215, 
216,  232,  355. 
pisifera,  216,  232,  355. 

Chamserops  excelsa,  170, 
231,  288. 

Change  of  fields  in  rice  land, 
44- 

Charcoal,  215,  354. 

magnolia  wood,  354. 

Chasing,  429. 

Chestnut,  93. 

-brown  lacquer,  353. 
spinner,  210,  21 1. 

Chilies,  74. 

Chimney,  294. 

China  grass,  167. 

Chisel,  427. 

Chrysanthemum  indicum, 
272,  277,  371. 
sinense,  272. 

Cichorium  endivia,  L.,  73. 

Cinnabar,  353. 

lacquer,  352,  371. 

Cinnamomum  camphora, 
143,  150,  225,  276. 
pedunculatum,  244. 
zeylanicum,  75. 

Citron,  90. 

Citrullus  edulis,  71. 

Citrus  aurantium,  89. 
decumana,  90. 
japonica,  90. 
medica,  90. 
nobilis,  89. 
sinensis,  89. 
trifoliata,  255,  262. 

Clavaria  Botrytis,  79. 
flava,  79. 

Clay,  454. 

porcelain,  460. 
wares,  453. 

Clay-ware  industry,  452-4SS. 
in  Ki6to,  476. 
in  Owari,  478. 

Cleyera  japonica,  216,  256. 

Cloaks,  waterproof,  414. 


ENGLISH  AND  LATIN  INDEX. 


553 


Clothing,  386,  405. 

Clouds  (ornamentation),  369. 
Clupea  harengus,  29. 

Coal,  305-309. 

Cobalt,  304. 
earthy,  304. 
glaze,  304. 
oxide,  498. 

Coccus  Pelah,  164. 

Cock,  185. 

Cocons  perces,  203. 

Cocoon,  193. 

double,  198,  203. 
Coinage,  503-507. 

Coix  lachryma  Jobi,  52. 
Colcothar,  304. 

Colie  du  Japon , 109. 
Colocasia  antiquorum,  67. 
Colonial  office,  18. 
Colouring,  process  of,  438. 
Comb,  33. 

Comb-cutting,  337. 
Commerce,  503,  549. 
Compost,  29. 

Condiments,  76. 

Conifers,  220-222,  231,  239, 
284. 

Conophallus  konjak,  67. 
Convallaria  japonica,  285. 
Convolvulus  Batatas,  65. 
Cooking-pots,  435. 

Copper,  301,  436. 
mines,  301,  302. 
ores,  301. 
vitriol,  437. 

Coral,  424. 

Corchorus  capsularis,  169. 
Coriandrum  sativum,  73. 
Comes,  247. 

Cornus  brachypoda,  247. 

officinalis,  87,  247. 
Corpuscula,  200. 

Coryiacese,  240. 

Corylus  heterophylla,94,240. 
Cotton,  166. 

-seed  oil,  1 53. 
stuffs,  379. 

Crabs,  535. 

Crackle  ware,  475- 
Crape,  or  silk  crape,  382, 

384,  38s- 

paper,  408-411. 
patterned,  385. 
CraqucU,  474. 

Crataegus  glabra,  286. 

Croton  siraki,  244. 
Cryptomeria  japonica,  214, 
226,  233. 

Cucumber,  72. 

Cucumis  conomon,  72. 
flexuosus,  72. 
melo,  72. 
sativus,  72. 

Cucurbita  pepo,  71. 


Cup,  468. 

Cupressinese,  232. 
Cupuiiferese,  240. 

Curcuma  longa,  76,  1 79. 
Cuttle  fish,  535. 

Cycas  revoluta,  231,  335. 
Cynosurus  coracanus,  L.,  51. 
Cypress,  216,  221,  232. 
Cytherea  lusoria,  535. 
meretrix,  535. 

Damascening,  429. 
in  meshes,  429. 
raised  and  flat,  429. 
on  iron,  434. 

Damascus  blades,  430. 
Daphnidiumlancifolium,243. 
Date  plum  (persimon),  88, 
179- 

Dates,  Chinese,  87. 

Daucus  carota,  73. 

Day  and  night,  equal,  395. 
Decoration,  patterns  for, 
323,  324- 
method  of,  321. 
Desmodium,  272. 

Dianthus  japonicus,  276. 
Dinner,  47. 

Dioscorea  japonica,  67. 
quinqueloba,  $8. 
sativa,  68. 

Diospyros  ebenum,  247. 
Kaki,  179,  247,  265, 
277,  335)  354,  355- 
Dish,  468,  472. 

Distance,  measure  of,  507. 
Distylium  racemosum,  225, 
249,  337,  467. 
Dolichos  cultratus,  62. 
ensiformis,  62. 
incurvus,  61. 
lineatus,  61. 
soja,  6,  56. 
umbellatus,  61. 

Dolls,  468. 

Dog  days,  352. 

Dogs,  185. 

Doublier  machines,  383. 
Douppions,  198. 

Dragon,  323. 

Dried  fish,  535. 

Drugs,  134. 

Dry  land,  11,  37. 

Dryandra  cordata,  156,  244, 
417- 

Ducat  gold,  506. 

Durrah,  51. 

Dust  sieve,  355. 

Dwarf  bean,  ray-fruited,  60. 

pine,  220,  222. 
Dwarfing  of  plants,  265. 
Dye  plants,  173. 

Dyers’  knotweed,  45. 
Eagle-wood,  528. 


Earthenware,  454-463. 

Earths,  312. 

Ebenaceae,  247. 

Edgeworthia  chrysantha, 
402. 

paper,  402,  403. 
papyrifera,  395,  396. 

Edible  fruits,  82-94. 

Egg  mushroom,  79. 
plant,  69,  73. 

-shell  porcelain,  471. 

Elseagnus  latifolia,  276. 
radicans,  287. 
reflexa,  287. 
umbellata,  287. 

Elseococca  cordata,  Bl.,  156. 

Eleasine  coracana,  51. 

Electrum,  490. 

Eledone,  355. 

Embpssing,  428.  . 

Embroidery,  388. 

Emerald,  424. 

Enamel,  430,  488. 
bound,  489. 

Byzantine,  490. 
cell,  489. 
champleve,  489. 
cloisonne,  489. 
colours,  498-500. 
de  peintre,  490. 
free,  490. 
high  (raised),  490. 
imbedded,  489. 
incrusted,  489. 
industry,  488-500. 
painted,  490. 
pit,  489. 
raised,  490. 
surface,  490. 
transparent,  490. 

Engraulis  japonicus,  29. 

Engraving,  429. 

Enkianthus  japonicus,  268. 

Epidendrum  tuberosum,  494. 

Epigaea  asiatica,  93. 

Epilobium  angustifolium, 
218. 

Erianthus  japonica,  172. 

Ericaceae,  247. 

Eriobotrya  japonica,  83,  85, 
- 277. 

Eulalia  japonica,  172,  272. 

Euonymus  japonica,  265, 
286. 

Sieboldianus,  253. 

Eupatorium  chinense,  272. 
japonicum,  272. 

Euphorbia  lathyris,  156. 

Eurya  japonica,  256. 
var.  sulfurea,  286. 

Eutrema  Wasabi,  70. 

Evening  meal,  47. 

Evodia  glauca,  178,  255. 
rutaecarpa,  135,  178. 


554 


ENGLISH  AND  LATIN  INDEX. 


Exchange,  means  of,  503- 
5H- . 

Excoecaria  japonica,  244. 

Faeces,  29. 

as  manure,  27-29. 
Fagaria  piperita,  255. 
Fagopyrum  esculentum,  55. 
P'agus  Sieboldi,  157,  241, 
356. 

Faience^  454. 

of  Ota,  481. 

Fans,  415. 

export  of,  416. 

Fatsia  japonica,  284. 

Felspar,  459. 

Fennel,  72. 

Fermentation  of  pottery 
materials,  465. 
Ferruginous  sand,  430. 

Ficus  carica,  90. 

Field  measure,  507. 

Fig  tree,  90. 

Figured  crape,  385. 

Fil  de  Florence,  196. 
Filanda,  197,  205. 

File,  427. 

Filigree  enamel,  490. 

Filter  press,  464. 

Finger  millet,  42,  51. 

Fir  tree,  221,  235,  236. 
Firing,  process  of,  435, 
466. 

Firmiana  platanifolia,  256. 
Fish  guano,  29,  165,  536. 

oil,  29,  164,  536. 

Flag,  Japanese,  51 1. 

Flail,  33. 

Flint,  porcelain,  460. 

Floret  silk,  198,  383. 
Florideae,  81. 

Floss  silk,  197,  203. 

Flower  market,  267. 
pot,  468. 
vase,  444,  468. 

Fluxes,  459. 

Fceniculum  vulgare,  72,  135. 
Foot  (measure),  507. 
Foreign  trade,  514-549. 
Forest,  cultivated,  211-214. 
distribution  of,  21 1. 
wild,  213,  217,  260. 
Forests  in  Yezo,  218;  in- 
fluence on  the  climate, 
222. 

Forestry,  21 1. 

Fork  hoe,  32. 

Forms  (patterns),  373. 
Forsythia  suspensa,  268. 
Fossil  wood,  260. 

Fowl,  185. 

Fragaria  vesca,  92. 

Fraxinus  longicuspis,  246. 
Frisons,  203. 


Fruit  culture,  82. 

Fuel,  215. 

Funkia  ovata,  264. 

Furnace,  roasting,  295. 
Fusan,  531. 

Gadus  Brandtii,  536. 
Galleries,  mine,  294. 
Gamboge,  352,  354. 
Gammadion,  322. 

Gampi  paper,  401,  404, 407. 
Garden,  ornamental  or 
pleasure,  261,  263. 
Gardinia  florida,  178,  276, 
352- 

Garnet  sand,  314,  425. 
Gensan,  531. 

Giant  trees,  225,  226. 
Gingeli,  154. 

Ginger,  75. 

Ginkgo  biloba,  94,  226,  231. 
Ginseng,  136-143. 

Girdles,  382. 

Glaze,  454,  467. 

Gleditschia  japonica,  250. 
Gleopeltis  cotiformis,  183. 
Glue,  354,  417- 
Glycine  chinensis,  279. 

hispida,  56. 

Goats,  184. 

Gold,  300,  366,  424. 
beetle,  238. 
dust,  354,  366,  367. 
ground,  368,  371. 
lacquer  wares,  374. 
lacquer  worker,  366- 
377- 

leaf,  354. 
mines,  300. 
paper,  386,  387. 

Gore,  515. 

Gossypium  herbaceum,  153, 
166. 

Gouge,  343,  354. 

Gourds,  71. 

Grain,  37. 

Graines,  203. 

Gramineae,  227. 

Granatum,  90. 

Grapes,  91. 

Grass  land,  11. 

linen,  168. 

Grassy  plains,  212. 

Graver,  427. 

Greek  fret  (meander),  322. 
Green  spinner,  193. 

Grige,  203,  383. 

Ground  nut,  56. 
oil,  153- 

Groundwork  of  lacquer- 
wares,  357. 
Guinea-corn,  37,  51. 

Hakone  work,  335. 


Half-porcelain,  454. 

Haliotis,  26,  423. 
gigantea,  535. 
japonica,  535. 

Hdllejiinta,  459. 

Hamamelidea;,  249. 

Hammer,  427. 
eyes,  428. 

Handloom,  383. 

Hard  bronzes,  440. 

Hare,  185. 

Harrow,  32. 

Hartshorn,  354. 

Hashish,  165. 

Hay,  183. 

kashira,  431. 

Hedges,  262. 

Hedysarum  esculentum,  64. 

Helmet,  432. 

Hemp,  75,  157,  165. 
bast,  354. 
linen,  354,  378. 
oil,  157- 

Hens,  185. 

Herrings,  kinds  of,  29,  164. 

Hibiscus  Manihot,  276,  398. 
mutabilis,  272. 
syriacus,  272. 

Hoe,  32. 

Holcus  Sorghum,  51. 

Holothuria  edulis,  535- 

Homoioceltis  aspera,  243, 
397- 

Honey  bees,  185. 

Hooked  cross,  321. 

Hordeum,  6,  50. 

Horn,  356,  422. 

Horse,  183,  184. 
beans,  62. 
load,  509. 

Hortensia  opuloides,  281. 

Horticulture,  261. 

Hovenia  dulcis,  87,  253. 

Hydrangea  hortensis,  277, 
281. 

paniculata,  282,  398. 

Ibota  wax,  164. 

Ichigo,  92. 

Idols,  wooden,  420. 

Ilex  crenata,  253. 
integra,  253. 
latifolia,  253. 

Ilicinoe,  253. 

Illicium  religiosum,  S.  ami 

z.,  135. 258. 

Imperata  arundinacea,  172. 

Incrusting,  430. 

Inch,  507. 

India  ink,  417. 

saucers,  332,  418. 

Indigo,  173,  354. 

Industrial  arts,  317-500. 

Inlaid  work,  in  lacquer,  363. 


ENGLISH  AND  LATIN  INDEX. 


555 


Inuus  speciosus,  185. 

Iris  laevigata,  271. 
setosa,  271. 
sibirica,  271. 

Iron,  303,  430. 
ochre,  354. 

ore,  magnetic,  303,  430. 
Isinglass,  109. 

Ivory,  421. 

carving,  421. 

Japan  in  the  commerce  of 
the  world,  528-549. 
Japanese  lacquering  process, 
357- 

ornamental  and  useful 
plants  in  Europe, 274. 
Jasper  ware,  455. 

Job’s  tears,  37,  51. 
Juglandaceae,  239.  . 

fuglans  mandschurica,  239. 

regia,  94,  239. 

Juncus  effusus,  170. 

Juniper,  220,  232. 

Juniperus  chinensis,  232. 

Kaga  porcelain,  481-483. 
Kalambak,  526. 

Kaolin,  312,  313,  456,  459, 
487. 

Kao- Ling,  459. 

Katsura  japonica,  260,  398. 
Kernel  fruit,  83. 

Kettle,  434. 

Kidney  bean,  62. 
King-te-tschin,  459,  460. 
Knife,  354,  427. 

Koelreuteria  paniculata,  252. 

Lablab  cultratus,  D.  C.,  62. 
Lac  acid,  349. 

constituents  of,  346, 
347- 

raw,  343,  346. 
tapsters,  343. 

Lacquer,  339. 
black,  352. 
colours,  353,  354. 
districts,  345. 
extraction  of,  342-345. 
filter,  404. 
green,  353. 

industry,  history  of  the 
Japanese,  373. 
painters,  339;  work  of 
the,  366. 
poisoning,  349. 
price  list,  351. 
sickness,  349. 
transparent,  352. 
tree,  158,  342. 
wares,  coloured,  361. 
wares,  superiority  of 
the,  339. 


Lacquer  work,  338-377. 

materials  for,  353. 
Lacquerers,  350. 

Lacquering,  of  clay- wares, 
359- 

utensils  for,  355. 
Lactuca  sativa,  73. 
Lagenaria  vulgaris,  72. 
Lagerstroemia  indica,  248, 
354- 

Laminaria  saccharina,  81, 
534- 

Lampblack,  354,  417. 
Lancet,  forester’s,  343. 
Lapis  lazuli,  424. 

Lappa,  Major,  73. 

Larch,  221,  235,  238. 

Larix  leptolepis,  214,  238. 
Lathe  turning,  336. 
Lauraceae,  244,  245. 
Laurinese,  244. 

Laurus  camphora,  143-150, 
221,  244. 
indica,  245. 
umbellata,  245. 

Lead,  303. 

Leather,  179. 

paper,  155,  411-413- 
Leeks,  order  of,  76. 
Leguminosse,  55,  250. 
Length,  measures  of,  507. 
Lespedeza,  183,  272. 
Lettuce,  73. 

Leucocasia  gigantea,  67. 

Li,  507. 

Ligustrum  ibota,  164,  246. 

japonicum,  246,  286. 
Lilium  auratum,  68. 
cordifolium,  68. 
Thunbergianum,  68. 
Lime  as  manure,  30-34. 
Limestone,  313. 

Limoges,  490. 

Lindera  sericea,  245. 

Line  (measure),  507. 

Listeae  glauca,  164. 

Thunbergii,  164,  245. 
Lithospermum  ery  throrhizon, 
179. 

Loligo,  535. 

Loliopsis,  535. 

Loquat,  85. 

Lotus,  64,  94,  271. 

flower,  64,  94,  271. 
Luffa  petala,  72. 

Luting  process,  357. 
Lycoperdon  tuber,  79. 
Lycopersicum  escuientum, 
74- 

Lythrarieae,  248. 

Macaroni,  108. 

Mace  (Chinese  measure),  507. 
Machilus  Thunbergii,  245. 


Macleya  cordata,  282. 
Magnesia,  peroxide  of,  498. 
Magnolia  hypoleuca,  218, 
219,  258-260,  285, 


Yulan,  269,  271. 
Magnoliaceae,  258. 

Maize,  37,  52. 

Majolica,  454,  483. 

Manila,  517. 

hemp,  169. 

Manures,  26. 

green,  42. 

Maple,  251. 

Marble,  313. 

Marlea  platanifolia,  247. 
Matrices,  183. 

Mats,  17 1. 

Mayebashi  hanks,  204. 

grappes,  204. 

Meal  times,  47. 

Meander  (Greek  fret),  322. 
Measure,  cloth,  507. 
Measures,  507,  508. 
Medicine  chests,  448. 

Melia  Azedarach,  164,  254. 
japonica,  253. 
To-sendan,  254. 
Meliacese,  253. 

Melon,  72. 

Merchant,  7. 

Mesogloia  decipiens,  81. 
Metal,  426. 

mirror,  446. 
work,  426-451. 

Metallic  ornaments,  448. 
Mikado  rule,  restoration  of, 
528. 

Mikroline,  456. 

Mile,  507. 

Millet,  51. 

barbarian,  51. 
club,  37,  51. 
common,  37,  51. 
crowfoot,  37,  51. 

Italian,  104. 

Mimosa  arborea,  350. 

Mines,  produce  of  the,  297- 
299. 

Mining,  291. 

office,  superior,  256. 
Mint  in  Osaka,  504. 

Mirror,  444,  446. 

magic,  447-449- 
Mitten,  343. 

Morus  alba,  91. 

multicaulis,  191. 
papyrifera,  393. 

Mosaic  wood,  marquetrie, 
335- 

work,  423. 

Moth,  silkworm,  198. 
Mother-of-pearl,  354. 


556 


ENGLISH  AND  LATIN  INDEX. 


Mother-of-pearl  lacquer,  364. 
work,  365,  422. 

Mould,  casting,  373,  428. 

Moulinage , 383. 

Mountain  forest,  218,  219. 
forests,  21 1,  212. 
meadows,  18. 
rice,  38,  46. 

Mouse,  185. 

Muffle,  495. 

Mulberry,  91. 

tree,  188,  190,  242. 

Musa  basjoo,  168. 
paradisiaca,  168. 
textilis,  168. 

Muscardine,  200. 

Mushrooms,  69,  534. 

Mussels,  535. 

Mustard,  70,  152. 

Myrica  rubra,  177. 

Nandina  domestica,  261. 

Nautilus,  423. 

Navigation,  river,  510. 

Needle  woods  (pines,  firs, 
etc.),  220-222,  231- 
239,  284,  355. 
forest,  217. 

Nelumbium  speciosum,  64, 
277. 

Nelumbo  nucifera,  64,  94, 
270,  277. 

Nemalion  vermiculare,  81. 

Net,  195. 

Nettle  hemp,  378. 
cloth,  168,  378. 

Nickel,  304. 

Nicotiana  tabacum,  131. 

Nightingale,  268. 

Nikk6  work,  336. 

Nirwana,  271. 

Nispero  de  Japon,  85. 

“ Noble  rust,”  441,  442. 

Nuphar  japonicum,  70. 

Nuts,  93. 

Oak,  225,  240,  241,  356. 
spinner,  205,  206. 

-wood  ashes,  467. 

Oats,  50. 

Oil-cake,  29. 

mustard,  152. 
paper,  155,  414. 
plants  and  fats,  150-165. 
sesame,  154. 

Olea  aquifolium,  246,  273. 
fragrans,  246,  286. 

Oleacese,  246. 

Olive,  87,  287. 

Ommastrephes,  535. 

Oncorhynchus  Haberi,  535. 

Onions,  70,  76. 

Onychoteuthis  Banksii,  535. 


Ophiopogon  japonicus,  285. 

Jaburan,  285. 

Orange,  89. 

Mandarin,  83. 

Organsin,  283. 

Orixa  japonica,  255. 
Orpiment,  353. 
lac,  352. 

Oryza  glutinosa,  46. 
montana,  38,  46. 
sativa,  6,  38. 

Osaka,  47,  530. 

Oshiu  silk,  204. 

Oxen,  184. 

Oxide,  red  (Colcothar),  304, 
352,  354,  472,  498. 

Pachyrhiza  angulatus,  61. 
Pseonia  albiflora,  135,  281. 
Moutan,  135,  270,  277, 
281. 

Palette,  355. 

Palm-leaf  work,  170. 

Palms,  231. 

Panax  Ginseng,  136. 

Panes,  window,  335. 
Panicum  corvi,  51. 
crus-galli,  51. 
italicum,  51. 
miliaceum,  51. 
verticillatum,  51. 
Papaver  somniferum,  70. 
Paper,  390-416. 

Chinese,  392. 
fabric,  412. 
hangings,  408. 
industry,  389-419. 
kinds  of,  403,  404. 
lanterns,  415. 
leather,  356,  41 1,  412. 
-mache,  356,  407. 
machine-made,  397. 
money,  504,  536. 
mulberry,  393-395. 
preparation  of,  399. 
pulp,  390,  400. 
raw  materials  for,  393- 
401. 

tub,  391. 

Yoshino,  356. 

Parasol,  414. 

Passerina  Gampi,  396. 

Paste,  69,  354. 

Pasteboard,  407. 

Pastinaca  sativa,  L.  ,■  73- 
Pat  ani,  520,  523. 

Patina,  73,  441. 

work,  430. 

Patlitdschan,  73. 

Patrina  scabiossefolia,  272, 
371- 

Paulownia  imperialis,  224, 
245,  270,  280,  28 1, 
355- 


Paulownia  tomentosa,  280, 
281. 

Peach,  86,  179,  269. 

Pear,  83-85. 

ground,  352,  368. 
Pearls,  424. 

Peasant,  8,  29. 

Peat,  62. 

Pebrine,  200. 

Pegmatite,  459. 

Peking  lacquer,  371. 
Pelah-Wa,  164. 

Pepper,  Spanish,  74. 
Peppermint,  135. 

Perilla  arguta,  75,  177. 

ocymoides,  L.,  155,  352, 
414- 

Perry,  511,  514. 

expedition,  529. 
Persicaria,  175. 

Petasites  japonicus,  73. 
Petroleum,  309. 
Petroselinum  sativum,  72. 
Phaseolus  multiflorus,  61. 
Mungo,  61. 
radiatus,  L.,  6,  60. 
vulgaris,  61. 

Phellodendron  amurense, 

255- 

Phoenix,  323. 

Photinia  serrulata,  286. 
Phragmites  communis,  1 72. 

Roxburgh,  172. 

Phyllit,  459. 

Phyllitis  debilis,  81. 
Phyllostachys  bambusoides, 
218. 

nigra,  228. 

Physalis  Alkekengi,  74. 
Picrasma  ailanthoides,  254. 
Picul,  508. 

Piece,  a fabric,  384. 

measure,  507. 
Pimpinella  anisum,  72. 
Pincers,  427. 

Pine  charcoal,  354. 

tree,  216,  220,  235, 
273- 

Pin  to,  Mendez,  514. 

Pinus  densiflora,  236-23S, 
265,  273. 

Koraiensis,  94,  237. 
Massoniana,  236,  239, 
265,  273. 

parviflora,  220,  237. 
Pisum  sativum,  62. 
Pittosporum  sinense,  287. 
Tobira,  286. 
undulatum,  287. 

Planera  acuminata,  242,  243. 
Plants  of  commerce,  no. 
Japanese  ornamental,  in 
Europe,  274. 

Plates,  468. 


ENGLISH  AND  LATIN  INDEX. 


Plating,  430. 

Platycaria  strobilacea,  240. 
Platycodon  grandiflcuum, 
272. 

Plough,  31. 

Podocarpus  macrophylla, 
216,  232. 

Nageia,  183,  216,  232. 
Polishing  lacquer,  361. 

materials,  495. 
Polygonum  fagopyrum,  55. 
orientale,  75. 
tinctorium,  45,  1 73,  354. 
Pongee  silk,  206. 

Populus  tremula,  239. 
Porcelain,  455,  456,  459, 
461,  462,  468. 
colours  of  the  Chinese, 
461. 

fritted,  456. 
oven,  459,  466. 
paste,  487. 

stone,  312,  459,  475, 
484,  485. 

Portulacca  oleracea,  71. 
Potato,  63. 

common,  66. 
sweet,  65. 

Potter’s  clay,  312. 

wheel,  457,  465. 

Pound  (weight),  508. 
Precious  things,  Seven,  424. 
Prunus  armeniaca,  86. 
insititia,  86. 
japonica,  86. 
mume,  86,  179,  247, 
268. 

pseudo- cerasus,  249, 

411. 

subhirtella,  269. 
tomentosa,  87. 

Pteris  aquilina,  68,  77. 
Pterocarpus  indicus,  251. 
marsupium,  251. 
santalinus,  251. 
Pterocarya  rhoifolia,  240. 
Pueraria  Thunbergiana,  65, 
169,  184. 

Pulse,  55. 

Pumpkins,  71- 
Punica  granatum,  90. 
Pyrethrum  indicum,  272. 
Pyrus  aucuparia,  250. 
Cydonia,  85. 
japonica,  277,  279. 
malus,  84. 
sambucifolia,  250. 
sinensis,  85. 

Quartz,  459,  479. 

Quercus  acuta,  78,  241. 
crispula,  240. 
cuspidata,  78,  94,  226, 

241. 


Quercus  dentata,  179,  180, 
215,  241. 

glandulifera,  241,  467. 
glauca,  241. 
serrata,  179,  207,  215, 
241. 

Quicklime,  31. 

Quince,  84. 

bush,  Japanese,  279. 

Quire  (of  paper),  401. 

Rabbit,  185. 

Radish,  69. 

Railways,  5 12-5 14. 

Raised  lacquer,  375. 

Rake,  32. 

Ramee,  167. 

Rape  oil,  151. 

Raphanus  sativus,  70. 

Raphis  flabelliformis,  261. 

Rat,  185. 

Rattan  work,  173. 

Realism,  218,  321,  325. 

Ream  of  paper,  401. 

Reel  silk,  203. 

Reeling  (silk)  establishment, 
205. 

Retinispora,  214,  232-234, 

355- 

Rheea-Faser,  167. 

Rheum,  75,  135. 

Rhododendron  Metternichii, 
247,  250. 

Rhubarb,  75,  135. 

Rhus  Osbeckii,  180. 

semialata,  179,  180,277. 
succedanea,  160,  251. 
vernicifera,  158,  251. 

Rice,  6,  37,  46. 

analysis  of,  48,  49. 
beer,  95. 
districts,  48. 
early,  46. 
exports  of,  534- 
ferment,  96. 
glutinous,  46,  50,  108. 
grains,  46. 
harvest,  45,  46. 
husking  of,  45. 
land,  11,  37. 
late,  46. 
middle,  47. 
paste,  183. 
plants,  6,  37. 
straw,  30,  17 1. 

Ricinus  communis,  135,  156. 
oil,  156. 
spinner,  206. 

Rippler,  flax,  33. 

Rock  crystal,  314,  424. 
polishing  of,  425. 

Root  crops,  83. 

Rosa  Banksia,  288. 
rugosa,  92. 


Rosacese,  249. 

Rose,  Japanese,  278. 
Rubbish  paper,  393,  397. 
Rubia  chinensis,  177. 

cordifolia,  177. 

Rules  for  lacquering,  356. 

for  gold  lacquering,  366. 
Rutacese,  254. 

Rye,  50. 

Safflower,  176,  182,  183. 
Sagittaria  sagittsefolia,  L., 
64. 

Sake,  preparation  of,  96. 
Salep  paste,  494. 

Salicinse,  239. 

Salisburia  adianthifolia,  45, 
94,  226,  231,  277. 
Salix  Babylonica,  239. 

japonica,  239. 

Salmon,  535. 

Salt,  310,  31 1. 

evaporation,  coast  for, 
11. 

Sandal  wood,  251. 
lac,  363. 

Santalinum  album,  520. 
Sapindacea;,  252. 

Sapindus  chinensis,  252. 

Mukuroshi,  252. 

Sapium  sebiferum,  244. 
Sardine,  165. 

Satin,  382. 

Satsuma  faience,  474-476. 

stone-ware,  474-476. 
Saturnia  Arindia,  206. 
Cynthia,  206. 

Mylitta,  206. 

Saucers,  468. 

Saw-worta,  176. 

Saxifraga  cortussefolia,  263. 
Scapharca  inflata,  535. 
Scarlet  runner,  61. 
Schlaffsucht,  200. 

School,  agricultural,  at  Lap- 
poro,  19. 

Sciadopitys  verticillata,  216, 
227,  238,  265. 

Scirpus  maritima,  172. 

Scoop  net,  400. 

Screen  fir,  215,  216. 
Scrophularineae,  245. 
Sculpture,  428. 

Scutellaria  macrantha,  135. 
Sea  cucumber,  535. 
lettuce,  81. 
products  of  the,  534. 
salt,  method  of  obtain- 
ing, 51 1. 

Seaweed  glue,  183. 

Secale  cereale,  50. 

Sedum  Sieboldi,  272. 

Seeds,  193. 

Seger  porcelain,  456. 


558 


ENGLISH  AND  LATIN  INDEX. 


Sesamum  indicum,  154- 
orientale,  154. 

Shanghai,  531. 

Shark  skin,  363,  494. 
lacquer,  363. 

Shark’s  fins,  535. 

Shears,  354. 

Sheep,  184. 

Shell  fish,  536. 

Shizophragma  hydrangeoi- 
des,  288. 

Shoots,  setting  of,  215. 

Shrimps,  535- 

Sickle,  32. 

Silicate  porcelain,  460. 

Silk,  192,  203,  533. 
districts,  204. 
dying,  182. 
fabrics,  380,  385. 
floss,  383. 
flurt  or  floss,  383. 
industry,  379-389. 
raising,  185. 
raw,  383. 

reeling  from  cocoons, 

383. 

spinning,  382,  383. 
weavers’  society,  382. 
weaving,  382. 
web,  breadth  of,  384. 

Silkworm,  185,  186,  193. 
changes  of,  196. 
eggs,  193.  203- 
gut,  196,  21 1. 
sickness,  201. 

Silver,  300,  424. 

dust,  354,  366,  367. 
ground,  370,  371. 
foil,  387. 
leaf,  354. 
ore,  300. 

Simarubese,  254. 

Sinapis,  70. 

Slate,  313,  418. 

Smelting  hearth,  295. 

Snow,  protection  from,  215. 

Soapstone,  426. 

Soil,  analyses  of  the,  23-25. 

Soja  hispida,  Mich.,  56, 
105. 

Solanum  melongena,  73. 
tuberosum,  66. 

Solder,  494. 

Solfatara,  312. 

Sophora  japonica,  250,  277. 

Sorghum  vulgare,  Pers.,  37, 

51- 

Soy  bean,  black,  58. 
blue-green,  58. 
brown,  58. 
white,  58. 

Spade,  32. 

Spatula,  343,  355. 

Spices,  69. 


Spinacea  inermis,  Moench., 
75- 

Spiraea  Thunbergi,  262. 
Spoon,  355. 

Spotted  texture,  369. 

Spring  time,  268. 

Stachyurus  praecox,  257. 
Stag,  185. 

Stalk  and  pod  fruits  (cereals 
and  pulse),  6,  37. 
Stamping  mills,  464. 

trough,  33. 

Starch  paste,  183. 

producing  bulbs,  63. 
Statue,  equestrian  of  Kato, 
Kiyomasa,  474. 
porcelain,  456. 

Steel,  hardening  of,  432. 
Sterculia  platanifolia,  256. 
Sterculiaceae,  256. 

Stillingia  sebifera,  244. 
Stone,  312. 
fruit,  86. 

ware,  454,  459,  469, 
477,  484- 

Straw  mosaic,  336. 
Strawberry,  92. 

Stroke,  measure,  507. 

Strong  drink,  statistics  of, 
103. 

Stuartia  monadelpha,  218, 

257 • 

Styraceae,  246. 

Styrax  crataegoides,  247. 
japonicum,  246. 
lancifolia,  247. 

Obassia,  247. 

Sugar,  109. 

bowl,  468. 

Sulphur,  310,  437. 

Sumach,  158. 
galls,  180. 
lacquer,  342. 
tallow,  160. 

Sun  goddess,  6. 

Sus  leucomystax,  185. 
Swine,  185. 

wild,  185. 

Sword,  431,  432. 
back  of  a,  43 1. 
bean,  61. 
guard,  431,  432. 
hilt,  432. 

sheath,  364,  374,  431, 
432. 

Symplocos  lancifolia,  247. 

Tael,  508. 

Taffetas,  384. 

Tallow  tree,  160. 

vegetable,  150,  158. 
Tangle  leaves,  534. 

Tannic  acids,  179. 

Tapa,  390,  393. 


Tapes  Philippinarum,  535. 
Taxacese,  231. 

Taxus  cuspidata,  214,  231. 
Tea,  no,  458,  539;  colour- 
ing and  scenting  of, 
123  ; method  of  pre- 
paration, 1 17;  sorts 
of,  1 19-122. 
box,  468. 
colour,  179. 
dish,  468. 

drinking  companies,  1 1 9, 
458,  479- 
pot,  468. 
saucer,  468. 

-seed  oil,  152. 
urns,  468,  472,  480. 
Ternstroemia  japonica,  256, 
337- 

Temstroemiaceae,  256. 

Terra  cotta,  454. 

Tetranthera  japonica,  245. 
Textile  industry,  378-389. 

plants,  165. 

Thao,  461. 

Thea  assamica,  hi. 

Bohea,  hi. 
viridis,  III. 

Three  forks,  395. 

Thu^a  orientalis,  232. 
Thujopsis  dolabrata,  216, 
232.  355- 

lsetevirens,  233. 

Til,  154. 

Tile,  or  brick  tea,  125. 

Tiles,  454. 

Tilia  cordata,  170,  255. 

mandschurica,  255. 
Tiliacese,  255. 

Tin,  303. 

dust,  345. 
foil,  387- 
Tobacco,  1 3 1. 

Tomato,  or  love  apple,  74. 
Tomex  japonica,  245. 

Tongs,  427. 

Tooth  brush,  355. 

Topaz,  smoked,  425. 

Tops,  338. 

Torreya  nucifera,  94,  157, 
231- 

Tortoise  shell,  356,  421. 

work,  421. 

Toys,  338. 

Trade  and  commerce,  503. 
Train  oil,  164. 

Trame,  383. 

Trapa  bispinosa,  Roxb.,  94. 
Treaty  of  Kanagawa,  529. 

ports,  529-5-32. 

Tree  nursery,  215. 

Trepang,  535. 

Trichosanthes,  72. 

Trinkets,  448,  46S. 


ENGLISH  AND  LATIN  INDEX.  559 


Triticum,  6,  50. 

Viburnum  opnlus,  247. 

Wistaria  chinensis,  169,  226, 

Triton  subcristatus,  263. 

Vicia  faba,  62. 

263,  267,  270,  279, 

Tsien,  508. 

Vigna  Catjang,  61. 

280. 

Tsugaru  lacquer,  361. 

Villages,  Corean,  475. 

Wonsan,  531. 

Tubs,  344. 

Vinegar,  109. 

Wood  ashes,  467. 

wooden,  97. 

Vitis  vinifera,  91. 

carving,  420. 

Turbo  cornutus,  423. 

Turned  work,  428. 

Vitriol,  green,  437. 

industry,  334. 
of  foliaceous  trees,  217, 

Turtle,  323. 

Wagons,  32,  184. 

221. 

Tussah  silk,  206. 

Wakasa  lacquer,  362. 

oil,  156. 

Twisting  machines,  383. 

Walnuts,  94,  239. 

Wooden  shoes,  41 1. 

Typha  japonica,  171. 

Warp,  383. 

Woods  224-260. 

Washing  of  ceramic  ma- 

Woof  threads,  383. 

Udschi  fly,  199. 

Udschimya  sericaria,  199. 

terials,  464. 

Waste  land,  212,  213. 

Water  basins,  468. 

Writing  materials,  416,  436. 

Ulmacese,  242. 

Yama-ma'i  silk,  210. 

Ulmus  campestris,  243. 
montana,  169. 

chestnut,  93. 
melon,  72. 

Yams,  67. 

Yao,  461. 

Yellow  spinner,  193. 

Yew  tribe,  231. 

parvifolia,  243. 
Umbrellas,  414. 

Unicorn,  323. 

Wax,  149. 

tree,  160. 

Wedgewood,  453. 

Urine,  28. 

Weeping  willow,  239. 

Urns,  468. 

Weights,  S°8. 

Zanthoxylon  piperitum,  71, 

Ursus  japonicus,  185. 

Whale  oil,  164. 

255>  335- 

Urtica  nivea,  167. 

Wheat,  6,  37,  50. 

Zea  Mais,  52  ; history  of  its 

Thunbergiana,  167. 

-starch  paste,  407. 

cultivation,  52-55. 

Useful  woods,  224-260. 

Wheelbarrow,  32. 

Zelkowa  Keaki,  214,  225, 

Uvaria  japonica,  260. 

Whetstone,  354. 

242,  285,  335,  355. 

Whirlwinds,  13. 

Zinc,  304. 

Vaccinium,  92. 

White  lead,  354,  499. 

Zingiber  officinale,  75. 

Variegation  in  plants,  266. 

metal  work,  448. 

Mioga,  76, 

Vats,  fermenting,  99. 

spinner,  193. 

Zipangu  (Japan),  515. 

Vegetables,  69. 

Wholesale  dealers,  530. 

Zizyphus  vulgaris,  87. 

Velvet,  379,  388. 

Wickstroemia  canescens,  396. 

Zodiac,  323. 

Venus’  ear,  26,  423,  535. 

Willow,  239. 

Zones  of  vegetation,  220- 

Verdigris,  498. 

galls,  218. 

222. 

Verms  du  Japon,  160,  254. 

plaited,  173. 

Zoysia  pungens,  172. 

II.  INDEX  OF  JAPANESE  NAMES. 


In  writing  Japanese  names  the  prevailing  phonetic  method,  as  given  in  Hepburn’s 
Dictionary,  has  been  generally  followed.  According  to  this  the  vowels  are  pronounced 
clear — as  in  German — like  ai.  Further,  ei  as  e,  cli  as  tsch,  j as  dsch,  s sharp,  sh  as  sch, 
ts  as  z,  z as  s,  y as  j.  ai,  ei  and  6 from  a precedent  contraction  are  long.  On  account 
of  the  accent  many  compound  words  are  divided  by  hyphens,  which  are  often  written 
without  them.  As  a rule  the  accent  falls  on  the  first  syllable — as  well  on  the  first  as 
the  concluding  word,  with  a somewhat  stronger  accent  on  the  first  full-toned  syllable. 
The  commonly  joining  particle  “ no"  is  half-tone.  A declination  of  the  accent  is  marked 
with  an  acute.  Ho-no-ki  is  read  as  Honoki,  Tsubaki-no-abura  as  Tsubaki-noabura, 
Hasu-no-hana  as  Hasunohanna,  Nikkei  as  Niltke,  Mei-butsu  as  Mebutsu. 


Abu,  354. 

Abura,  150-164. 

-giri,  156,  244. 

-kami,  155,  414. 
-kasu,  30. 

-na,  152. 

-no-ki,  156,  244. 

Aburato,  307. 

Adzuki,  60,  108. 

Ai,  173- 

-dzame,  364. 

Aidzu,  342. 

-ro,  160. 

-ro-soku,  160. 

-taira,  46,  17 1,  481. 

Ai-tama,  175. 

Ajisai,  281. 

Aka,  red,  182. 

Akadami,  307. 

Aka-fun,  367. 

-gane,  301,  356,  504. 
-gashi,  241. 

-mame,  59. 

-matsu,  74,  216,  236. 
-megashi,  286. 
-momo,  93. 

Altana,  176. 

Aka  -nasu,  74. 

Akasaka,  313. 

Aka-shiso,  177. 

-tamo,  243. 

Akebi,  91. 

Akxndo,  7. 

Aki-nire,  243. 

-no-gi,  398. 
-no-nana-kusa,  272. 

Akita,  47. 

Aku,  175,  477. 

II. 


Akune,  31 1. 

Amabata-ishi,  313,  418,  425. 

Amai,  Sweet,  103. 

Amakusa  (pron.  Amaltsa), 

312,  473- 

-ishi,  312,  473,  474, 480, 

485- 

Amaterasu,  6. 

Ame,  103.  . 

-no-mochi,  1 08. 

Amerika  bofu,  73. 

Ami,  195. 

Amida,  445. 

Andzu,  86. 

Ani,  301. 

Ao-gai,  342,  354,  365. 
-gai-Magai,  423. 
-gai-nuri,  364. 

-gai-shi,  340,  342. 
-gai-togi-dashi,  364. 
-gai-zaiku,  365,  422, 

.4?3-  , 

-giri,  256. 

-gosu,  498. 

Ao-ki,  282-284. 

-ltuba,  282. 

-mame,  56. 

Arakawa,  302. 

Arame,  81. 

Araragi,  231. 

Arita,  469-473,  486,  487. 

Arita-ishi,  312,  469. 

Asa,  75,  165,  166. 

Asa-gozen,  47. 

-lei,  217. 

Asakusa-nori,  82. 

Asa-no-abura,  157. 

-no-mi,  75. 

561 


Asari,  7. 

Ashio,  302. 

At,  169. 

Asu-gami,  403,  406. 

Awa,  37,  51,  104. 

Awabi,  423,  535. 

Awaji,  455. 

-yaki,  475,  476. 

Awata-shippo,  495. 

-yaki,  455,  462,  475, 
476,  477.  496. 

Awo  (light  blue,  also  green), 
498. 

-uri,  72. 

-urushi,  353. 

Ayame,  270. 

Aya-nishiki,  386. 

Azatsuki,  77. 

Azi-mame,  62. 

Bai,  86,  249. 

Bakufu  (pron.  : Bakfu),  5 10, 
511. 

Banko  Kichibei,  484. 

-yaki,  454,  455,  462, 
474,  483- 

Ban-seki,  312. 

-shi,  405. 

Bash6,  168. 

-fu,  168,  378. 

Bekk6,  356,  421. 

-zaiku,  421. 

Beni,  176,  354. 

-biyakushiu,  232. 

Beni-gara,  304,  352,  354, 
472,  498. 

-kadzura,  1 77* 

-no-hana,  176. 

o o 


562 


INDEX  OF  JAPANESE  NAMES. 


Beshi,  302. 

Binan-katsura,  398. 
Bingo-omote,  17 1. 

Birodo,  388. 

-sha,  382. 

Biwa,  83,  85. 

Biyaku-gu,  493. 

Biyakushi,  135. 

Bobura,  71. 

Bodaijiu,  252,  255. 

Boke,  279. 

Botankio,  86. 

Botan-na,  70. 

Bu,  505. 

Budo,  91. 

■nedzumi,  179. 
Bukku-yusu,  256. 

Buna,  241,  356. 

-no-abura,  150,  157. 
Bun-kiju-sen,  505. 
Bun-kiyoku,  296. 
Bushin-kan,  90. 

Buta,  184. 

Butan,  135,  269,  281. 

Cha  (tscha),  ill,  257,  458. 
-bin,  468. 

-dashi,  468. 

-ire,  468. 

-iro  (brown),  179,  500. 
-no-abura,  152. 

-no-ki,  257. 

-no-yu,  1 19,  458,  479. 
Champagiku,  282. 
Cha-suisho,  425. 

-tsubo,  468. 

-wan,  468. 

Chian-chim,  254. 

Chide,  250. 

Chijimi,  378. 

Chi-kaya,  172. 

Chirr.pi,  75. 

Chiri-gami,  394,  404. 
Chirimen,  384,  385. 
Chirimen-gami,  408. 

-sha,  382. 

Chisa,  73. 

Chisha-no-ki,  246. 

Chili  (between),  354. 

-hana,  354. 

Cho,  507. 

Chochin,  415. 

Chocho,  198. 

Chodzu-ba,  27. 

Cho-gin,  505. 

Choku,  468. 

Chosen- matsu,  237. 

Daiben,  28. 

Dai-Butsu,  444-446. 
Daidai,  89. 

Daidzu,  6,  56. 

Daikon,  69,  70. 

Baio,  75,  135. 


Daki,  99. 

Daimio-jiso,  263. 

Damo,  243. 

Date-ishi,  313. 

Degara,  203. 

Do,  301,  436,  509. 

Do -bin,  468. 

Dobin-shi,  259. 

Dodan,  268,  273. 

Dokuye,  156,  244. 

-no-abura,  156,  417. 
Domburi,  468,  472. 
Donsu-obi,  386. 

Dorofu,  239. 

D6-san,  302. 

-sei,  498. 

Doyo,  352. 

Dzudzu-dama,  37,  52. 

Dzumi,  179. 

Echigo,  47,  51,  363- 
-J6fu,  378. 

-Jofu  Chijimi,  378. 
Echizen,  342. 

Endo-mame,  62. 

E-no-abura,  347. 

Fu,  108,  413,  415. 

Fude,  355,  416. 

Fude-tate,  355. 

Fuki  doko,  295. 

Fuji,  169,  226,  268,  270, 
279. 

-bakama,  272. 

-mame,  62.- 
-no-yama,  16. 

-nuno,  169. 

-san,  16. 

Fukano-hire,  535- 
Fukasawa,  310. 

Fuki,  73. 

Fuku-sa,  388,  389,  413. 
Fukusa-ji,  413. 

Fun,  601. 

Funai,  312,  618,  621. 

Fune,  399. 

Fu-nori,  81,  183,  338,  385. 
Fuiri-mame,  58. 

Fushi,  179,  180. 

-kaiko,  200. 

-no-ki,  158,  180,  181. 
Fuyo,  272. 

Gama,  171. 

-mushiro,  17 1. 

Garni,  390. 

Gampi,  396,  399,  401,  404, 
407. 

-shi,  404,  407. 

Gan-seki,  401. 

Geta,  246. 

Genziki-mushi,  210. 

Giboshi,  264. 

Gin,  300,  424.  5°3- 


Gin-baku,  354. 

-garni,  387. 

-iro,  353- 
-ji,  369,  372. 

-kise,  430. 

Ginkiyo,  94,  226,  231. 
Ginko,  45. 

Gin-ko-satsu,  503. 

Ginnan,  94. 

Gin-paku,  387; 

-pun,  354',  363,  366. 
-san-machi,  301. 

-shi,  304. 

-su,  504. 

Giogi-yaki,  457. 
Gioko-seki-rui,  313. 

Gioto,  165,  536. 
Giyaman-ishi,  478. 
Giyo-bu-Nashi-ji,  372,  375. 
Giyokuro,  119. 

Go,  508. 

Gobaishi,  180. 

Gobo,  73. 

Gofun,  405. 

Go-ju  Sen,  503. 

-koku,  6. 

Goma,  75. 

-dake,  228. 

-no-abura,  150,  154. 

Go  Rin,  -Sen,  -Yen,  503. 
Gorodayu,  471. 

Go-sekku,  272. 

-shin,  76. 

Goshin-yu,  135. 

Goshu,  304,  593. 
Goyo-no-matsu,  94,  237. 
Goza,  1 71. 

-gusa,  171. 

Gozen,  47. 

Gumi,  87,  287. 

Gusoku,  272. 

Guwai-sha  (pron.  Kaisha), 
512. 

Guwan-jitsu  (pron.  Gan- 
shitzu),  268. 
Guwa-sho-sei,  304. 

Habaki,  431. 

Haba-nori,  81. 

Habutai-sha,  382. 

Habutaye  (pron.  Habutai), 
38 3- 
Hachi,  468. 

Ha-chiku,  227. 

Hachiman,  302. 
Hadaka-mugi,  37,  5c. 
Hadankio,  86. 

Hagi,  184,  251,  272. 
Haguro,  181,  352. 

Hakata,  382,  386,  514. 

-obi,  386. 

Haka-shita,  353, 

Hake,  354. 

Hak  ka,  135* 


INDEX  OF  JAPANESE  NAMES. 


563 


Hakodate,  529,  534. 

Ha-kombu,  534. 

Hakone,  336. 

-zaiku,  335. 

Haku-daidzu,  58. 

Hakumai,  46. 

Hakuren,  269,  271. 

Hama-biwa,  245, 

Hamaguri,  635. 

Hama-nashi,  92. 

-nata-mame,  61. 

Hamda,  301. 

Hana-ichi,  267. 

-ike,  444,  468. 

-konjiyo,  498. 

-no-ki,  285. 

-shobu,  270. 

Han-chiku,  228. 

-kire,  403,  406. 

-kiri,  98. 

-no-ki,  179,  239. 

-seki,  312. 

-shi,  403,  404,  405. 

Hara,  11,  18,  73,  212. 

Haratoku,  244. 

Hari-giri,  248. 

-no-ki,  179,  239,  336. 
-nuki,  407. 

Haru,  268. 

-ko,  192. 

-nire,  243. 

Hasami,  354. 

Hashibami,  94,  240. 

Hasu,  64,  94,  270. 

-imo,  67. 

-no-hana,  270. 

-no-ike,  270. 

-no-mi,  94,  270. 

Hata,  11,  37,  212,  336, 

383- 

Hatsu-take,  79. 

Haya-gawa,  300. 

Hayashi,  21 1. 

Haze,  251. 


Heinen,  7. 

Hera,  354. 

Hiba,  179,  213,  216 
, 355- 

Hibachi,  444. 

Hibi-de,  475. 

-yaki,  475. 
Hichima,  72. 
Hidesato,  446. 
Hidetada,  619. 

Higan,  395. 

-sakura,  269. 
Higasa,  414. 
Higashidori,  472. 
Higashi  Hon-gwan-ji, 
Higo,  47. 

Hiki,  597. 

-cha,  1 19. 
Hi-komi,  357. 


Hiku-kabu,  191. 

Himashi,  135,  156. 

-no-abura,  156. 
Hime-bishi,  94. 

Hi-no-ki,  5,  214,  216,  218, 
232-234,  273,  355. 
-no  maru,  511. 
Hino-oka,  499. 

Hidgo,  531. 

Hirado,  520,  522. 

Hiragi,  246,  273. 
Hira-makiye,  367,  374. 

-mame,  62. 
Hirame-fude,  355. 

Hira-take,  79. 

Hirata-yuri,  68. 

Hirato  Hikoshiro,  492. 
Hira-Zogan,  429. 

Hirosaki,  361. 

Hiru-gozen,  47. 

Hishi,  96. 

Hitomaro,  420. 

Hitsuji,  184. 

Hitsuji-gusa,  70. 

Hiuga,  47. 

Hiyaku-me,  508. 

Hiyakusho,  7,  29. 
Hiya-meshi,  46. 

Hiye,  37.  5i- 
Hiyotan,  72. 

Hizen,  469,  472,  486. 

Ho,  323. 

Ho-chiku,  228. 

Hoch6,  343,  354. 

Hodo,  64. 

-imo,  64. 

Hodzuki,  74. 

Hogu,  397. 

-garni,  397. 

Home-nori,  82. 
Honan-chiku,  277. 
Hondawara,  80. 

Hondo,  16,  47. 

Hongo,  368,  48 1. 

-yaki,  481. 
Hon-kin-gami,  387. 
Ho-no-ishi,  354. 

Ho-no-ki,  183,  258,  259, 
285,  355; 

-no-ki-sumi,  354. 

Hono  -sumi,  354. 

Honshiki,  307. 

Honshiu,  16,  47. 

Horai-yuri,  68. 

Horens6,  75. 

Hori-age,  428. 

-kiri,  270. 

Horimono,  429. 
Horimono-shi,  428. 

-zaiku,  429. 

Hdrutoso,  157. 

Horu,  428. 

Horumui,  307. 

Hosha,  495,  499. 


Hoshi-ebi,  535. 

-gai-rui,  535. 
Hoshii,  200. 

Hosho,  403,  406. 
Hosokawa,  407. 

H6w6,  323. 

I,  170. 

Ibota,  246. 

-ro,  164. 

Ibuki,  232. 

Ibusuki,  476. 

Ichibi,  169. 

Ichi-bu,  505. 

Ichigo,  92. 

Ichii,  214. 

Ichinokura,  480. 
Ichinowatari,  303. 

Ichio,  93,  226. 

Ichijiku,  90. 

Ichi  Rin,  503. 
Ichirin-sha,  32. 

Ichi  Sen,  503. 

Yen,  503. 

Icho,  45. 

Idzumi-yama,  472. 
Igano-mura,  478. 
Iguchi-yama,  473. 
I-gusa,  170. 

Ika,  535. 

-surume,  535. 
Ikkambari,  356. 
Ikono-shiba,  247. 

Ikuno,  301. 

Ikunobei,  513. 

Imari,  469. 

Imbe-yaki,  456,  484. 
Imo,  63,  67. 

Imori,  263. 

In,  426. 

Ine,  36,  37. 

-kogi,  33. 
-(Inu-)kusu,  245. 
Ingen-mame,  59. 

Ingio,  426. 

Innai,  301. 

In-ro,  448. 

In-seki,  426. 

Inu  (dog),  185. 

-gaya,  23 1. 
-gaya-no-abura,  157. 
-kaya,  157. 

• maki,  232. 

-tsuge,  253. 
Inuyama-yaki,  479- 
Ira-momi,  235. 

Iriko,  535. 

Iro-tsuke,  438. 

Iru,  428. 

Isaza,  29. 

Ise,  47- 
-na,  70. 

Ishi  (stone),  321. 

-bai,  31,  313. 


564  INDEX  OF  JAPANESE  NAMES. 


Ishi-dzumi,  305. 

Kaga-mi,  444,  446. 

Karasuki,  31. 

Ishikari,  307. 

-yaki,  482. 

Karasu-mugi,  50. 

Ishi-yaki,  453,  462. 

Kago,  393. 

-uri,  72. 

Ishiyama,  313. 

Kagoshima,  15,  468,  474. 

Karatachi,  255,  262. 

I'-shu,  505. 

Kai,  300. 

Karatzu,  309. 

Isora-mume,  87. 

Kaibashi-rei,  535. 

Kariyasu,  179,  437,  438,  442, 

Isu,  249,  337. 

Kaide,  300. 

448. 

-bai,  249,  467. 

Kaiko,  193. 

Kasa,  173. 

-no-ki,  249. 

Kai-san-rui,  534. 

Kaseda,  476,  485. 

ftadori,  282. 

-so,  81. 

-ishi,  476. 

Itadzuri,  218,  231. 

Kaitakushi,  18-20. 

Kashi,  78,  240. 

Ita-gin,  505. 

Kaji,  393. 

Kashira,  431. 

Itame-gami,  407. 

-no-ki,  393. 

Kashiwa,  78,  179,  215,  240. 

I'tan,  384. 

Kaki,  83,  88,  89,  251,  261, 

Kasutera,  36. 

I'taya,  252. 

Ito  (thread),  203. 

265,  335- 

Kata,  182,  373,  408,  483. 
Kata-ji,  358. 

-no-shibu,  181. 

Iwa-haze,  93. 

-gama,  343. 

Kataba,  431. 

Iwaki-taira,  47. 

Kaku-dake,  228. 

-kaji,  430. 

Iwa-momo,  93. 

ICakuso,  354. 

Kato-Shirosayemon,  479. 

Iwanai,  310,  312. 

Kama,  32,  435. 

Katsu-daidzu,  58. 

Iwa-nashi,  93. 

Kamaishi,  303. 

Katsumi,  81. 

Iwashi,  29,  165. 

Kamba,  239. 

Katsura,  260,  285. 

Iwa-shiba,  172. 

Kame,  323. 

Katzuki,  307. 

Iwashiro,  204. 

Kami,  354,  390. 

Kawa,  179,  1 80. 

Iwa-yanagi,  262. 

-is-soku,  401. 

Kawabata,  336. 

I wo,  310,  437. 

-kawa,  155,  356,  41 1. 

Kawahara-ya,  484. 

Iyemitsu,  524. 

-kise,  358. 

Kawa-hone,  70. 

Iyeyasu,  518-520. 

-no-ki,  398. 

-muki,  343. 

Iyo,  305- 

Kamioka,  300. 

Kawara,  454. 

-masa,  403,  406. 

Kamoashi,  51. 

Kawarake,  454- 

-shirome-ko,  305. 

Kamo-gata,  484. 

-mata-kibi,  37,  51. 

Kawa-yuri,  68. 

Kaya,  94,  157-158,172,231. 

Jagatara-imo,  66,  67. 

Jidzuki,  403,  406,  412. 

Kamuri,  374. 

Kayama,  480. 

Kanabi-kiyo,  169. 

Kaya-no-abura,  150,  157. 

Ji-gatame,  358. 

Kana-darai,  437. 

Kayanoma,  307. 

Jigoku,  312. 

-dzuchi,  427, 

Kayede,  252. 

Jin-dai-boku,  260. 

Kanagawa,  529-530. 

Ke-bo,  355. 

-dai-sugi,  234. 

Kana-hibashi,  427. 

Ivek'kai,  82. 

Ji-nen-han,  312. 

-mono,  426. 

Kempo-nashi,  87,  252. 

Jinen-jo,  67. 

-shiki,  427. 

Kemuri-dashi,  294. 

Ji-no-ko-ishi,  354. 

-toko,  427. 

Ken,  431,  507. 

Jin-riki-sha  (pron.  Tsin- 

Kanazawa,  15,  311,  468. 

Ivenzan-yaki,  477. 

rikscha),  509. 

Kan-chiku,  227. 

Kesa-bako,  374. 

Jo,  401,  507. 

Kane,  181,  426,  446,  503. 

Keshi,  70,  77. 

-ban,  355. 

-dzaiku,  426. 

-ko,  366. 

-chiu-hana,  353. 

-matsu,  238. 

Keyaki  (Keaki),  214,  225, 

J6fu,  166. 

-shaku,  507. 

Kanoko,  385. 

242,  285,  335,  355. 

Jo-hana,  353. 

Ki  (tree,  wood,  forest), 

-tame,  352. 

-sha,  382. 

generally  as  affix. 

503- 

-sha-chirimen,  385. 

Ki  (turtle),  323. 

-ipe,  508. 

-shibori,  385. 

Kibi,  36,  37,  51. 

Kibisho,  468. 

Ju-mon-ji,  406,  412. 

Kanten,  81,  109,  534. 

Junsai,  70. 

Kanzashi,  422. 

Ki-gami,  398,  40 1,  403. 

Juraku-yaki,  458. 

Kappa-na,  70. 

Kara,  China. 

-gata,  41 1. 

-gatame,  357. 

-iro  (yellow),  178,  499. 

Ka,  29. 

-kami,  408. 

Kaba,  239. 

-kane,  440,  504,  505. 

-ito,  383. 

Kabe-habutai,  383. 

-kasa,  414. 

-karasu-uri,  72. 

Kabocha,  71. 

-kaya,  272. 

Kikiyo,  272. 

Kabu,  70. 

-kusa,  321,  369. 

Kiku,  272.  - 

Kabura,  70. 

-matsu,  214,  238. 

Kikubaba-dokoro,  68. 

Kabuto,  432. 

-mushi,  167,  378. 

Kiku-jisa,  73- 

Kiku-no-hana,  272,  372, 

Kachi-ki,  180. 

-sao,  33. 

Kaga,  51,  481. 

Karashi-no-abura,  1 50. 

466. 

INDEX  OF  JAPANESE  NAMES. 


56s 


Kiku-no-hana-mon,  272. 

-no-sekku,  272. 
Kikurage,  79. 

Ki-lin,  323. 

Kimpu-zan,  314,  425. 

Kin,  300,  424,  503,  508. 
Kin-baku,  354. 

-garni,  387. 

Kingire,  386. 

Kin-iro,  353. 

-ji.  368,  372. 

-ka,  504. 

Kinkan,  90. 

Kin-kise,  430. 

Kinko,  192. 

Ki-no-horimono,  420. 
Kinoko,  78. 

Kin-pun,  366. 

-ran-sha,  382. 

-satsu,  503,  504,  537- 
-shi,  387. 

Kinsu,  503. 

Kinu,  192,  203,  380. 
-chijimi,  384. 

Kioto,  468,  469,  476,  520, 
530. 

Kiri,  220,  224,  245,  270,  280, 
338.  355- 
-kane,  367. 

-ko,  358. 

Ki-rin,  323. 

Kiri-no-ki,  245. 
Kisami-kombu,  534. 

Kiseru,  13 1. 

-gai,  132. 

Kiso-gawa,  4 7. 

Ki-sho-mi,  346,  347,  350. 
Kimono,  386,  405. 

Kiuri,  72. 

Ki-urushi,  343-345. 346,438. 
Kiushiu,  47. 

Kiwada,  178,  255. 

Ki-wata,  166. 

Kiwo,  353. 

-urushi,  353. 

Kiyara,  526. 

Kiyodo  - unyu  - guwai  - sha 
(pron.  Kijodounju 
Kaischa),  512. 
Kiyo-midzu,  477,  487. 

Kizo,  474. 
ko  (small),  50. 

Koban,  354,  448,  449,  505. 

-shi,  403. 

Kobe,  531. 

Kobi-cha,  179. 

Kobu-nire,  243. 

Kobushi,  260,  269. 

Kobusho,  296. 

Kochi,  47. 

-ken,  345. 

Ko-do,  439. 

K6dzu(o),  165,  393,  397, 
401. 


Kodzuka,  432. 

Ko-gai,  432. 

Ko-gane,  300. 

Koga-no-ki,  245. 

-gashi,  245. 

Kogashi,  26. 

-tsuchi,  29. 

Kogatana,  354,  427. 
Ko-hone,  71. 

K6ji,  96. 

Koke-momo,  93. 

Koku,  9,  47. 

Kokubu,  132. 

Koku  daidzu,  58. 
Koku-motsu,  36. 

Ko-kuri,  215. 

Kokurui,  6. 

Kokusa,  51. 

Kokusa-gi,  255. 
Kokuso-o-kau,  357. 
Koku-tan,  247. 

Ko-kuwa,  258. 

Koma,  338. 

Komadzu,  171. 
Komagatake,  16. 

Kombu,  81,  534. 

Kome,  6,  37,  46. 

-no-ko,  262. 

Komo,  17 1. 

Ko-mugi,  6,  37,  50. 

-no-ko,  51. 

Ko-nara,  240. 

Konbu,  526. 

Kongo-san,  314,  425. 

-sha,  314,  425. 

Kon-jo,  498,  499. 
Konniyaku,  67. 

Konote,  232. 

Kori,  173. 

Kori-tofu,  108. 

Ko-ro,  444,  468. 

Kosaka,  300. 

Ko-sakura,  269. 

Koshari,  200. 
K6shiu-no-buda,  91. 

Kosho,  75. 

Ko-sugi,  403,  407. 

Kotoi,  184. 

Ko-ushi,  184. 

Kowashi,  536. 

Koya-maki,  215,  216,  22 7. 
238,  266. 

Koyanagi-obi,  386. 
Koya-san,  216. 

Koye,  26. 

Ko-yen,  261, 

Koyendoro,  73- 
ICoye-tori,  29. 

-tsuchi,  29, 

Ko-yoji,  245. 

Ko-zan-kitoku,  296. 

Kozo,  393. 

-no-ki,  393. 
Kuchi-nashi,  178,  352. 


Kudzu,  65,  160,  184. 

-ito-tsumugi,  382,  385. 
Kugi-nuki,  427. 
Kujira-abura,  164. 

-shaku,  507. 

Kuma,  185. 

Kumade,  32. 

Kumamoto,  47. 

Kumo,  369. 

Kunembo,  89. 

Kunugi,  179,  207,  215,  241. 

-nara,  215,  241. 
Kuratoko,  301. 

Kurenomo,  72. 

Kuri,  93,  179,  210,  215, 
241, 

Kuri-iro-urushi,  353. 
Kuri-no-hai,  467. 

Kuro  (black),  500. 
Kurobe-sugi,  234. 
Kuro-dake,  228,  288. 

-fun,  367, 

-gaki,  247. 

Kurogane,  303,  430. 

-modoshi,  260. 
Kurogoma,  154. 

Kuro-gosu,  498. 

Kuroiro,  179. 

Kuro-ki,  217,  219,  247. 

-kibi,  508. 

Kuromai,  46. 

Kuromame,  58. 

Kuromatsu,  216,  236. 
Kurome-urushi,  350. 
Kuro-moji,  245. 

Kuro-urushi,  352. 

Kuruma,  32,  184,  509. 
Kurumi,  94,  239. 

Kururi,  32. 

Kusa  (pron.  Ksa),  (herb, 
grass)  425. 

Kusabira,  78. 
Kusa-iri-suisho,  425. 
Kusakura,  302. 

Kusa-maki,  232. 

-mao,  167. 

Kusari-katabira  433,  434. 
Kusawara,  272. 

Kushi,  33. 

Kusu,  244. 

-no-ki,  143-150,  225, 
244- 

Kusuri,  467. 

Kutani-ishi,  312,  482,  485. 

-yaki,  462,  482. 

Kuwa,  32,  91,  190,  242,  396. 
Kuwai,  64. 

Kuwa-kami,  404. 

Kuwana,  483,  486. 
Kuwan-me(pron.  Kwamme), 
508. 

Kuwa-no-kawa,  396. 
Kuwanto,  47. 

Kuwarin,  85. 


566 


INDEX  OF  JAPANESE  NAMES. 


Kuwa-shi,  397. 

Kuwashiire,  468. 

Kuzi'imi  Mdrikage,  482. 

Magai  Aogai,  365. 

Maguwa,  32. 

Magusa,  183. 

Majumi,  253. 

Maki,  232,  238. 

Makiyeshi  339,  366. 

Makko,  239. 

Makudzuyaki,  480. 
Makuwa-uri,  72. 

Mame,  55. 

-gaki,  247. 

Manji,  321. 

Manshiu-imo,  67. 

Man-tse,  321. 

-zaku,  87. 

Mao,  167. 

Marumero,  85. 

Masaki,  265,  286. 

Masu,  535. 

Matake,  227. 

Matatabi,  92,  258. 

Matsu,  214,  235,  273. 
Matsubagaki,  32. 
Matsu-dake,  78. 
Matsumoto-Gumi,  207. 
Matsu  - no  - suminoko,  354, 
367- 

Ma-wata,  197,  203. 

Mayu,  193. 

Medetai,  79. 

Megane-sasagi,  62, 

Meibutsu,  425,  472. 
Me-matsu,  236. 

Men-dori,  185. 

Meno,  424,  425. 

-seki,  314,  425. 

Menuki,  431,  448. 

Menyo,  184. 

Meshi,  46. 

Me-take,  228. 

-ushi,  184. 

Midzu-ame,  103. 

-bachi  468. 

Midzuhiki,  401. 

Midzuki,  277. 

Midzume,  239. 

-na,  70. 

-nara,  241. 
nuki,  302. 

Mikage-ishi,  313. 

Mikan,  89. 

Miike,  307. 

Miki,  95. 

Mimpei-yaki,  477. 

Minebari,  239. 

Mine,  47,  172,  414. 
Mindgami,  358,  402,  405. 
Mino-yaki,  480. 

Mioban  (Miyoban),  312. 
^lioga,  76. 


Mirin,  101. 

Miru,  81. 

Mi-sasagi,  256. 

Miso,  107. 

Mito,  313. 

Mitsuba-akebi,  91. 
Mitsubishi-guwaisha,  512. 
Mitsu-mata,  395,  402,  404, 
406. 

Mitsu-r6,  158. 

Mitzii-bachi,  185. 
Miyanoshita,  336. 

Miyasaki,  15. 

Mo,  508. 

Mochi-gome,  46,  50,  108. 

-no-ki,  253. 

Modzuku,  81. 

Mogami-gami,  403,  405. 
Mokkoku,  337. 

Mokoko,  288. 

Moku-butsu,  420. 

-k£njiu,  252. 

Mokume,  369. 

Mokusei,  246,  286. 
Monienmono,  378. 

Momi,  46,  214,  235. 

Momiji,  45,  251,  272,  273. 
Momi-kome,  484. 

Mominai,  46. 

Momo,  179,  265,  269. 
Momo-ird,  182. 
Momo-no-kawa,  179. 

Mon,  504. 

-chirimen,  385. 
Mongami,  47. 

Mon-ginu,  383. 
Monme(pron.  Momme',  508. 
Mono  (labour),  339. 
Monsha-nuri,  370. 

Mon-shi,  400,  403,  405. 
Mon-Tengu.jo,  403,  405. 
Morokoshi,  37,  51. 

M6so,  228. 

-chiku,  228. 

Moto,  96,  98. 

Moyashi,  104. 

Moyo-sha,  382. 

Mugi,  50. 

;k°gi,  33- 
Mukojima,  269. 

Muku,  243,  397. 

Mukubi,  397. 

Mukuge,  262. 

Mukuroshi,  252. 
Muku-no-ki,  243,  397- 
Mume,  86,  249,  265,  268, 
269. 

-fuji,  257. 

Mune,  431. 

Murasaki,  177,  49S. 

-kusa,  177. 

-suisho,  425. 

Mushiro,  171. 

Mutsu,  342. 


Na,  152. 

Nabeshima,  472. 
Nabetane-ishi,  312. 
Naga-dokoro,  68. 

Naga-imo,  68. 

Nagasaki,  14,  630. 

Nagi,  232,  265. 

Nai,-  koku  - tsuun  - gmvaisha, 
512. 

Nalca  (between),  353. 
Nakade,  46. 

Nakakosaka,  304. 
Naka-nuri,  358. 

-togi,  358,  366. 
Naka-sen-do,  509. 

Nakaso,  302. 

Naka-urushi,  353. 

Namari,  302. 

Nambu,  342. 

Namisen,  598. 

Nan,  245. 

Nana-kamedo,  250. 
Nanatsu-no-takara,  424. 
Nanako,  383. 

Nanban  kibi,  51,  52,  55. 
Naniwa,  515. 

Nanking-haze,  244. 

Nara  215,  240,  241,  378, 
449- 

Nara  Jofu,  378. 

-no-hai,  467. 

Narude,  180. 
Narumi-shibori,  379. 

Nashi,  83. 

Nashiji,  352,  368,  372. 
Nashiji-tsutsu,  355. 

Nasu,  70,  73. 

Nasubi,  73. 

Natamame,  61. 

Natane,  151. 

Natsu-bera,  343. 

-gi-sha,  382. 

-go,  192,  199. 

Natsume,  87,  252. 
Natsu-sukushi-yuri,  68. 

Naye  (pron-  Aae),  46,  215. 
Nayeshirogavva,  474,  475. 
Nebari,  398. 

Nedjuko,  233. 

Nedzumi  (grey  rat),  185, 
500. 

Nedzumiiro-fun,  367. 
Nedzumi-mochi,  246,  2S6, 
-take,  79. 

Negi,  76. 

-rui,  69,  76. 

Neko  (cat),  185. 

Nemu,  250. 

-no  ki,  250. 
Nemuri-no-Neko,  420. 
Nemuro,  532. 

Nengo,  505. 

Neri,  398. 

Netzuke,  132,  419. 


INDEX  OF  JAPANESE  NAMES. 


567 


Ni,  503. 

Nibeshi,  170. 

Ni-bu,  505. 

Niga-uri,  72. 

Niigata,  532. 

Ni-ju,  503. 

Nikawa,  354,  417. 

Nikkei,  75. 

Nikko,  336. 

-zaiku,  336. 

Ningio,  468, 

Ninjin,  73,  136-14 3. 
Ninniku,  76. 

Ninsei,  476. 

Ninseiyaki,  476. 

Nin-soku,  509. 

Ni-o,  420. 

Nippon  - Yusen  - guwaisha, 
S12. 

Nira,  77. 

Nire,  244. 

Nishijin,  381. 

Nishiki,'386. 

Nishin,  29,  165. 
Nishi-no-uchi,  403,  406. 
Ni-shrl,  598. 

Niwa,  261. 

-sakura,  86,  269. 
Nobiru,  15. 

No-gurumi,  240. 
Nojiro-Shunkei,  360. 

Nomi,  427. 

Nora-hiye.  51. 

-mame,  62. 

Nori,  81,  183,  355,  398. 

-garni,  398,  401,  403. 
Noriire,  403. 

Nori-kusa,  398. 

-no-ki,  282,  398. 

Noshi,  197. 

-ito,  203. 

Nubeshi,  398, 

Nui-haku,  388. 

-mono,  388. 

Nuka,  183. 

Nuki-ito,  383. 

Nuno,  166,  354. 

-kise,  358. 

-me-Zogan,  429. 
Nuri-mono,  339. 

*mono-shi,  339,  359. 
-shippb,  496. 

-tate,  353,  360. 
Nurude,  158. 

Nushi-ya,  339,  357, 

O (great),  50. 

Oarata,  310. 

Obaku,  180,  255. 

Obama,  362. 

O-ban,  505-507. 
Oba-no-chisa,  247. 

Obi,  382,  386. 

Ochi,  254. 


O-cha-dzuke,  473. 

6 doko,  295. 

-fuigo,  295. 

-garashi,  70,  152. 

Ogi,  64,  415. 

Ogiri,  294. 

Ogo,  82. 

*gon,  135,  300. 

O-guruma,  384. 

-haba,  384. 

Ohaguro,  179,  18 1. 

Ohaku,  391, 

Ohashi,  303. 

Ohio-no-ki,  169,  243. 

A hira-tetsu-san,  303. 

Oji,  269.  , 

Ojoin-mura,  305. 

Okabo,  38,  46. 
Okasaki-tsuchi,  435. 

Oke,  99. 

-gawa,  432,  434. 
Oki-mono,  448,  468. 
O-kinuta-so,  1 77- 
Oku,  47. 

O-tname,  56. 

O-mamma,  46. 

-matsu,  236. 

O Miki,  95. 

Omina-meshi,  272,  372, 
Omocha,  338. 

Omodani,  301. 

Omori,  338. 

Omote,  391,  401. 

O-mugi,  6,  37,  50. 

O-nara,  241. 

On-dori,  185. 

Oniki,  308. 

Oranda-jisa,  73. 

Osarusawa,  302. 
Oshiu-kai-do,  509. 

Ota,  455,  469. 

Q-tade,  75. 

Otaka-gami,  403,  406,  412. 
Ota-yaki,  480. 

O-ushi,  184. 

Owari,  47. 

Oya-kata,  41 1. 

Oyaku-yen,  134. 

Osaka,  47,  515,  530. 

Pan,  36. 

Poronai,  307. 

Ra-den,  423. 

Raiden-giri,  246. 
Rakkasho-no-abura,  153. 
Rakkuwasho,  56. 

Raku,  458. 

Rakuyaki,  458,  475. 
Rashamen,  184, 

Rei-ki,  323. 

Reishi,  79. 

Rengaseki,  454. 

Renge,  64,  270. 


Rengijo,  268. 

Renkon,  64,  270. 

Rin,  323,  503,  508. 

Ringo,  84. 

Riu-kiu,  65. 

Riukiu-imo,  65. 

Ri-sampei,  472. 

Riyo,  323. 

Ro,  150-165,  383,  494. 
Roha,  437. 

Roiro,  361. 

-dsumi,  354. 

-urushi,  352,  497, 
Rokuro,  457,  465. 

-saiku,  428. 

Rokushiyo,  498. 

Ro-no-ki,  160,  251. 

Roseki,  313,  426. 

Ruri,  424. 

-kon,  175. 

Sabi,  358,  364. 

Sado,  300, 

Sagara,  310. 

Sagi-ito,  203. 

Saidzuchi,  427, 

Saikachi,  250. 

Saiku,  340. 

Sainai,  303. 

Sai-yen,  261. 

Saji,  355- 
Sakai,  609. 

Sakaki.  216,  256. 
Sakaki-no-hashi,  256. 

Sake,  49,  95. 

-dzuki,  468. 

Saki-kake,  41 1. 

-kawa,  41 1. 

Sakura,  183,  249,  265,  269, 
355- 

Same-dzaya,  363. 
Samegawa-nuri,  363. 
Same-no-kawa,  364,  494, 
Sanebuto-natsume,  87,  252. 
San-dai-ka,  47. 

Sanekatsura,  260,  398. 
Sangoju,  424. 

Sankaku-hiye,  51. 

Sano  Nobuteri,  497, 
Sanshio-nayu,  87. 

Sanshiu,  247. 

-yu,  247. 

Sansho,  71,  75,  255,  335. 
Sanuki,  47. 

San-y6-d6,  509. 

Sapporo,  15,  19,  532. 

Sara,  468,  472. 

Sarai,  32. 

Sarasa-ishi,  313. 

Saru,  185. 

-name,  257. 

-nashi,  92. 

-no  koshikake,  79. 
Sarusuberi,  218,  225,  257. 


568 


INDEX  OF  JAPANESE  NAMES. 


Sasa,  228. 

Sasage,  61. 

Sasagi,  61. 

Sasankuwa,  257,  273. 
Sasank'wa-no-abura,  152. 
Sat6,  109. 

Sato-imo,  67. 

Sato-lubi,  109. 

Satsu,  503. 

Satsuma,  455,  474,  475. 
Satsuma-imo,  65. 

-yaki,  474,  475. 
Sawa-gurumi,  240. 

-mura,  337, 

Sawara,  216,  232,  233,  355. 
Saya,  364,  375,  431,  432. 

-hana,  353. 

Saya-shi,  340. 

Sazaye,  423. 

Se,  507. 

Sei-shitsu,  353,  361. 

Seishu,  95. 

Seki,  477. 

Seki-ban,  313. 

Sekigahara,  52  r. 

Seki-gusa,  171. 

Sekitan,  305. 

Seki-yei,  424. 

Sembei,  108. 

Sen,  503. 

Sencha,  120. 

Sendai,  47. 

Sendai-no-umuregi-zaiku, 

260 

Sendan,  253. 
Sengoku-mame,  62. 

Senka,  403,  406. 

Senkiyu,  135, 
Sennari-hodzuki,  74. 
Se-no-ki,  248. 

Sen-sei,  41 1. 

Seshime,  344,  350,  548. 
Serigano,  300. 

Seto,  305,  551,  559,  562- 

S7U  580. 

-konjo,  304. 

Seto-mono,  463,  478. 

Setzu,  27. 

Sha,  383,  385. 

Shake,  535. 

Shaku,  303,  507. 

, -do;  439,  448. 
Shakunage,  246. 

Shakunagi,  337. 

Shakuyaku,  135,  281. 
Shaori-sha,  382. 

Shari,  52. 

-kaganai,  354. 
Shari-Nashiji,  354,  364. 

Shi  (paper),  390. 

Shiba,  172. 

-ebi,  535. 

-take,  79. 

Shibori,  385. 


Shibu,  69,  88,  100,  179,  181, 
182,  354,  359,  400. 
-gaki,  181,  247. 

-ichi,  439,  448. 

Shibuki,  177. 

Shi-dako,  535. 
Shidare-yanagi,  239. 

Shifu,  412. 

-garni,  403,  406,  412. 
Shigaraki,  476,  486. 

-tsuchi,  477. 

Shii,  94. 

-noki,  78. 

-no-mi,  94. 

-take,  78. 

Shika,  185. 

Shike-ito,  203. 

Shikimi,  258. 

-no-kawa,  258. 

Shikoku,  47. 

Shikon,  177. 

Shikotan,  228,  249. 

Shi-kusa,  167. 
Shima-chirimen,  385. 
Shimeshi,  79. 

Shime-urushi,  344. 

Shimoda,  529. 

Shin,  76. 

Shinano,  50. 

.gaki,  89,  181,  247. 
Shinanogawa,  47. 
Shina-no-ki,  170,  255. 
Shin-ju,  424. 

Shii-no-ki,  215,  216,  226, 
241. 

Shin-ro,  468. 

Shio  (salt),  310,  352. 
Shio-gama,  31 1. 

Shio-hama,  n,  41 1. 

Shioji,  248 

Shippo,  424,  430;  489. 
Shippo-urushi,  492,  496. 

-yaki,  489,  493,  495. 
Shira  (white). 

Shirabe,  235. 

Shira-cha,  179. 
Shiraga-mushi,  210. 

-nori,  82. 

Shiragiri,  246. 

Shira-kaba,  239. 

-kamba,  239. 

-kashi,  241. 

Shiraki,  244,  256. 
Shira-kuchi,  258. 

-katsura,  92,  258. 
Shiramo,  82. 

Shira-shibori,  152. 

-shime,  152. 

Shi-rei,  323. 

Shiribeshi,  307. 

Shiro,  170,  231,  288,  499. 
Shiro-gane,  300. 

Shiro-goma,  154. 
Shiro-hana-azimame,  62. 


Shiro-kane-dsaiku,  448. 
Shiro-ko,  193. 

-mame,  57. 
Shirome-ko,  305. 
Shiro-moji,  245. 
Shiro-saiku,  170. 
Shiro-sake,  10 1. 
Shiro-tzudzu,  245. 
-tsuta-no-ki,  288. 
-uri,  72. 

-utsugi,  282,  398. 
Shishi-biye,  51. 

Shiso,  75. 

Shisui,  477. 

-Kenzan,  477. 
Shitaji,  358. 
Shita-makiye,  366. 
Shitan,  251. 

-nuri,  362. 
Shitatsuki,  468. 

Shu  (cinnabar),  353. 

-c-hiu,  439. 
Shiu-mukigara,  367. 
Shiusu,  468. 
Shiu-urushi,  352. 

Shiwo,  310. 
Shiwo-shake,  535. 

-tara,  536. 

Shiyun-kei,  352,  360. 
Sho,  601. 

Shoben,  28. 

ShSchu,  101. 

Shofu-nori,  407. 

Shoga,  75. 

Shoji,  233,  335. 

-garni,  404,  406. 
Shokunin,  7. 

Shono,  143-150,  354. 
Sho-ro,  79. 

Shoyu,  105. 

Shu,  505. 

Shunkei,  352,  360. 

-yaki,  479. 

Shuran,  493. 

Shurku,  136. 

Shuro,  170. 

Shuro-gi,  231. 
Shuro-no-ki,  170,  231. 
Shusu,  382,  383. 

Siki'mi,  135. 

Sinshiu,  494. 

Soba,  37,  55. 

Soku,  401. 

Sornen,  108. 
Some-tsuke,  463,  478. 
Sone,  261. 

Sorachi,  307. 
Sora-mame,  62. 

Sotetsu,  231,  335. 

Soye,  99. 

Su,  109. 

Suberi-hiyu,  71. 

Sudzu,  303. 

Sudzuhaku,  3S7. 


INDEX  OF  JAPANESE  NAMES. 


569 


Sudzuri,  418. 

Suge,  172. 

Sugegawa,  3ro. 

Su?i  215,  226,  233. 
Sui-lcuwa,  71. 

Suisho,  314,  424,  425. 

-rin,  424. 

Suisho-tama,  424. 

Sukari,  210. 

Suki,  32. 

Suki-gaeshi,  317,  404. 

-urushi,  352. 

Sumi,  354,  417. 

-bike,  416. 

-ire,  41. 

Sumomo,  86. 

Sumpu,  523. 

Sun,  507. 

Sunoko,  400. 
Suri-hegashi-nuri,  363. 
-urushi,  361. 

Suruga-banshi,  396,  403, 

406. 

Surume,  535. 

Susu,  417. 

Susuki,  172,  272. 

Suwo,  177,  231. 

Suzu,  436. 

Ta,  11,  37,  212. 

Tabako,  131. 

Tabu,  245. 

-no-ki,  245. 

Tachi  ika,  535. 

Tade,  75. 

Tadzu,  398. 

Ta-funo,  245. 

Tagane,  427. 

Tai,  355. 

Taifun,  15. 

Tai-heishi,  401. 

Tai-ki,  355- 
Tajima,  338. 

Tajimi,  480. 

Takagi,  192. 

Takahama,  305,  473. 
Taka-kabu,  192. 

-kibi,  51. 

-makiye,  367,  371,  374. 
-na,  70,  152. 
Takenaga-gami,  404. 
Takasaki,  513. 

Takashima,  306,  308. 
Takatomari,  307. 

Takayama,  480. 

Taka  zogan,  429. 

Take,  69,  77,  78,  172,  227, 
356- 

Takebera,  354. 

Take-mono,  230. 
Takeni-gusa,  282. 
Take-no-ki,  229. 

-no-ko,  77. 

-yabu,  216. 

II. 


Takidani,  302. 

Tako,  535. 

Tama-gusu,  245. 

-ito,  198. 

-mayu,  203. 

-moku,  243. 

-no-keaki,  243. 
Tamanp-o,  272. 
Tamo-Osho-gi,  398. 

Tampan,  437. 

Tamura  Gonzayemon,  481. 
Tan,  384,  385,  507. 

Tane,  193,  203. 

-abura,  151,  354. 

-garni,  193. 

-koji,  96,  97. 

-tsubo,  468. 
Tanichi-tamo,  243. 
Tani-yama,  303. 
Tankiri-mame,  62. 

Tano-ura,  476. 

Tam,  344. 

Tataku,  428. 

Tatami,  17 1,  507. 

Tate,  383. 

Tatesato,  302. 

Tatsuno,  475. 

Tatsuta-gawa,  273. 

-momiji,  273. 
Te-bukuro,  343. 
Tebushiukan,  90. 

Temmoki,  468. 

Temp6,  505. 

Tengu-jo,  403,  405. 
Tengusu,  196,  21 1. 

Tennin,  446. 

Tensei,  75. 

Teshima-ishi,  313. 

Tensho  Daijin,  6. 

Tetsu  (iron),  303,  356,  430. 
Tetsubin,  433. 

Tetsudo,  512-513. 

To,  86. 

Tobira,  286. 

Tochi,  181,  252,  285. 

-no-ki,  252. 

Tofu,  107. 

Tofutsu,  310. 

Togan,  72. 

Togarashi,  74. 

To-goma,  156. 

-gosu,  498. 

-gurumi,  239. 

-guwa,  72. 

-haze,  244. 

Tohi,  235. 

To-ishi,  354. 

Toiya,  530. 

Tojin-mame,  56,  153. 
To-kai-do,  509. 

-kaki,  90. 

Toki,  492. 

Toki-gaisha,  475. 

| To-kibi,  52,  55. 


To-kinkan,  90. 

Toki-shippo,  492,  495. 
Tokkuri,  468. 

Toko,  1 7 1 . 

Tokoname-yaki,  479. 
Tokonoma,  79. 

Toltoroten,  109. 

-gusa,  82. 

To-kuwa,  1 91. 

Tokugawa  Shogun,  48. 
Tomioka,  205. 

To-morokoshi,  37,  52,  54. 
Tomushiro,  173. 

To-na,  152. 

-nasu,  71. 

Tonebetsu,  310. 

Tone-gawa,  47. 

Toneriko,  246. 

Tonokuchi,  481. 

-ishi,  481,  485. 
To-no-lco,  354. 

To-no-tsuchi,  354,  499.- 
Tora-momi,  235. 

Torayo,  253. 

Tori,  185. 

Tori-kabuto,  135. 
Tori-mochi,  253. 

Tororo,  398,  404. 
To-Ro-sek,  426. 

Tosaka-nori,  82. 

To-sei,  286. 

-sendan,  254. 

To-shiro,  352,  480. 
Toshiro-yaki,  479. 

Toso,  101,  171. 

Toso-shu,  10 1. 

Totan,  304,  494. 

Toyu,  414. 

Toyosuke  (pron.  Toyoske)- 
yaki,  454,  479. 

Tsien,  508. 

Tsuba,  431,  432,  448. 
Tsubaki,  152,  225,  256,  273, 
277,  279,  337. 
-no-abura,  152. 
-no-sumi,  354. 

Tsubo  454,  468,  472,  479, 
507. 

Tsuchi  (earth),  312,  454. 
-me,  428. 

-yaki,  453,  463. 
Tsudzure-no-nishiki,  387. 
Tsuga,  214,  219,  236. 
Tsugaru-nuri,  361. 
Tsuga-take,  79. 

Tsuge,  224,  244,  337. 
Tsui-shiu,  372. 

Tsuka,  431. 

-gashira,  431. 
Tsuke-mono,  69. 
Tsukigome,  46. 

Tsumugi,  383. 

Tsunagi,  398. 

I Tsunaso,  169. 


P P 


57o  INDEX  OF  JAPANESE  NAMES. 


Tsuno,  356,  422. 

Uye-ki-bachi,  468. 

Yasai,  69. 

-ban,  355. 

Uyeno,  269. 

-mono,  69,  261. 

-ko,  354. 

Yashiki,  11,  19. 

Tsuno-mata,  82. 

Wakame,  81. 

Yasuri,  427. 

Tsuri-gane,  436,  437. 

Wakasa  nuri,  362. 

Yatate,  416,  436. 

Tsuru  (to  ent\yine). 

Wakayama,  15. 

Yatsude,  273,  284. 

Tsurugi,  431. 

Wakegi,  77. 

Yatsushiro,  474. 

Tsuru-masaki,  287. 

Wakizashi,  431. 

Yattoko,  427. 

Tsuru-mume-modoki,  253. 

Wan,  356,  468. 

Yedo,  48,  519,  530. 

Tsuru- reishi,  72. 

Wara,  30,  171. 

Yego,  246. 

Tsuta  (a  climbing  plant), 

Warabi,  68,  77. 

Yegoma-no-abura,  155,  414. 

336. 

-no-ko,  69. 

Yeguri,  343,  354. 

-no-ki,  218,  258,  310. 

Wara-kise-zaiku,  337. 

Yegusuri,  304. 

Tsutsu-furui,  355. 

Wasabi,  70. 

Yehime  ken,  345. 

Tsutsuji,  263,  270. 

Wase,  46. 

Yen,  10,  303,  503. 

Tsusure-sha,  382. 

Wata,  166. 

Yenbuju,  180. 

Tsuya-keshi,  361. 

-no-abura,  153. 

Yendo,  62. 

Tsubetagi,  247. 

-no-ki,  166. 

Yenju,  250. 

Ye-no-abura,  1 55>  3S2- 

Uba-yuri,  68. 

Yabu,  217,  245. 

-no-ki,  243. 

Ube,  307. 

Yabuhara,  337. 

Yezo,  18. 

Uchi-age,  428. 

Yabu-kusu,  245. 

Yezo-matsu,  236. 

-dashi,  428. 

-ran,  285. 

Yoba,  27. 

Uchiwa,  415. 

Ya-gire,  243. 

Yodo-gawa,  44. 

Udo,  73- 

Yakeru,  435. 

Yogan-gami,  412. 

Udshi,  199. 

Yaki  (the  burnt),  435,  489. 

Yo-ji,  239. 

Udzu,  136. 

-ba,  435. 

Yokka-ichi,  483. 

Udzura-mame,  59. 

-gama,  295. 

Yokohama,  530. 

Yoko-ito,  383. 

Ugo,  342. 

-gane,  354,  366,  367. 

Uikiyo,  135. 

-kin,  366,  506. 

Yokosuka,  51 1. 

Uji,  1 13,  1 16,  1 17,  126. 

Yakumi,  69. 

Yokui-nin,  51. 

Ukon,  76,  179,  182,  337. 

Yaku-shi,  446 

Yomogi,  135. 

Uma  (M'ma),  1.83. 

-sugi,  234. 

Yonezawa,  342. 

Umedzu,  109,  182. 

Yama  (mountain),  207. 

Yoroi-shi,  432. 

Ume-kawa,  179. 

-boke,  279. 

Yoshi,  172- 

Umi-kusa,  82. 

Umuregi,  260. 

-budo,  91. 

-dzu,  172. 

-buki,  269. 

Yoshini,  248. 

Undon,  108. 

Yamagano,  300. 

YoshinO,  342,  343. 

Uguisu  (pron.  Unguisu), 

Yamahari-no-ki,  239. 

-gami,  356,  403. 

268. 

Yama-imo,  67. 

Yu,  243. 

Unoke-hake,  354. 

Yamagata,  342. 

Yu-gozen,  47. 

Ura,  391,  401. 

Yama-giri,  156,  244. 

Yuki-oi,  215. 

Uri-no-ki,  247. 

-guru mi,  240. 

Yunonai,  313- 

-rui,  69. 

Yama-ko,  207. 

Yamamai  - mon  - chxrimen, 

Yusu,  224,  249,  256,  337. 
Yu-wakashi,  437. 

Urushi,  339. 

-kabure,  349. 

38S- 

Yuwo,  310. 

-koshi,  404. 

Yamamayu,  205,  206,  209. 

Yuyen,  418. 

Urushine,  37,  46,  96,  104, 

Yama-momo,  177. 

Yuzen-some  388. 

2SI- 

-narashi,  239. 

Zabon,  90. 

Urushi-no-ki,  158,  251,  342. 

Yama-nashi,  250. 

-saiku,  339. 

-rak  ’kiyo,  77. 

Zai-buri,  250. 

-shokunin,  343. 

-sakura,  249. 

Zakuro,  91. 

Urushiya,  350. 

-shiba,  252. 

Zeni,  504. 

Usagi  (rabbit,  hare),  185. 

Yamashiro-mura,  482. 

Zogan,  429,  434. 

Usu,  33. 

Yamato,  16. 

Zoge,  421. 

Usude-Torinoko-gami. 

Yama-tsubaki,  277-279. 

-no-horimono,  421. 

-yaki,  471. 

-urushi,  158. 

Zokudzui,  157- 

Usego,  404,  407. 

Yanagi,  239. 

Zokudzu-shi,  157- 

Ushi,  184. 

-gori,  173. 

Zomeki,  302. 

Uwo-no-abura,  536. 

-ybji.  355- 

Zozo-ji,  446. 

Uye-gomi,  261. 

Yano-hiye,  285. 

Butler  Tanner , The  Selwood  Printing  Works,  Bronte,  and  London . 


